Earth Surface Processes and Landforms

Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 28, 117129 (2003)

Published online 13 January 2003 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/esp.425

CONSEQUENCES OF FOREST FIRES ON THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL

RESPONSE OF MOUNTAIN CATCHMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE
RIALE BUFFAGA, TICINO, SWITZERLAND
MARCO CONEDERA,1 * LARISSA PETER,1 PETER MARXER,1 FELIX FORSTER,2 DIETER RICKENMANN2 AND
LORENZA RE3
1

WSL, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Sottostazione Sud delle Alpi, CH-6504 Bellinzona,
Switzerland
2 WSL, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
3 Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera italiana, Istituto di scienze della terra, 6593 Cadenazzo, Switzerland
Received 7 November 2001; Revised 15 April 2002; Accepted 26 June 2002

ABSTRACT
The debris flow of 28 August 1997 which occurred in the Riale Buffaga, a torrent channel in the territory of the village
of Ronco s./Ascona (Ticino, Switzerland), has been simulated with a good degree of reliability due to the existence of
morphologic surveys of the torrent channel preceding the flood event and the presence of a rain gauge that registered
the rainfall event at a resolution of 10 minutes. With these data it is possible to conduct a quantitative analysis of the
effect of a forest fire on the hydrogeological response of a given catchment. In the case at hand, a 10-year rainfall event
caused a 100- to 200-year flood event. This result clearly quantifies the possible consequences of a forest fire in terms
of territorial safety. Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: post-fire effects; debris flow; mountain catchment; flood formation; southern Switzerland

INTRODUCTION
Forest fires not only reduce the biomass, but have consequences also on other components of the forest
ecosystems. At the ground level for example, it has been verified that the passage of a fire can provoke
an increase in soil hydrophobicity (De Bano, 1981; Ritschard, 2000; Letey 2001; Huffmann et al., 2001),
a decrease in the water infiltration capacity (De Bano, 1981; Cerda, 1998a; Marxer et al., 1998; Martin
and Moody, 2001), an increase of the surficial runoff of rainfall and snowmelt and the consequent surface
erosion (Giovannini, 1994; Soto et al., 1994; Cerda, 1998b; Marxer et al., 1998; Robichaud and Brown,
1999; Giovannini et al., 2001), as well as triggering the processes of rain splash erosion (Providoli et al.,
2002). The importance of these effects has been found to be generally proportional to the intensity of the fire
(Giovannini, 1994).
When a fire affects the majority of or an entire catchment, the resulting alterations can constitute a substantial modification of the hydrogeological characteristics of the area, particularly in the months immediately
following the event, enhancing the risk of debris flows. Two initiation processes for fire-related debris flows
have been identified in the literature: infiltration-triggered soil slip, and runoff-dominated erosion by surface
overland flow (Cannon et al., 2001a). However, runoff-dominated processes are usually prevalent in recently
burned environments (Cannon et al., 2001a,b). Increased runoff can result in the lowering of the threshold of
intensity and amount of precipitation necessary to cause a flood event.
Post-fire mudflows and debris flows represent a particularly acute problem in mountainous regions, with
numerous catchments at increased hydrogeological risk (Meyer and Wells, 1997; Cannon et al., 1998; Wilson,
1999). The southern side of the Alps constitutes no exception to this response. In addition, increased frequency
of fires following the progressive abandonment of land management over the last 40 years (Cesti and Cerise,
* Correspondence to: M. Conedera, WSL Sottostazione Sud delle Alpi, P.O. Box 57, CH-6504 Bellinzona, Switzerland.
E-mail: marco.conedera@wsl.ch
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M. CONEDERA ET AL.

1992; Bovio, 1996; Conedera et al., 1996) and the increase during the last decades of particularly dry winters
(Rebetez, 1999), have further aggravated this risk. In this setting, there have been numerous surface fires of
vast proportions that coincide with periods of drought (Cesti, 1997; Conedera et al., 1998). In these cases, fire
can also occur in areas normally protected from the phenomenon, as for example on northern slopes. In this
way, the conditions for first fires are formed (that is to say fire in areas untouched for at least 1520 years)
which affect areas with closed canopy and poor and sparse undergrowth. In particular, fire-tolerant species are
lacking, for example Pteridium aquilinum or Molinia litoralis, which are capable of rapidly colonizing burned
surfaces and mitigating the effects of post-fire surficial erosion (Marxer et al., 1998; Hofmann et al., 1998).
Debris flows or muddy runoff in catchments recently burned by forest fires of a certain intensity become
more frequent in areas south of the Alps. For example, the cases of Rio Renanchio, in 1981, at the border
between Piedmont and Valle dAosta (G. Cesti, pers. comm.) and the torrents in the village of Ardenno in
1998 in Valtellina (Marieni, 2000) are well documented.
In this paper, we present the results of an analysis of a flood event which took place on 28 August 1997
in the catchment of the Riale Buffaga in Ticino, Switzerland. A surface fire had burned the area during
the month of March, following two months of drought (Spinedi, 1997; Conedera et al., 1998). The case of
Riale Buffaga is quite well documented because of the existence of a pre-event morphological survey of the
channel, a detailed wildfire database of the area and a pluviographic survey of the storm event recorded by
a rain gauge located nearby. Based on this information, we attempted to quantitatively document the event
with emphasis on the possible effects of the wildfire.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The Riale Buffaga is a torrent (i.e. a steep, mountain channel) situated in the territory of the village of
Ronco s./Ascona, on the shores of Lake Maggiore, about 6 km west of Locarno (Ticino, Switzerland). It is
worth noting that in European terminology, the word torrent refers to the channel characteristics and its
geomorphological environment and is not linked with the flow process, as for the term debris torrent used
in the Pacific Northwest of North America (Hungr et al., 2001; Slaymaker, 1988). The catchment has an
elongated form, is relatively small in size, and is rather steep (see Table I and Figure 1). The longitudinal
profile is nearly straight, with few irregularities such as rocky sections (waterfalls) or changes in gradient.
Table I. Main characteristics of the Riale Buffaga catchment
Town
Latitude
Longitude
Area
Catchment length
Circularity ratio
Average gradient
Lowest elevation
Highest elevation
Drainage density
Original forested area
Area burned by the fire in
March 1997
Main riverbed length
Riverbed gradient

Ronco s./Ascona (Ticino, Switzerland)

46 080 4500 N
8 430 0000 E
0355 km2
1750 m
034
61%
200 m a.s.l.
1280 m a.s.l.
732
0301 km2
0285 km2
1350 m
64%

Calculated as the ratio between the catchment area and the area of the circle of
equal perimeter.
Calculated as the ratio between the total length of the channels (as measurable on the
1 : 5000 map) and the catchment area.

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119

Figure 1. Situation map of the study area (reproduced by permission of the Swiss Federal Office of Topography BA024226)

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M. CONEDERA ET AL.

The torrent channel of the Riale Buffaga carries water only during periods of heavy rainfall; under normal
conditions it is dry. In the inhabited section the watercourse has been channelled into very narrow sections
(in the most extreme case, the flow section in a culvert is limited to about 05 m2 ).
The materials underlying the torrent belong to the Ivrea-Verbano Zone and are principally composed of
amphibolites, amphibolitic gneiss, kinzigites, biotitic gneiss and, to a lesser degree, pegmatite zones and
metacarbonitic horizons. The morphology of outcrops in the study area is determined by the presence of
transverse fractures. Where the transverse fractures intersect compression fractions, the outcrops are often
unstable, resulting in the breaking up of rock faces and contribution of large blocks of material into the
torrent channel (Baumer et al., 1995). Moraine deposits and colluvium blocks cover the remaining part of
the area. This unconsolidated, loose material at locations makes up the banks of the torrent channel itself.
The soil depth is in general very mixed, although some profiles are rather deep (up to 120 cm). The soil is
very rich in stones, well drained and with a good penetration of the root systems down to the lower levels.
The forest cover is composed of 75 per cent chestnut coppice (localized in the lower part, up to an elevation
of about 1000 m a.s.l.) and in the upper part by a stand of mixed conifers, planting of which began in the
mid-1970s in the less steep zone of the catchment previously used for pasture. In this area the ground is more
compacted due to grazing activities.
Inventory of forest fires
The territory of Ronco s./Ascona faces mostly southeast. This exposure makes it particularly vulnerable
to the risk of fire. Over 110 fires or beginnings of fire were documented in the 366 ha of forest during the
20th century. Beginning with the 1970s, the mountain catchment of Riale Buffaga was subjected to a fire of
vast proportions in its upper part on 25 March 1973 and by smaller fires at the end of the 1980s and at the
beginning of the 1990s in its lower parts (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Wildfires of the past 30 years in the study area (reproduced by permission of the Swiss Federal Office of Topography BA024226)
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121

In the early afternoon of 15 March 1997 a fire attributed to arson broke out in the territory of the town
of Ronco s./Ascona. Pushed by strong gusts of northern fohn-wind, the fire rapidly spread over a large
area, also affecting the catchment of the Riale Buffaga. In total 1325 ha were burned, of which 145 ha
were pasture, 80 ha chestnut coppice and 38 ha plantations. The fire affected 285 ha of the Riale Buffaga
catchment (214 ha of coppiced stands and 71 ha of plantations) representing 80 per cent of the total area of
the catchment (Figure 1).
Inventory of flood events
In spite of the potential risk of the Riale Buffaga catchment, as identified in a hydrogeological report
(Baumer et al., 1995), up until 1998 only minor flood events were identified in the catchment. A flood took
out a footbridge at the beginning of the 1900s, and two small floods occurred during the 1960s and 1980s.
On the evening of 28 August 1997, around 18 : 30, a heavy rainstorm triggered a debris flow that overtopped
the torrent channel in the inhabited area of the town. The debris flow filled all the roads crossing the
watercourse and impacted numerous dwellings and parked cars, reaching in some areas a height of 23 m
(see Figure 3). The coastal road of Lake Verbano, that connects Locarno with Cannobio (Italy), was also
blocked. It was only by chance that there were no serious injuries or deaths. About 3000 m3 of debris
were cleared off the roads. Forty-eight hours after the event, the torrent bed of the Riale Buffaga was again
completely dry.
Pluviographic surveys
The storm event of 28 August 1997 was monitored by a recording rain gauge (model ARG 100), which
registered data every 10 minutes. This rain gauge was located approximately 400 m to the west, but more or
less at the same elevation as the centre of the catchment of the Riale Buffaga (see Figure 1).
The meteorological station of MeteoSwiss, situated in Locarno-Monti (8 470 1000 E, 46 100 2800 N0 at about
6 km east), provides cross-check data registered at intervals of 10 minutes. The statistics for 19351978 of
the Locarno-Monti station were used for the estimation of the return period of the event of 28 August 1997,
and also for the definition of 20-year and 100-year events (Zeller et al., 1980).
Infiltration measures
Marxer (in press) demonstrated that in the burned area of Ronco s./Ascona the post-fire runoff in the
first 6 months after the fire increased in average by a factor of 28 (ranging from 14 to 103 according to
the precipitation event). In order to confirm this result under standardized conditions, a measurement of the
quantity of water capable of penetrating the ground in units of time and area was accomplished using a

Figure 3. Debris deposition in the lowermost section of the torrent

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M. CONEDERA ET AL.

double-ring infiltrometer (outside ring of 55 cm; inside ring of 30 cm). These measures were taken between
1 and 17 July 1997 at the limits of the catchment of the Riale Buffaga, in an area spanning the burned zone
and the intact forest. Ten sets of measurements were taken in conditions of similar and level terrain, both for
the burned (n D 10) and unburned (n D 10) areas. Each measurement was taken in two phases: water was
first put into the soil to achieve field capacity in the area under study. The true measurements were taken
only in a second phase, after having reached a constant rate of infiltration.
Morphologic survey of the torrent
The geomorphologic survey of the Riale Buffaga catchment was first carried out in 1995 during an evaluation of the at-risk zones of the entire territory of the community of Ronco s./Ascona (Baumer et al., 1995).
This documentation provides critical information regarding the form of the torrent channel before the storm
event occurred.
In the days immediately following the flood event, a new survey of the torrent channel was carried out
to determine the volume of material transported and the amount of debris accumulated along the various
sections. The torrent channel was subdivided into homogeneous sections depending on the geomorphologic
characteristics. In each section, the erosion along the torrent bed and the lateral erosion resulting from the
passage of the debris flow as well as the deposed material were measured with the help of a measuring tape,
a metric bar and an inclinometer.
The applied flood estimation method
The flood estimations are performed by a modified type of the rational formula whereby the parameters are
determined according to well defined instructions. The rational formula assumes that the maximum discharge
rate is caused by a rainfall event of a duration equal to the time of concentration. The rational method is
usually expressed in terms of the following equation:
Q
x D 0278i
Tc , xA

1

where Q
x is flood discharge with a return period of x years (m3 s
1 km
2 ), i is controlling rainfall intensity
(mm h
1 ), is runoff coefficient, A is area of the catchment (km2 ), Tc is time of concentration (min) and x
is return period (years). Factor 0278 is a conversion factor due to the chosen units.
The runoff coefficient and the time of concentration represent the parameters that vary within the method.
These parameters are likely to be influenced after a forest fire.
The runoff coefficient accounts for the physiographic characteristics of the catchment. It is governed by
the infiltration conditions and the water retention capacity of the soil and is determined by a procedure
described by Rickli and Forster (1997). The method relies on the assumption of hydrologically homogeneous
subcatchments. This approach allows for an objective and replicable evaluation of the runoff coefficient.
The time of concentration Tc is related to the controlling rainfall intensity. Tc is equivalent to the time
needed by the surface runoff to reach the catchment outlet from the most remote part of the catchment. The
concentration time Tc is calculated based on a combination of travel time and wetting delay:
Tc D Ttravel C Twetting

2

The travel time Ttravel (min) is calculated following the approach of Kirpich (Chow, 1964) and depends on
the maximum flow length and the average channel gradient:
Ttravel D 00195L 077 J
0385

3

where L is maximum flow length (distance from the gauging station to the most distant point of the catchment
following the main valley) (m) and J is average channel gradient along the maximum flow length (m m
1 ).
The wetting delay Twetting has been described by Kolla (1986) and represents the time needed to wet the
unsaturated soils. Kolla first defines a wetting rainfall volume, Pwetting , for a 20-year flood based on the soil
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HYDROGEOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO FOREST FIRES IN MOUNTAIN CATCHMENTS

suitability map. Starting from an estimated concentration time, Tc , the Hydrological Atlas of Switzerland
(HADES, 1992) provides a rainfall intensity, i, which is determined corresponding to the target return period.
The wetting delay, Twetting , may then be obtained with Equation 2 after calculating Ttravel (Equation 3). The
product of wetting delay, Twetting , and the rainfall intensity, i, results in a wetting rainfall volume, PN wetting ,
which is to be compared with Pwetting . In case of a discrepancy, a new concentration time Tc is selected and
the procedure is repeated. The flood estimations are performed for the catchment conditions before and after
the forest fire.
The runoff coefficient after the forest fire was estimated on the basis of two different methods. In the first
method the results of the infiltration measurements were directly transposed by multiplying the original runoff
coefficient by the ratio of the infiltration rate before and after the forest fire. The second method consisted
of determining the runoff coefficient according to Rickli and Forster (1997) using the classification of bad
infiltration conditions. In addition, a reduction of the wetting rainfall volume Pwetting was considered in both
cases, because the strongly reduced infiltration rate does not allow the original wetting rainfall volume to
enter into the soil.
Two soil profiles were open inside the catchment area (see Figure 1) in order to evaluate soil parameters
such as soil depth, thickness of the humus layer, relative volume of stones, etc.
RESULTS
Pluviometry
On 28 August 1997, 91 mm of rain fell in Locarno-Monti between 15 : 40 and 16 : 40 UTC (Coordinated
Universal Time). This amount represents a new record of precipitation over an interval of one hour at the
pluviometric station. As is often the case for thunderstorms, the rain distribution was very heterogeneous:

40

160
10 min. precip. Ronco s./Ascona

35

140

10 min. precip. Locarno-Monti

cumulated precip. Ronco s./Ascona

25

100

20

80

15

60

10

40

20

cumulated precipitation (mm)

120

cumulated precip. Locarno-Monti

16
:1
16 0:0
:2 0
16 0:0
:3 0
16 0:0
:4 0
16 0:0
:5 0
17 0:0
:0 0
17 0:0
:1 0
17 0:0
:2 0
17 0:0
:3 0
17 0:0
:4 0
17 0:0
:5 0
18 0:0
:0 0
18 0:0
:1 0
18 0:0
:2 0
18 0:0
:3 0
18 0:0
:4 0
18 0:0
:5 0
19 0:0
:0 0
19 0:0
:1 0
19 0:0
:2 0
19 0:0
:3 0
19 0:0
:4 0
19 0:0
:5 0
20 0:0
:0 0
20 0:0
:1 0
20 0:0
:2 0
20 0:0
:3 0
20 0:0
:4 0
20 0:0
:5 0
21 0:0
:0 0
21 0:0
:1 0
21 0:0
:2 0
21 0:0
:3 0
21 0:0
:4 0
0:
00

10 min. precipitation (mm)

30

local time
Figure 4. Record of precipitation event of 28 August 1997
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M. CONEDERA ET AL.

the station in Ronco s./Ascona registered an intensity and quantity of rain much smaller than the station of
Locarno-Monti (Figure 4 and Table II). Using the long-term record from the station of Locarno-Monti, the
event of Ronco s./Ascona corresponds to a period of return of about 10 years.
Rate of infiltration
The double ring infiltrometer measurements clearly showed that the rate of water infiltration was on average
28 times higher in the unburned site than at the burned site (median values: 990 versus 360 mm h
1 ; see
also Figure 5). The WilcoxonMannWhitney test declared this difference significant with P D 0003. The
absolute values of the infiltration measures are extremely high and also quite heterogeneous (see the spread
of the standard deviation), a situation resulting, also on the small scale, both from the survey method and
the high intrinsic variability of the influencing pedologic factors (type and percentage of porosity, structure
and texture of the soil, etc.). In this specific case, these aspects have minor practical relevance, since the
following elaborations consider only the relative difference between the burned and unburned areas. The results
confirmed the average rate of increase in post-fire runoff as reported in Marxer (in press) for similar conditions.
Flood estimation
Pre-fire situation. The runoff coefficient is calculated as a weighted mean of the two subcatchments
consisting of chestnut forest and afforestation. The wetting rainfall volume Pwetting is estimated to be rather
large, the result of the observation that the catchment reacts very slowly to rainfall events. Considering the
rainfall intensities of the 28 August 1997 event, the peak discharge amounts to 09 m3 s
1 (see Table III).
Applying the long-term precipitation time series of the station Locarno-Monti the 20-year and the 100-year
Table II. Rainfall characteristics of the flood event of 28 August 1997
Station

24 h intensity
(mm)

Max. 1 h intensity
(mm)

Max. 10 min intensity

(mm)

Total intensity (4 h)
(mm)

1600
1089

912
472

228
136

1424
788

Locarno-Monti
Ronco s./Ascona

infiltration rate (mm/h)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
burned

unburned

Figure 5. Mean water infiltration in burned (n D 10) and unburned (n D 10) soil in Ronco s./Ascona
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flood amount to 16 and 23 m3 s
1 , respectively. Compared to the rainfall data of Locarno-Monti the event
of 28 August 1997 accounts only for a 10-year rainfall event.
Post-fire situation. As described previously, two different parameterization versions were considered. The
version based on the infiltration measurements results in a runoff coefficient that is about 25 per cent higher
than the other one (see Table III). The wetting rainfall volume Pwetting is supposed to be reduced to half or a
quarter of the original value, because it is obvious that the latter cannot be attained due to effects of the fire
on the soil.
Considering for both cases a wetting rainfall volume of 20 mm and the rainfall intensities of the 28
August 1997 event, the resulting flood peaks amount to 27 and 22 m3 s
1 , respectively. These values
correspond to return periods of between 100 and 200 years under natural conditions. Despite uncertainties in
the rainfallrunoff estimate, the estimated flood peak is clearly higher than for the same rainfall under the
pre-fire situation. This increase may have been essential for the formation of the debris flow, which had a
peak flow much higher than the estimated value for water runoff only.

Table III. Flood estimation for the Riale Buffaga catchment

Variant

Runoff
coefficient

Wetting rainfall
volume Pwetting
(mm)

Concentration
time Tc
(min)

Discharge
Q (m3 s
1 )

019
019

40
40

55
36

09
16

019

40

26

23

041
041
033
033

20
10
20
10

25
15
25
15

27
31
22
25

Pre-fire situation
Event of 28.8.1997
20-year event (precipitation
from Locarno-Monti)
100-year event (precipitation
from Locarno-Monti)
Post-fire situation
1: runoff coefficient based
on infiltration measurements
2: runoff coefficient based
on Rickli and Forster (1997)

m a.s.l.
1100
1000

Accumulation

90 m3

900

Mass shift

120 m3

250 m3

800

Height of accumulation/mass shift

Scale 1:145

700
900 m3

600

250 m3

500
400

1500 m3

300

4500 m3

200
0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 m
Scale1:12'500

Figure 6. Longitudinal profile with sediment budget

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M. CONEDERA ET AL.

Figure 7. Erosion ditch at the beginning of second section

Figure 8. Condition of the torrent channel in fourth section after the passage of the debris flow

Sediment transport in the torrent during the flood event

The field analysis allowed for the subdivision of the torrent channel into five homogeneous sections. Figure 6
illustrates the sediment transport in each section as surveyed along the longitudinal profile of the torrent.
Bottom erosion already occurred in the first section, in the upper part of the catchment, where about
250 m3 were transported from the principal watersheds. At the beginning of the second section, where the
area of major channelling of the runoff occurs, the erosion of the torrent channels becomes more important
and reaches an area of 8 m2 (see Figure 7). Over this length about 170 m3 of material was eroded. Of the
170 m3 , 120 m3 was deposited just below the eroded trait in the form of a well-sorted lobe. In the lower
part of the second section, gullies were eroded with an average length of about 05 m along the secondary
branches and between 15 m and 3 m along the main torrent channel. This process resulted in a total amount
of transported debris of about 900 m3 . After the flood, the third section was observed to be eroded down
to bedrock, with almost total removal of the loose material, boulders, dead trunks and vegetation that was
present in 1995 (see also Figure 8). About 250 m3 of material was estimated to have been removed from
this section. The head of the fourth section shows the worst signs of erosion: the cross-section of the torrent
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channel increased from 2 m2 to 22 m2 , resulting in a total volume of material transported of about 1500 m3
for this length.
Along the fifth and last section, which is highly urbanized, the torrent channel is mostly artificially channelled with some covered parts and the torrent bed is lined completely with rocks. It is in this section that
most of the accumulation of material took place because of the numerous road crossings. Bridges were
obstructed and all the roads were transformed into flood channels, depositing mud and debris over the entire
developed zone.
The sum of the estimates of the volume of material eroded along the four upper sections results in a total
of about 3000 m3 , corresponding to the quantities actually removed from the roads. We did not estimate the
volume of material that accumulated over the other areas affected by the overflow (private properties), but we
can reasonably assume, based on ground surveys conducted a few days after the event and on photographic
documentation, that the debris flow deposited approximately 40005000 m3 of sediments. In comparison,
the estimate of the sediment volume eroded along the torrent channel is at least 25 per cent smaller. The
geomorphologic characteristics of the channel and the deposits indicate that a granular-type debris flow had
occurred and transported most of the sediments.
DISCUSSION
The documentation of the flood event presented here indicates that the effects of the fire on the hydrogeological
properties of the burned area may have resulted in a 100- to 200-year flood event as a consequence of a
10-year rainfall event. The effect of fire is principally that of changing the infiltration capacity of the upper
layers of soil. This change can be attributed to a number of processes, including the development of organic
coating of soil particles (DeBano, 1981) plugging of inter-particle voids by ash (Marxer et al., 1998; Marxer,
in press) and general drying of the soil, both by passage of the fire, and the exposure to the sun (Richard
and Luscher, 1987; Ritschard, 2000). In this specific case, the atmospheric water rapidly accumulated in
the torrent channel because of the increased water-repellency, provoking a flash flood capable of eroding
and transporting loose or unconsolidated sediments present on the slopes, as suggested for runoff-dominated
processes by Cannon et al. (2001a). The characteristics of the movement of material recorded along the
torrent channel and in particular the morphology of the lobes composed of homogeneous material confirm
the plausibility of such an origin of the debris flow. Tognacca (1999) developed a criterion to estimate the
critical discharge QDF to initiate a debris flow by this process. Applying this approach for the given bed slope
and grain size characteristics of the Riale Buffaga at the initiation site, we obtained a range of QDF D 04 to
1 m3 s
1 . At the same location and for the given rainfall conditions, the actual peak discharge is estimated
at 06 m3 s
1 in the case of no fire, and 11 to 22 m3 s
1 in the case of fire. This suggests that debris flows
would not have occurred without the exacerbating effect of the fire.
The cause and effect relationship of the extensive fire of the previous spring is thus evident, considering
also the total absence of similar events in the neighbouring zones, where the meteorological event under study
was also much more violent (see for example Locarno-Monti). The potential for fire-related hyperconcentrated
flow and debris flow as described by Cannon et al. (1998) is therefore confirmed also for the case of winter
fires in the Alpine Region. This potential is normally high only during the first season of heavy rains after
the occurrence of fires and tends to diminish with the progressive vegetative regeneration in the burned area
(Marxer et al., 1998).
Even given the quality of the data in our possession, we were not able to reconstruct the event with
absolute precision: the morphological survey of the torrent channel in the fifth and last section of the torrent
indicates that a quantity of solid material of about 3000 m3 should have been deposited, half of it coming
from the section immediately above. The total volume of material that invaded the centre of the village of
Porto Ronco was, however, estimated at a higher volume of about 40005000 m3 . This difference is inherent
in the difficulty of estimating the volumes coming from lateral erosion since no transverse profiles were
available before the flood event. As far as the estimation of the volumes deposited along the torrent channel
is concerned, with the exception of the second section, the distinction between new lobes and lobes left over
from previous floods has not always been clear.
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128

M. CONEDERA ET AL.

The total rainfall input on the catchment during the period one hour before the event is estimated at
16 700 m3 (based on the rainfall in Ronco of 47 mm in the period 17 : 30 to 18 : 30 and the catchment area
of 0355 km2 ). Taking a runoff coefficient of 04 (Table III), the runoff volume of water within this period is
about 6700 m3 . It is reasonable to expect that not all, but the major part of this runoff volume was incorporated
into the debris flow which may have had an average (volume) solid concentration of about 50 to 60 per cent,
thus corroborating the independent estimates of the eroded and deposited debris volumes. Based on the field
observations, debris-flow parameters are estimated by means of empirical relationships given in Rickenmann
(1999). Assuming that a granular-type debris flow had occurred, an event magnitude of 3000 m3 leads to
an estimated peak discharge of about 70 m3 s
1 . At a channel elevation of 460 m a.s.l., the maximum flow
cross-section (in bedrock) was measured at 12 m2 . With the channel bed slope of 35 per cent in this reach,
a maximum flow velocity of about 5 to 6 m s
1 is estimated with two different empirical relationships. For
the estimated peak discharge this would require a flow section of 12 to 14 m2 which compares reasonably
well with the measured value.
CONCLUSIONS
To the best of our knowledge, no silvicultural preventive or curative measures capable of efficiently reducing
this phenomenon exist, especially in the case of widespread fires that damage important sections of a torrent
catchment (see for example Providoli et al., 2002). To overcome this difficulty, an immediate analysis of the
hydrogeological consequences of fires and the evaluation of the threshold of a rain event that could cause
a flood event and eventual debris flows could be very helpful. Thanks to modern techniques of forecasting
of meteorological events it would eventually be possible to signal in real time the imminent danger and to
organize the evacuation of houses and closure of roads in the danger zones. This study provides a concrete
contribution in this direction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank our colleagues Karl Siegrist, Daniele Moro and Christian Tognacca for the survey and for good
discussions in the field, Marcello Martinoni, Damiano Torriani and Sabina Luthi for help in preparing the
graphics, and Christine and Jean Favre for the translation of the manuscript from Italian to English and Susan
H. Cannon for the revision of the manuscript.
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