Speed, Velocity, and

Acceleration Instrumentation

Definition of Terms

Speed - Scalar quantity equal to the magnitude of velocity

frequently inferred from rotational measurements,
simply because of the machines design, with rotating
shafts, gears, etc
Analog-type sensors were used exclusively until the mid1950s, where digital speed sensors were developed.
Digital sensors were preferred for easy integration with
digital-based systems.

Definition of Terms

Velocity Time rate of change of position.

Linear Velocity (or simply velocity) a vector quantity
Must specify both speed and direction
Can be treated as scalar if the line of motion is clearly
understood, with proper algebraic signs.
Angular Velocity time rate of change of the angle rotated
through
Average angular velocity ration of the angular
displacement divided by the time. This is not a vector,
since a finite angular displacement is not a vector. Hence
the instantaneous angular velocity is widely used.

Definition of Terms

Acceleration Rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Expressed mathematically by dv/dt, the vector derivative
of velocity v with respect to time t.
If the motion is of a straight line whose position is clearly
understood, it is convenient to treat the velocity v and the
acceleration dv/dt as scalars with appropriate algebraic
signs.
Maybe curvilinear or rectilinear.
Acceleration due to gravity is 9.82 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2

Definition of Terms

Tachometers - an instrument measuring the rotational speed

of a shaft or disk, as in a motor, or other machine.
Known also as: revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, or RPM
gauge.

Tachometers

In some servo-controlled motion systems, feedback is required in

terms of position. In other situation, the feedback must be in terms
of velocity.
In contemporary system, a
permanent-magnet dc motor
may be used as a tachometer,
because it generates an output
voltage which is proportional to
shaft speed.
Desirable output characteristic of tachometer

Tachometers

Schematic of a DC tachometer coupled to a DC generator

Tachometers

Small permanent-magnet dc motors are:

Frequently used as speed-sensing devices
Use silver commutator and silver loaded brushes
Improves commutation at low speeds and low currents
To combine high performance
and low-cost, dc servomotors
are now designed to have a
tachometer mounted on the
motor shaft incorporated within
the housing.

DC Tachometers

Two types of DC tachometers:

1. Brush-type
1. Iron core
2. Moving coil
2. Brushless
The AC tachometer is fundamentally a three-phase electric
generator with a three-phase rectifier on the output.

DC Tachometers

DC tachometers depends on the relative perpendicular motion

between a magnetic field and a conductor, which results in
voltage generation in the conductor.
The magnitude of the voltage
produced is a direct function of
the strength of the magnetic field
and the speed with which the
conductor moves perpendicularly
to it.

DC Tachometers

Moving-coil brush type

Winding is in the form of a shell or cup

There is a magnet on one side and and iron slug on the other
The magnetic field passes through the cup shaped winding
Only the winding is rotating
Electrical inductance is greatly reduced

Brush-type dc tachometer are usually limited to clean environments because:

1.
2.

Brush life is shortened due to particulates and erosive contaminants

Some airborne contaminants might build-up on the commutator

DC Tachometers

This can solved by placing it in sealed enclosures, but will lead to

thermal problems because of trapped heat. Such problems are:
1.

2.

The heat might damage the tachometer; this heat is not generated by the
tachometer since only low currents are involved. This heat is from the
equipment that travels through the shaft.
The permanent magnets are sensitive to temperature (estimated at 0.01
to 0.05% / C). If output stability is critical, thermal compensation may be
required.

DC Tachometers

Speed-Ratio Systems with dc tachometers - By using two dc

tachometer generators (Fig. 7) connected to a ratio meter
mechanism, measurements that are depend on differential
processing speed, such as percent stretch and ratio of draw,
can be taken and controlled through additional elements in the
system.

AC Tachometers

AC Tachometers, two types:

1. Voltage-responsive tachometer systems
2. Frequency- responsive systems

AC Tachometers

1. Voltage-responsive systems
consisting of an AC generator and a rectifier-type
indicator.
Used in installation where the generator speed for fullscale is between 500-5000 rpm.
Conventional generators maybe used up to 10 000 rpm,
provided, special attention is given to the bearings.
The AC tachometer embodies a stator surrounding a
rotating permanent magnet
The output of the generator for V-R systems is
temperature-compensated, and proportional to speed

AC Tachometers

Schematic circuit of AC voltage-responsive tachometer system

AC Tachometers

2. Frequency-Responsive Tachometer Systems

Consisted of:
DC indicator/recorder
Frequency-responsive network(either contained
in the recorder or a separate transformer box)
AC tachometer (conventional or bearing-less
form)

AC Tachometers

Bearing-less Tachometer Generators

AC generators of the most basic form
Consists only of a permanent magnet rotor and stator
No bearings or brushes
Impervious to oil, grease, relatively high temperature
Maybe installed in inaccessible areas (e.g. gearboxes)
Low torque burden
Capable of speeds up to 100 000 rpm

AC Tachometers

When bearing less generators are used, the frequency-responsive

approach is employed. The reason is the system is solely
dependent on the frequency output of the generator, thus voltage
variation caused by reduction of flux due to rotor handling, poor
alignment of stator and rotor, or axial travel of the rotor with
respect to the stator will not affect the overall accuracy.

Magnetic Speed Sensors

Magnetic Speed Sensors essentially, a coil wound around a

permanently magnetized probe.

a. Sectional View
b. Placement of probe, allowing a small air gap between pickup and gear teeth
c. Output waveform, a function of rotational speed and gear-tooth dimension,
spacing, pole-piece diameter, and air gap.

Magnetic Speed Sensors

Magnetic Speed Sensors works by modulating the flux density of

the probe. This occurs when discrete ferromagnetic objects are
passed through the probes magnetic field. Example of such
discrete ferromagnetic objects include, but not limited to:
Gear teeth
Turbine rotor blades
Slotted diskes
Shafts with keyways

Magnetic Speed Sensors

Magnetic pickups are also used as timing or synchronization

device. Such as:
Ignition timing of gasoline engines
Angular position of rotating parts
Stroboscopic triggering of mechanical motion
One commercially available device is a passive or self-generating
device. It requires no external excitation. It produces an
approximately sinusoidal ac voltage when place in close proximity
to the teeth/blades of a conventional rotating device.

Magnetic Speed Sensors

The amplitude of the ac voltage output of a self-generating device

is, generally, proportional to the speed of rotation.

Magnetic Speed Sensors

The magnetic pickup circuit below contains its own signalconditioning circuitry for generating a clean square wave output
for each ferrous discontinuity passing the head of the pickup. The
output is either on or off, depending on the presence or absence
of ferrous material.

Impulse Tachometers

Impulse Tachometers uses charging

current of a capacitor. The pickup head
usually has a reversing switch operated by a
spindle which reverses direction twice for
every revolution. Battery potential is applied
to the capacitor in each direction, and with
each impulse, current is passing through the
milliammeter. The indicator responds to the
average value of these pulses. The
indication is proportional to the rates of
pulses, which in turn are proportional to the
rates of spindle rotation.

Impulse Tachometers

Impulse Tachometers:
Dependent of battery, needs regular checking.
The oscillating switch can be used for speeds 200 10
000 rpm. Above or below these speed require suitable
gears.
If properly standardized instrument is used, the readings
are not affected by temperature, humidity, vibration, or
magnetic fields.
Indicator and head can be separated up to 300 meters.

Optical Encoders &

Stroboscopic Tachometers
Optical Encoders
takes advantage of microprocessors, the impulses from an
optical encoder can be converted to velocity measurement.
Wide dynamic range. Such as 10 000, to 20 000, to 1
Accuracies are claimed better than 0.01% per revolution
Stroboscopic Tachometers
Permits intermittent observation of a cyclically moving
object in such a way as to produce and optical illusion of
stopped or slowed motion.

Optical Encoders &

Stroboscopic Tachometers
a.) The first part is a
schematic
representation of the
circuit.
b.) Images obtained at
harmonic and
subharmonic flashing
rates of a stroboscope.

Variable-Reluctance
Tachometers
Variable-Reluctance Tachometers
Produces pulses that are proportional to speed
The pulses are amplified and rectified, and control the direct current to
a milli-ammeter
Rated at 10 000 to 50 000 rpm
Accuracy of 1/2 of full scale reading
Can withstand temperatures from -51 to 260C

Photoelectric Tachometers

Photoelectric Tachometers
Designed to measure speed of up to 3 million rpm
The movable part is arranged to provide reflecting and absorbing
areas
The reflected light is picked up by a photocell that produces
electric impulses
The impulses are applied to a frequency meter that generates
square-waves applied to a discriminating circuit that produces a
fixed current at each half-cycle which are further rectified and
applied to a dc milliammeter
Meter readings are proportional to the number of pulses per
second, or simply, the frequency

Eddy-Current Tachometers

Eddy-Current Tachometers
Also know as drag-type
Commonly used in automobile speedometers by the use of a flexible
shaft arrangement
Has a permanent magnet spun by the revolving source to be measured
Close to it is an aluminum disk, pivoted to turn against a spring
As the permanent revolves, eddy-currents are generated on the disk
The disk turns in the direction of the rotating magnetic field and turns
until the torque developed equals the spring
The torque is directly proportional to the speed of the rotating magnet.

Velocity Head or Hydraulic

Tachometers
Velocity Head or Hydraulic Tachometers
Takes advantage of the fact that pumps or blowers produce a
velocity which can be converted into a static pressure
incorporates a rotary pump as the transmitter and a piston as the
receiver
The pump is driven by a flexible shaft and a gear train
Pump displacement raises or lowers a counterweight piston
The piston is connected to a pointer through a rack and gear

TACHOMETERLESS
REGULATION OF SERVO
SPEED
Tachometerless Regulation of Servo-speed
Within the last few years, an interesting approach to regulating the
speed of a motor without a tachometer has emerged. Basically,
the arrangement consists of allowing a motor to coast for a very
short interval, during which the back electromotive force (EMF) is
measured.

TACHOMETERLESS
REGULATION OF SERVO
SPEED
Governors - an automatic controller used to maintain the
rotative speed of a machine at a desired value.
Measures speed and compares it to a desired value, then
acts to correct any error between the two
Usually corrects the values by varying the flow of energy to
the machine
Two main types:
devices in which the speed-sensing element
operates the energy metering device directly
devices that use one or more stages of power
amplification between the speed-sensing element
and the energy control device

TACHOMETERLESS
REGULATION OF SERVO
SPEED
1) devices in which the speed-sensing element operates the
energy metering device directly
Gives more stable control on an engine or other prime
mover
2) devices that use one or more stages of power amplification
between the speed-sensing element and the energy control
device
Requires stabilizing factors to prevent continual oscillation
of the speed (hunting)

Air and Gas Velocity

Measurement

Pitot Tube Air-Speed Indicators

Venturi Air-Speed Indicators

consists of two elements: (1) a

dynamic tube, which points upstream
and determines the dynamic pressure,
and (2) a static tube, which points
normal to the air stream and
determines the static pressure at the
same point
Limitations of the Pitot tube led to the
design of a venturi air-speed indicator
in which a greater differential pressure
is created
requires individual calibration for best
accuracy. Parts are not readily
interchangeable.

Air and Gas Velocity

Measurement
Revolving-Vane Anemometers
comprises a paddle wheel which is
revolved by the moving air stream
wheel is attached to a counter, and by
selection of the proper gear ratios and
vane pitch the counter can be calibrated to
read directly in feet of air
air velocity can be determined by
measuring the time interval
measurement tends toward the average air
speed. The range of the device usually is
300 to 3000 ft/min (91.5 to 915 m/min).

Air and Gas Velocity

Measurement

Propeller-Type Electric
Anemometers
This is a version of the basic
rotating-vane device
the propeller type in which the
blades are fastened to the shaft of
an electric generator which
develops an EMF or frequency
proportional to speed
The EMF or frequency signal is fed
to an indicator
The device reads average air
velocity. The direction of airflow
can also be indicated mechanically
or electrically.

Air and Gas Velocity

Measurement
Revolving-Cup
Electric
Anemometers
The generator is mounted on a
vertical axis, and, like the
propeller type, its EMF or
frequency
output
is
proportional to the speed of
the revolving cups. The speed
readings are average, but the
device is not directional.

Air and Gas Velocity

Measurement
Constant-Temperature Thermal Anemometers
the sensor element contains a heated
wire
An electronic control circuit maintains the
sensor element at a constant temperature
regardless of the air velocity
An electronic control circuit maintains the
sensor element at a constant temperature
regardless of the air velocity
An uncompensated constant-temperature
hot-wire anemometer will measure
accurately only if the
temperature of the air flowing past the
sensor remains constant