CIVL 111 Construction Materials

Prof. Zongjin Li
Department of Civil Engineering

2.4 Fracture and fatigue

--Fatigue
Components of machines, vehicles, and structures
are frequently subjected to repeated loads cyclic
loads
The generated cyclic stresses can lead to
microscopic physical damage to the materials
involved
Failure can occur even at stresses well below a
given materials ultimate strength under
continued cycling
Such a failure is called fatigue

2.4 Fracture and fatigue

--Fatigue
Material Strength is Reduced with the Number of
Loading Cycles - Concept of the S-N Curve
Normalized
Strength
1.0

Fatigue Threshold
Number of Cycles

Fatigue failure of a garage door

spring

2.4 Fracture and fatigue

--Fatigue

Some practical applications, and also many

fatigue tests on materials, involve cycling
between max. and min. stress levels that are
constants -- constant amplitude stressing

2.4 Fracture and fatigue

--Fatigue
Stress range, , is the difference between the
max. and the min. values
Mean stress, m, is the average of the max. and
min. values
Stress amplitude, a, is half of the stress range
Completely reversed stressing mean stress equal
to zero with constant amplitude

2.4 Fracture and fatigue

--Fatigue

In fatigue analysis, it is necessary to distinguish

between

the stress at a point, , and

the nominal or average stress, S

Nominal stress is calculated from load or moment

or their combination as a matter of convenience
S is only equal to in certain situations

Actual stress () and nominal stress (S)

Stress versus life (S-N) curves

To get a S-N curves, fatigue test has to be
performed
The fatigue test can be run with a combination of
different parameters such as mean stress and
stress amplitude
After specimen is failed, a point can be added in to
a S-N diagram
With sufficient points, a S-N curve can be plotted.

S-N curves in different scales

10

S-N curve with a distinct fatigue limit

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Empirical formulae
For a log-linear coordinate system

a = C + D log N f
For a log-log coordinate system

log a = log C + D log N f

'

'

12

Normalized amplitude-mean
diagram

13

Goodman equation

The relationship between the normalized stress

amplitude and mean stress can be expressed by
the modified Goodmans law
m

a = ar 1
u

where a is the stress amplitude for a given

life, ar the stress amplitude for pure
alternating stress at fatigue failure, m the
mean stress, and u the short-term strength
14

Fatigue life estimation procedures

Let the equation representing the amplitude-mean line or curve be

solved for the completely reversed stress

a
ar =
1 m

ar

Any combination of mean stress m and amplitude a is thus

expected to produce the same life as the stress amplitude ar applied at
zero mean stress
Hence, ar may be thought of as a completely reversed stress that
is equivalent to any
equation

(m, a)

combination that satisfies the

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Fatigue life estimation

By combining Goodman equation and stress amplitude and

cycle number relation, the fatigue life can be estimated

Substituting

Into

Obtain

ar = f (2 N f )b
m

a = ar 1
u

m
a = (1 ) f (2 N f )b
f
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Fatigue life estimtion

Furthermore,

a
Nf =b
b
(2) ( f m )

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The Palmgren-Miner Rule

The Palmgren-Miner rule deal with a loading pattern with

several different constant amplitudes:

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The Palmgren-Miner Rule

Nj
N1
N2
N3
+
+
+L =
=1
N f1 N f 2 N f 3
N fj

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Variable amplitude loading

For a loading pattern with a typical sequence of variable

amplitude loading but repeating a number of times

20

Variable amplitude loading

A summation formula can be arrived

Nj
=1
B f

N fj one rep.

where Bf is the number of repetitions to failure

21

The fracture mechanics approach

-Some typical flaw geometries

22

The fracture mechanics approach

The presence of a crack can significantly
reduce the strength of materials due to brittle
fracture
However, it is unusual for a crack of dangerous
size to exist initially, although this can occur

23

The fracture mechanics approach

A more common situation is that a small flaw
that was initially present develops into a crack
and then grows until it reaches the critical size
for brittle fracture
Crack growth can also be caused by cyclic
loading, a behavior called fatigue crack growth

24

Development/growth of a worst-case crack

25

Definitions for fatigue crack growth

Consider a crack increases its length by an
amount Da due to the application of an
increamental number of cycles N
The rate of growth with cycles can be
characterized by the ratio a/N, or by the
derivative da/dN

The crack growth rate,

da/dN, is the slope at a
point on an a vs. N curve
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Fatigue approach
Assume that the applied loading is cyclic with
constant values of the loads Pmax and Pmin
The corresponding gross section nominal stresses
Smax and Smin are then also constants
For fatigue crack growth work, it is conventional
to use the stress range S

S = S max S min

27

Fatigue approach

It is true that K and S are proportional for a given

crack length according to the definition of K
K = F S a

Therefore, the maximum, minimum, range, and

R-ratio for K during a loading cycle are given by
K max = F S max a
K = K max K min

K min = F S min a

K min
R=
K max
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Fatigue approach
The primary variable affecting the growth rate of a
crack is the range of the stress intensity factor K
This is calculated from the stress range S as below

K = F S a

The value of F depends only on the geometry and the

relative crack length, = a /b, just as if the loading
were not cyclic

29

Describing fatigue crack growth

For a given material and set of test conditions, the

crack growth behavior can be described by the
relationship between cyclic crack growth rate
da/dN and stress intensity range K

30

Crack growth rates

At intermediate values
of K, there is often a
straight line on the loglog plot
The fitting equation is
da
m
= C (K )
dN

where C is a constant
and m is the slope on
the log-log plot
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Constants for worst-case da/dN

vs. K curves

32

Life estimations: fracture approach

Number of cycles to failure during a fatigue test

can be calculated by the following equation
af

N if =

af

da
da
=
a C (K ) m a C F S a
i
i

af

C (F S

ai

da
am 2

ai is the initial observed crack size (if no crack is

found, take ai as the detection threshold)
af is the final crack size obtained

33

Fatigue approach
N
=

if

da

f
i

a )

C ( F S
1

da

C ( F S

C ( F S
a

(1
f

m
)
2

C ( F S

m
+ 1)
2

(1

m
(

m
)
2

|a

f
i

+ 1
1

m
2
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Fracture approach
m

1
)
ai 2

1 ( )
af
1

N if =

m
m
m
( 1)
C
F
S
(
)
(
1
)

ai 2

35

Chapter 3 Aggregates
Aggregates

are defined as inert, granular, and

inorganic materials that normally consist of
stone or stone-like solids.
Approximately three-fourths of the volume of
conventional concrete is occupied by
aggregate.

36

Aggregates

37

3.2

Classification of aggregate

In accordance with size

In accordance with source
In accordance with unit weight (UW)

38

In accordance with size

Coarse

aggregate: Size > 4.75mm (size of

No. 4 sieve)
Fine aggregate (sand): Size from 75 m
to 4.75mm (size of No. 200 sieve)

39

In accordance with source

-Natural aggregates, e.g. grave, crushed rocks

40

Properties of common natural building stones

Property

Granite

Limestone

Sandstone

Marble

Apparent density
kg/m3

2500~
2700

1000~2600

2200~2500

2500~2700

Compressive
Strength MPa

120~250/ 30~250/

20~170/

100~250/

Water absorption %

<1

2~6

<10

<1

6.75~6.77

9.2~11.2

6.5~11.2

Expansion coefficient 5.6~7.3

10-6/C

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In accordance with source

Manufactured (synthetic)

42

In accordance with unit weight (UW)

Ultra Light weight: UW < 500kg/m3

Corresponding concrete UW ~ 1200kg/m3
For non structural member only
Light weight: 500kg/ m3 < UW < 1120kg/m3
Corresponding concrete UW < 1800kg/m3
Can be used as structural member
Normal weight: UW ~ 1520 1680kg/m3
Corresponding concrete UW ~ 2300 2400kg/m3
Heavy weight: UW > 2080kg/m3
Corresponding concrete UW ~ 3200 4000kg/m3
Steel, Iron Ore
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3.3 Properties of aggregate

3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5

Moisture conditions
Moisture Content (MC) calculations
Density and Specific Gravity
Unit Weight (UW)
Measurement of moisture content

44

3.3.1 Moisture conditions

a.
b.
c.
d.

Oven Dry (OD)

Air Dry (AD)
Saturated Surface Dry (SSD)
Wet (W)

45

3.3.2 Moisture Content (MC) calculations (1)

a.

For oven dry condition

Wstock WOD
MC (OD ) =
100%
WOD

Where Wstock = weight of aggregate in stock

WOD = weight of oven dry aggregates

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3.3.2 Moisture Content (MC) calculations (2)

b.

For saturated surface dry condition

Wstock WSSD
MC (SSD ) =
100%
WSSD

>0

=0

SSD

<0

AD

Where Wstock = weight of aggregate in stock

WSSD = weight of aggregate in SSD condition
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3.3.2 Moisture Content (MC) calculations (3)

c.

Absorption capacity
W SSD WOD
Absorption =
100%
WOD
WSSD WAD
100%
Effective Absorption (E.A.)=
WAD

OD

AD

E.A.

SSD

Absorption
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3.3.3 Density and Specific Gravity (1)

Density (D): weight per unit volume (exclude the
pores inside a single aggregate)
weight
D=
V solid
Bulk Density (BD): the volume includes the pores
inside a single aggregate

weight
BD =
V solid + V pores

BD can be either BDSSD or BDAD

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3.3.3 Density and Specific Gravity (2)

Specific gravity (SG):

Absolute Specific Gravity (ASG)
weight
ASG =

of
aggregate
V solid
D
=
w
density
of
water

Bulk Specific Gravity (BSG)

weight
BSG =

of

aggregater

Vsolid + V pores
density

of

water

BD

w
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3.3.3 Density and Specific Gravity (3)

Specific Gravity (SG):

The BSG of most rocks: 2.5 to 2.8
Using displacement method to measure BSG
BSG SSD =
=

W SSD

in air

W Displacement
W SSD

W SSD

in

air

in

air

W SSD

in

water
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3.3.4 Unit Weight (UW) (1)

Except for pores inside every aggregate, the bulk
volume includes the spacing among aggregate particles.

. .
empty space

. .

aggregate

. .

pore

52

3.3.4 Unit Weight (UW) (2)

UW (SSD ) =

UW (OD ) =

V solid

W SSD
+ V pores + V spacing

V solid

WOD
+ V pores + V spacing

BD UW
Spacing (void ) =
100%
BD

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3.4 Grading of aggregates

-- Grading size distribution (1)

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3.4.1 Grading size distribution (2)

Uniform

Gap-Graded

. ..
.
.

Open

.. ... .. ....
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56

3.4.2 Fineness modulus (1)

The Fineness Modulus is defined as

Fineness

(Cummulative

mudulus =

retained

percentage )

100

The sieves used in determining FM are:

No.

100

3/8

No.

50

3/4

No.

30

1.5

No.

16

No.

No.

FM for fine aggregate: 2.3 and 3.1

57

2.1.4.2 Fineness modulus (2)

Fraction retained % = Retained Weight / Total Weight

n
Cumulative retained % =
Fraction retained % i

i =1
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3.4.3 Fineness modulus for blended aggregates

FM blend

PA
PB
= FM A
+ FM B
100
100

Where PA = percentage by weight of aggregate A

PB = percentage by weight of aggregate B

59

3.5 Shape and Texture of aggregate

Influence

the properties of freshly mixed

concrete more than the properties of hardened
concrete
Rough-textured, angular, and elongated
particles require more cement-paste
Rough aggregates generates better mechanical
bond in the hardened concrete

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3.5 Shape and Texture of aggregate

Flat and elongated particles should be limited to about

15 percent by weight of the total aggregate
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