Anatomy & Physiology Notes:

Semester 1 2015:
1. The cell:
1.1.1: Homeostasis
- Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a
stable, internal environment.
- It consists of 3 basic components: Detector, control centre &
effector.
- The control centre sets the limits within which the disturbance
should be maintained.
- It receives input from the detector, which identifies the
disturbance.
- The control centre initiates a response, and effectors carry out
this response.
- This is called feedback and can be either negative or positive.
- Positive feedback systems progressively increase the stimulus
and are very few in the body (e.g. blood clotting, contractions).
- Negative feedback systems are more common and seek to
reduce and reverse the effect of the stimulus (e.g. control of
body temperature). An example of a negative feedback system.

1.1.2: Atoms, Molecules and compounds

- An atom is the smallest unit of an element that exists as a
stable identity.
- An element is a substance, which is made up of many of the
same atom.
- Compounds are made up of two or more types of atoms.
- Living tissues are organic and are made up of carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen & hydrogen.

An ion is an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to

losing or gaining an electron.
An electrolyte is an ionic compound dissolved in water, which is
able to conduct electricity. They also act as buffers to resist
changes in pH. Examples include Sodium ion, potassium ion,
and chloride and calcium ions.
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a
substance. Acids have pH below 7 and bases have a pH above 7.
Neutral substances have a pH of 7. Acids release hydrogen ions
and bases (or alkalis) accept hydrogen ions. Bases release
hydroxyl ions.
Bonds hold molecules together and come in two types.
o Covalent bonds: occur when atoms share their electrons
with each other. It is a very strong and stable bond,
occurring in substances such as water.
o Ionic bonds: Occur when a transfer of electrons from one
atom to another and are weaker than covalent bonds. E.g.
NaCl. Bond breaks when dissolved in water as molecule,
causing the substance to dissociate into its respective
ions.
The body needs carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleotides and
enzymes for structure and function.
o Carbohydrates: Include sugars and starches and are
composed of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. The carbon
atoms are arranged in a ring-like structure, with the
oxygen and hydrogen linked to them.
o Proteins: Made up of amino acids joined together. They
provide structure for the human body. Can be used for
energy when body is in starvation.
o Lipids: made of carbon, hydrogen and water. They are
insoluble in water. Integral to structure and function. Also
used as an energy source.
o Nucleotides: Large molecules made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous. They make
up RNA for protein synthesis and DNA for development
and function and ATP for energy (produced by cells
mitochondria).
o Enzymes: Catalysts made of proteins. Two types, anabolic
synthesise however catabolic break down. They are
selective in nature and can only catalyse specific
reactions. Their active site is unique and can only attach
to few substrates. Conditions need to be within narrow
limits so enzymes can function/ do not denature or
become inactive.

1.1.3: Movement of substances and fluid compartments of the

body
- Movement of substances around and between barriers in the
body is fundamental to normal function.
- Usually, liquids and gases move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, i.e. move
down/with the concentration gradient. No energy is needed in
this case. This is passive transport.
o Diffusion: Refers to the movement of molecules from an
area of high conc to low conc until equilibrium is reached.
Occurs more quickly with a rise in temperature.
o Osmosis: Diffusion of water down the concentration
gradient. Osmotic pressure facilitates this process until
equilibrium.
- In cases where the substances are moving from an area of low
to high conc (against the concentration gradient), energy in the
form of ATP is needed. This is active transport.
- Water makes up about 60% of an adults body weight (40L of
water).
- Extracellular fluid consists of blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid,
and fluid in the interstitial spaces of the body, Approx 12L.
- Intracellular fluid refers to the fluid taken up and
discharged/controlled by the cell itself. Approx 28L.

1.1.4: Plasma Membrane and transport

- Made up of a phospholipid bilayer.
- Proteins and sugars are embedded in this bilayer.
- Cholesterol is also present.
- It is like a sandwich, arranged with the hydrophilic heads facing
outwards and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards.
- It is their attraction to water (the heads and tails) that influences
the transfer of substances into and out of the cell, across the
cell membrane.
- The plasma membrane is described as selectively permeable
because it dictates what moves into and out of the cells.
- Protects the cell from the external environment.
- Throughout the plasma membrane, proteins are embedded
throughout and allow the passage of substances. They are
called membrane proteins.
- They act as receptors, enzymes, pumps and channels.
- Small molecules are passively transported as they move with
(down) the concentration gradient from areas of high to low
conc, including the transport of lipid and water soluble
substances.
- Facilitated diffusion occurs when specialised protein carrier
molecules with special active sites bind to the substance that

needs to be transferred. This occurs for the transport of glucose

and amino acids.
Osmosis is the movement of water down the conc gradient.
Active transport is movement of substances against conc
gradient from areas of low to high conc. An example includes
the sodium potassium pump/ phagocytosis.
The sodium potassium pump is present in all cells and is
fundamental to maintaining action potentials in nerve and
muscle cells. It maintains the unequal conc of Na+ and K+ ions
(sodium and potassium ions).
Potassium is higher in conc inside of the cell and Na+ is higher
outside the cell.
Excess Na is constantly pumped out whereas K is pumped in,
diffusing down their concentration gradients. IN order to
maintain these concentration gradients, Na is constantly being
pumped back in in exchange for K. This is the sodium potassium
pump.
Bulk transport occurs when particles that are too large need to
be transported across the cell by pinocytosis or phagocytosis
(Cell drinking or eating). The particle is simply engulfed by
extensions of the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis is the removal of wastes and is the reverse of bulk
transport.

1.1.5 Organisation of the cell:

- Cells are the bodys smallest functional units.
- They form tissues, which form organs, which play an integral
role in performing functions specific to body systems.
- Cells have organelles that underpin their function and they are
small organs including:
o Nucleus: Contains the genetic material, directing the
cells metabolic activity. Known as the control centre of the
cell. Every cell (Except RBCs) have nucleus. Its also the
largest organelle of the cell.
o Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell. Integral to the
production of ATP, which provides energy to the cell.
Primary site of aerobic metabolism.
o Ribosomes: Tiny granules made of RNA and proteins.
Theyre responsible for the synthesis of proteins from
amino acids, using RNA as a template. The proteins made
in the ribosomes are used within the cell.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: Extensive series of
membranous canals in the cytoplasm. Smooth ER make

lipids and steroid hormones. Rough ER synthesise

proteins.
o Golgi apparatus: Stacks of closely folded flattened
membranous sacs. Proteins from ER are moved to the
Golgi apparatus where they are packaged into vesicles.
These are stored and then transported to either secreted
into certain parts of the cell or removes them out of the
cell and into the body.
o Lysosomes: Small vesicles pinched off from the Golgi
apparatus and break down molecules into smaller
particles that are either recycled, or removed from the cell
as waste.
o Cytoskeleton: a microscopic network of protein filaments
and tubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells, giving
them shape and coherence.
1.1.6 The cell cycle:
- Growth and division of similar cells can usually replace dead,
damaged and worn out cells.
- Mitosis results in genetically identical daughter cells, have 46
csomes.
- Meiosis is the production of sex cells/genetically different
gametes, have 23 csomes.
- The stages of the cell cycle include (REMEMBER; IPMAT)
o INTERPHASE:
First Gap Phase (G1 PHASE): Longest phase whereby
the cells grows in size and volume.
Synthesis of DNA (S phase): Chromosomes replicate
forming 2 identical copies of DNA (92 all up).
Second gap phase (G2 PHASE): Further growth of
the cell in preparation for division.
o PROPHASE:
Replicated chromatin becomes tightly coiled. Each
of the original 46 chromosomes is paired up with its
copy.
The 2 chromatids are then joined at the centromere.
Mitotic apparatus (consisting of mitotic spindle and
centrioles) appear.
Centrioles migrate to each end of the cell.
o METAPHASE:
Chromatids align at centre of spindle, attached by
centromeres.
o ANAPHASE:
Centromeres separate.
One of each pair of the sister chromatids
(chromosomes) migrate to opposite ends of the cell

as the mitotic spindle that was attached to them

begins to contract.
o TELOPHASE:
Mitotic spindle disappears.
Chromosomes uncoil. Nuclear envelope reappears.
Cytokinesis occurs, splitting the cell into 2 identical
daughter cells.
1.1.7 Anatomical positions and planes of the body:
- Directional terms describe the location of body parts in relation
to others.
o Medial: Structure nearer to the midline.
o Lateral: Further from midline or at the side of the body.
o Proximal: Near to a point of attachment of a limb, or origin
of a body part.
o Distal: Further from the attachment of a limb.
o Anterior: Front of body
o Posterior: Back of body
o Superior: Nearer to the head
o Inferior: Further from the head.
-

Planes of the body lie at right angles to eachother and include:

o Median plane: Longitudinal section through the midline
dividing the body in half. A sagittal section is any section
parallel to median plane.
o Coronal: Dividing the body into anterior and posterior.
o Transverse: Divides body into upper and lower parts at
any level.

2. The Cardiovascular system:

2.1 Circulation and cardiac cycle:
/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2iVqTckmPQ
- Blood is driven into the arteries, which recoil to distribute the
blood around the body.
- The arteries divide into smaller arterioles and then into
capillaries, which pervade every tissue in the body except the
eye cornea.
- These capillaries then join up to form veins, which become
larger as they travel toward the heart.
- There are 2 separate circulations, the systemic (High
pressure) circulation, driven by the left side of the heart and
provides blood to the body as a whole, and the pulmonary
(low pressure) circulation providing blood to the lungs and
driven by the right side of the heart.
- The output of the pulmonary circuit becomes the input of the
systemic circuit.

The 2 sides of the heart are separate. Each side has an upper
chamber (atrium), which receives blood from the veins, and a
lower chamber (ventricle)
LEFT
SIDE

RIGHT
SIDE

Bicuspid
valve OR
MITRAL

discharging blood into the arteries.

-

Healthy heart rate at rest is about 60 80 BPM.

During each beat, the heart contracts (systole) and then relaxes
(diastole).
The stages of the cardiac cycle include:
o Atrial systole: which refers to the contraction of the atria
o Venticular systole: contraction of ventricles
o Complete cardiac diastole: relaxation of atria and
ventricles.
Deoxygenated Blood enters the heart through the inferior and
superior vena cava, into the right atrium.
The right atrium contracts, emptying the blood into the right
ventricle, through the open tricuspid valve.
When the ventricle fills up, the tricuspid valve shuts. Blood then
leaves the heart through the pulmonary valve into the
pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated.
Oxygen rich blood then enters the left atrium from the
pulmonary vein. Blood flows from left atrium to left ventricle
through bicuspid valve.
Once the left ventricle is full the bicuspid valve shuts to prevent
back flow.
Blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve into the aorta
and then into the body.

2.2 Blood Vessels:

- Vary in structure, size and function.

Diameter of the vessels is controlled by the autonomic nervous

system, controlling the blood volume in these vessels.
The diameter of the vessels is physically controlled by the
smooth muscle of the tunica media.
Blood flow is also auto regulated to the tissues individual
energy and nutrient requirements.

2.3
Position of the heart and structure
- The heart lies in the thoracic cavity in between the lungs.
- It lies more to the left with a base above and an apex below.
- Superior surface of diaphragm left of the midline.
- Anterior to vertebral column and posterior to sternum.
- The heart wall is made of 3 layers of tissue:

o Pericardium: Outermost layer. Made of 2 sacs. Outer sac

is made of fibrous tissue. Inner sac is made up of double
serous membrane. The parietal layer lines the inside of
the fibrous pericardium. The visceral layer lines the
surface of the heart. These layers are separated by a fluid
filled cavity. This fluid is a lubricant and allows heart to
work with little friction.
o Myocardium: Cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of
the heart.
o Endocardium: Lines the chambers and valves of the
heart.

2.4
Conducting system of
the heart:
The heart is able to generate its own
electrical impulses and it beats independently
of hormonal or nervous control.
It is not reliant on external mechanisms to
initiate heartbeat.
There is a nervous control however; as it is
supplied with both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve
fibres.
These fibres act to increase and decrease the heart rate
(respectively).