Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

By Upankar Chutia

:Abstract:
India is known for its fertile land and its ability to produce
various crops, this is the reason for India being invaded by various invaders
Portuguese, British, Mughals, etc. Mughals were the one who had ruled India
for the longest period of time, nearly about 300 years. Under Mughals there
were various reformation made in the agricultural sector like in cropping,
irrigation etc. Although various measures taken by Mughals in the improvement
of agricultural sector yet if we see the condition of farmers it was a very pitiable
condition those days, they were given the least hierarchy in the society,
moreover the revenue payable by them was to a large extent that after paying
the revenue there was hardly any resources left with them to take care of their
family. The objective of this research is to find out, how far the measures taken
by Mughals in developing the agricultural sector was successful.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

Table of Contents
Introduction
Mughal Reign and reformation measures taken
Land revenue system under Mughal Emperor
Division of land under Mughal Emperor
Irrigation reforms under Mughal Emperor
Reformation in the practice of plantation
Status of peasants in Mughal reign
Advantages of the reformative measures during Mughal
reign
Disadvantages of the reformative measures during
Mughal reign
Conclusion
Bibliography
Webliography

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

Introduction:Agriculture has been the basis of Indian economy since ages and in
states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Assam, etc. agriculture is believed to be a part of the customs
and traditions. The fact that how keenly the whole of India is related to agriculture can be
depicted from the point that, most of the Indian festivals are related to harvest or first tilling
of the field for eg. Rongali Bihu1 of Assam a harvest festival, Pongal2 in Tamil Nadu is also a
festival which is related to agriculture. Even the mention of agriculture could be seen in some
of the oldest Indian text like Vedas3, Rigveda hymns for example, describes ploughing,
fallowing, irrigation, fruit and vegetable cultivation. Other historical evidence suggests rice
and cotton were cultivated in the Indus Valley, and ploughing patterns from the Bronze Age
have been excavated at Kalibangan in Rajasthan. Bhumivargaha4, another ancient Indian
Sanskrit text which is suggested to be 2500 years old, classifies agricultural land into twelve
categories: urvara (fertile), ushara (barren), maru (desert), aprahata (fallow), shadvala
(grassy), pankikala (muddy), jalaprayah (watery), kachchaha (land contiguous to water),
sharkara (full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), sharkaravati (sandy), nadimatruka (land
watered from a river), and devamatruka (rainfed). Some archaeologists believe rice was a
domesticated crop along the banks of the Indian river Ganga in the sixth millennium BC. So
were species of winter cereals (barley, oats, and wheat) and legumes (lentil and chickpea)
grown in Northwest India before the sixth millennium BC. Other crops cultivated in India
3000 to 6000 years ago, include sesame, linseed, safflower, mustards, castor, mung bean,
black gram, horse gram, pigeonpea, field pea, grass pea (khesari), fenugreek, cotton, jujube,
grapes, dates, jackfruit, mango, mulberry, and black plum. Indian peasants had also
domesticated cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs and horses thousands of years ago. Some
scientists claim agriculture in India was widespread in the Indian peninsula, some 30005000
years ago, well beyond the fertile plains of the north. For example, one study reports twelve
sites in the southern Indian states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh providing clear evidence
of agriculture of pulses, millet-grasses, wheats, barley, hyacinth bean, pearl millet, finger
millet, cotton, linseed, as well as gathered fruits of Ziziphus and two Cucurbitaceae.

Mitra Aagami, Bihu of Assam, 29 July 2012, Hubpages.

Kajmani, Pongal Festival History, Significance and Traditions, 15 January 2012.
3
Mishra Mangilal, Agricultural Methods in Vedic age, Vedpradip.
4
Agriculture in India, 04 July 12, data.gov.in.
2

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

Some claim Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early

cultivation of plants and domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with
implements and techniques being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two
harvests being reaped in one year. Indian products soon reached the world via existing
trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India. Plants and animals considered
essential to their survival by the Indians, came to be worshiped and respected.
Thus the aspect of agriculture was given utmost importance in the past
and also in the present scenario, as still today India is basically agrarian economy i.e
agriculture contributes almost 21%5 of Indias GDP.
As history depicts that India was basically invaded by various invaders
at various point of time and most of the invaders were the traders who were influenced by the
fertility of its land and its ability to produce various crops and food grains. History says that
India had trade relations with various other countries like Afghanistan, Mongolia, Portugal,
Great Britain, etc in spices and latter the trade relations with India as that of other countries
started growing to a large extent and frequent and with the increasing trade the traders started
establishing their own territory and slowly it lead to invasion and latter rule by those
countries. In the history of India the most remarkable invaders were namely Mughals and
Britishers who ruled India for around 300 and 190 years.
Various civilizations and invasions as the time passed had their impact
as to revolutionise the agricultural system of India, and mughals who had ruled India for
almost 300 years had a large impact in the field of agriculture and they took many
reformation measures as inorder to develop the agricultural sector, as for instance, tobacco
and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangirs reign. Ajmer was
famous for the best quality of sugar cane. Gujarat and Agra was famous for indigo
cultivation. Babur introduced many central Asian fruits to India. During Mughal time
agriculture was not only the largest source of income to state but it was also the source of
livelihood to the large majority of people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals,
millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel. During Akbars reign
Firoz Shahs Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. In the reign of Shah Jahan,Nahr-iBihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad for irrigation purposes which makes its
5

http://web.worldbank.org/

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

very clear that the agricultural sector was given utmost importance any many reformative
measures are also taken by the Mughas during their reign.

Mughal Reign and reformation measures taken:The rule of Mughals6 started with Babur who was succeeded by
Humayun, latter comes Akbar the great who was latter succeed by Jahangir, Sahjahan,
Aurengzeb, Bahadursah, etc. In term of each of the rulers various reformation measures were
taken up as for the development of agricultural sector. The availability of cultivatable land
was sufficient and it demanded more cropping. Babur in Tuzuk- i- Baburi says the country
full of men and full of products were divided into villages which was surrounded by
cultivatable fields, and also had land for pasture and forests for fuel and other
purposes.Akbar tried to increase the land under cultivation. The methods of cultivation were
almost similar to present times. When plough was used for cultivation a hoe, a mattock, and
few other instruments were used for ploughing the fields. The irrigation facilities used in the
ancient and sultanate period were continued with in the mughal period. Natural and artificial
modes of irrigation were used. Wells, canals, rivers, Persian wheel etc, were used for
irrigation. The peasants knew about the use of manures also during the reign of Mughals.

Land revenue system under Mughal Emperor:The land revenue system7 formed the basis of relationship between
the mughal kings and the peasant class. The founder of the Mughal Empire did not establish a
sound land revenue system nor did his son Humayun. Sher Shah introduced revenue reforms
and he was the first Muslim ruler to establish a beneficial system which was equally good for
the state and farmers. When Akbar took over the throne, he had divided the land into crown
lands or Khalsa land and the jagir lands. Village was the smallest unit of administration
surrounded by fields and also had lands for pasture and forest for fuel and other purposes.
Villages were known as gaon or mauza .There were two types of villages asli that is
having the habitation intact and dakhili that as the deserted village. There were two types of
6
7

Szczepanski Kallie, The Mughal Empire in India, asianhistory.about.com.

Sundaram Lanka, Mughal land revenue system, archive.org.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

raiyati villages which belonged to Khalsa land but the taluqa villages experiments to
improve the condition of peasants and also the land revenue administration. Akbars first
experiment starts with the appointment of Aitmad Khan as the Diwan8 in 1563 , in which he
divided the empire into 12parganas. In second experiment Muzaffar Khan, in third
experiment Shihabuddin Ahmad, in fourth and fifth experiment Raja Todarmal was appointed
as the imperial Diwan. A uniform method of measurement was appointed known as Ain- iDahsala or the Bandobast system. It was based on Zabti system also known as the Ryotwari
system. Initially it was introduced in eight provinces namely Allahabad, Agra, Oudh, Ajmer,
Malwa, Delhi, Lahore, Multan. The whole empire was divided into dasturs. Provinces were
divided into sarkars or districts and those of districts into Parganas or tehsils. Amalguzar was
appointed in the district level . Each cultivator received a patta or deed. Shahjahans Diwan
Sadaulla khan also introduced some changes in the revenue department. The mughal rulers
used measurement units and the division of lands for the successful collection of taxes. New
techniques of units of measurement was introduced. A yard was called gaz which was of
41 units and a bigha was equal to area of 60 yards square or 3600 square yards. Thus, we
see that during the rule of Akbar improvement was made in the modes of measurement for
the benefit of the state and also the peasant.
Division of land under Mughal Emperor:Different modes9 and methods were introduced to enhance the
fertility of the soil and for this during the reign of Akbar the land was divided into four
categories polaj in which two crops was raised every year, Parauti land which was left
fallow after raising two crops, Chachar unfertile piece of land which was cultivated every
three to four years, Banjar-was unfit for cultivation and rarely brought under cultivation.
Akbar tried to bring more uncultivated land under cultivation to raise various high quality
crops. India has been an agricultural country since ages and the soil of India and its land is
basically fertile and cultivatable. Whereas the soil of Ajmer is sandy and water obtainable at
great depth, whence the crops are depended on rain, the elevation of Malwa is somewhat
above that of other areas of the country and every in every other part harvests are excellent
especially wheat, poppy, sugarcane, melons and grapes.

8
9

Vikas Avnish, Administration under Akbar, el.trc.gov.om, 16 March 2010.

Mughal land revenue system, CSS forum, 11 April 2013.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

Irrigation reforms under Mughal Emperor:Irrigation facilities were present in India since ancient times and
the Mughal rulers paid attention to it sincerely. Irrigation10 was done both by natural and
artificial means. The thirty kos long canal from Kizrabad to Safidun built by Firuz Tughlaq
which had fallen into disuse was in the time of Akbar reexcavated by Shaha- ud- din Ahmad
Khan to irrigate his jagir land. It was repaired and a new channel from Safidun to Delhi, 30
kos land was excavated during the reign of Shah Jahan . Jahangir also continued with the
water construction works at Burhanpur and Punjab. In the fear of decrease in agricultural
production, Mughal rulers made arrangements for cultivation. State undertook the
construction of irrigation canals and reservoirs. Irrigation works were put in charge of local
officers called daroghas of canals who were entrusted to keep them in good condition. Nahri- Bihist was a canal at Khizrabad and Nahr Faiz built during the reign of Shah Jahan reign
carried water from Yamuna and irrigated a large area of tract. Dams, reservoirs, tanks, canals
etc. were built for cultivation. Wells, rivers and rain water was also used for cultivation, Abul
Fazl says that wells were mostly used for irrigation. The peasants had the knowledge of
implements of agriculture and the ancient implements were also used for cultivation. In
Punjab and neighbouring parts irrigation was done by the means of Persian wheel. This
device was wooden pin-drum gearing device used in the thirteenth and fourteenth century. It
is said that in 1595 in Punjab, agriculture was mostly based on irrigation from wells. The
technique such as Persian wheel led to the prosperity of the Punjab region. Artificial devices
were used to draw water from wells. The peasants knew about the pulley and lever system.
Based on the lever principle form of an upright beam was kept in swinging position with one
of its end tied with a long rope and other carried a weight heavier than bucket. The Persian
wheel which was used in the sultunate period was the most advanced water lifting device and
it continued to be so in the Mughal period. Hoe, mattock and kudal which is even used
nowadays was also used in those days for cultivation.

Reformation in the practice of plantation:During the Mughal rule the fields were generally manured with
animal dung and intensive ploughing as done. Some instruments were used for cutting the
10

Irrigation system in mughal India, 02 November 2010, indianetzone.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

harvest. Ox as used for ploughing of fields. The peasants generally used old methods of
cultivation which might have been similar to that of the present days. An effective
agricultural practice such as dibbling was introduced that is dropping of seeds into holes
driven into grounds by sticks. The use of iron was minimal and wood was used
predominantly. The peasants knew about the rotation of crops and double cropping11. The
peasants raised two crops Kharif and Rabi in a year. Some special crops such as sugarcane,
indigo , cotton were grown. The food grains produced were wheat, barley, gram, rice, millets,
linseeds and pulses. Wheat was commonly grown in the provinces of Agra, Allahabad,
Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Malwa, and Ajmer. Weat is also grown in the Qandhar
region. The production of wheat depended on rainfall and irrigation. Barley as produced in
almost all parts of the country but not much in the parts of Bengal and Orissa. Gram was also
grown in almost all parts of the country. Rice grown in the regions where the climate was
tropical .and had plenty of rainfall and high temperature. Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Agra,
Allahabad, Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Khandesh, Berar, and Kashmir produced good quality
rice. Kar sukhdas and shali were superior quality rice. Fine quality rice was grown in
Kashmir and khandesh. Sukhdas rice as known for its flavor and good quality. Millets
consisted of cheaper grains such as jowar, bajra, kodon, sawan and mandua etc. These also
formed the integral part of the Kharif crops. These crops were grown in the regions of
deficient rainfall and poor soil condition regions. Jowar and Bajra were grown in the regions
of Malwa, Gujarat, Ajmer, Khandesh, Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Allahabad, Khandesh, Delhi,
Lahore, Agra, Awadh, Allahabad and Multan. Pulses were mainly grown in Bihar, Allahabad,
Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, Multan etc. The chief varieties of pulses were moong, month,
arhar,peas etc. These were grown in the autumn season. Linseed like mustard and alsi were
mostly grown in the subas of Agra, Allahabad, Lahore, Malwa, Ajmer, and Multan. Best
indigo was grown in the areas of Bayana and in the reign of Akbar it was sold at Rs. 10-12
per maunds and it as exported to Turkey and also to European countries. Bengal indigo came
into prominence in the seventeenth century. The Dutch and the Britishers exported the best
quality Bayana indigo. During the reign of Shahjahan the trade in indigo 12 had achieved the
status of a profitable business. In the months of August and September just after the rains, the
leaves are cut and gathered, cast in into long cisterns, pressed down with stones, and left
therein with water. The water is then passed out into another circular cistern. In the first year
11
12

Indira Gandhi National Open University, Expansion and Growth of Medieval Economy-1, aura.edu.in.
Foreign trade in mughal times, Chapter 5, rmsa.karnatakaeducation.org.

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of its growth, the leaves are tender and not having attained perfection, produce heavy reddish
Neel. In the second year it is called Cyrese (aree or sprouting from the roots). It is light and
of perfect violet colour but in the third year the herb declines, being worst of the three. It is
called Cattled ( Khutizal or Khuntri). The techniques and method used for the cultivation of
indigo is amazing for that period. It is obvious that the peasants were aware of the science of
production of indigo which was an integral part of the commerce of the Mughal period. Its
cultivation started in the region of Ahmadabad and Sukhraj. Further Aligarh, Itimadpur,
Khurja and Agra became important centres of indigo cultivation. During the reign of Jahangir
,indigo in the words of Sir Thomas Roe, as the prime commodity. Safflower an another
dye which was also cultivated on a large scale all throughout the Mughal rule. Safflower
during Akbar rule was cultivated in the regions of Agra, Allahabad, Aadh, Delhi, Mala,
Lahore and Multan. Sugarcane as grown in the regions of Agra, Allahabad, Awadh, Lahore,
Multan and Mala. Silk was extensively produced in the Bengal region 13 and it became a
centre of Sericulture and from their silk was exported to foreign countries also. In Akbars
time Bengal including Patna, as an important centre of the industry besides Ahmedabad and
Kashmir which used to export large quantities of silk to the other centres. Various varieties of
sugarcane such as paunda, black and ordinary were grown. Sugarcane was a costly and
superior crop14 and was sold at the prices double of it. The cost of paunda quality of
sugarcane as highest in Ajmer. In the Kota region the price of sugarcane as as high as 100
per maunds. Sugarcane cultivation had extended to the region of Aurangabad and several
places of Bihar. Cotton and indigo were grown in Malwa, Multan and Ajmer. Cotton was
more widely grown, though the aggregate of production was probably less but it is reasonable
to infer that most parts of the country were nearly self-sufficient in the matters of clothes.
Poppy was also cultivated in Agra, Awadh, Lahore, Multan and Ajmer. Poppy was exported
to Pegu. Various kinds of vegetables were grown such as spinach, cabbage, bethuwa,
ginger, peas, carrot, radish, lettuce, potato, lemon was grown in all parts of the country
especially Agra, Malwa, Ajmer, Bengal, Bihar. Pan ( betel leaves) were grown in Bengal,
Bihar, Awadh, and Berar. Tobbaco was introduced by the Portugese in the first fifty years of
the seventeenth century.The muslims opposed to smoking , the cultivation did not prosper .
The Dutch and the Portugese grew it in their colonies, latter Jahangir prohibited smoking in
1617 A.D. The cultivation of new fruits was encouraged by the Mughal rulers. Musk- melon ,
13
14

Padma Mohan Kumar, India - The Roaring Trade Partner of Yore, Gateway for India.
Kumar Ram, Industrial Economy: Technology Used In Sugar Industry During Mughal Age, June 2011.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

water melon, apple, grapes, date, figs, pomegranate , mango was grown. Jahangir introduced
the cultivation of pineapples. Guauva and custard apples was introduced by the Portugese.
The Honeydrew variety of water melon of colder regions was cultivated in the plains of
Northern India. Muhammad Rida of Khurasan raised the first crop of this variety of
watermelon who was honoured for this by Shah Jahan. Jahangir says cherry was not found in
Kashmir before the conquest of Akbar, his official Ali Quli Afshar brought it from Kabul and
propagated it by means of grafting. During the reign of Shahjahan, grafting method was used
extensively and three quality of oranges such as sangatara, kaulna, and narangi were
cultivated. Description of grafting of Mangoes and growing it in the Murshidabad region is
also found. The grafted variety of Alfonso developed by portugese in the western coast is
mentioned by traveler Nicolo Manucci in the seventeenth century. Jahangir built gardens in
Kashmir and Lahore. Babur introduced a good quality of rose of Gwalior to the gardens of
Agra. Gardens which were popular in Iran those were introduced in India by Babur. Gardens
were introduced in tombs and palaces. Shahjahan completed the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore
in 1637 and Jahangir introduced gardens in the Valleys of Kahmir. The formal gardens were
divided into four parts by paved paths. Forest produce15 included bamboo, sandal, babul,
spinewood, amber, gumlac. Wood was used for making furniture, jewellery, boxes, windos,
doors, ceilings, etc. Paper as a product made from wood pulp. During Akbars reign paper as
manufactured from wood pulp in Lahore and during Aurangzebs reign in Awadh region. Red
Bakham wood and drug were used for consumption and export. Certain other fragrant wood
which was grown were aloe-wood, amber, camphor, etc. The western ghats and Mysore
forests produced blackwood and sandalwood. White and yellow varieties of sandalwood were
grown. White sandalwood came into prominence during the reign of Jahangir. Saffron
cultivated in the two districts of Kashmir to Pampur in the district of Moraraj to the south of
Srinagar and Paraspur near Indrakot. Spices such as cardamom, ginger, cloves, nutmeg,
cinnamon and cardmon was grown in the Malabar Coast. Spices were exported to Ormuz.
Cardmon was grown in the areas of Bijapur and ginger in all parts of India. Cardamom was
sold at 52- 80 dams per seer and was considered as a costly spice. Pepper was grown in the
regions of Bijapur, Malabar and Cochin, in Champaran region of Bihar. Pepper which was
grown in Assam was sent to Surat and from their it was exported to Ormuz, Basra and Red
Sea. Cloves and nutmeg were also sent to Surat by the Dutch and exported to Europe. Mughal
Emperors had a fetish for fruits and special attention was paid to the cultivation of fruits.
15

History of forests in India, edugreen.teri.res.in.

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Fruit Orchards were treated in a special manner. A rate of rupees 3-3/4 per Bigha was
charged even if their production was not as expected Exception was made if the orchards
were planted with grapes and almonds, in which demand was made only when trees bore
fruits. If the maintenance of the orchard was costly and more than the actual yield than no
charges were made on such orchards. Spices Prices Cloves 60 dams per seer Cardamons 52
dams per seer Cuminseed 2 dams per seer Aniseed 2 dams per seer Turmeic 10 dams per
seer. The agricultural patterns in the mughal period determined social condition of the
peasants.

Status of peasants in Mughal reign:As science always affects the society similarly agriculture science
affected the social condition of the peasants16. In the social hierarchy peasants17 belonged to
the lower segment of the society. Cultivators were known as asami, raya or mazaram.
Peasants were also known as khudakhasta, Pahikashta, Muqarra. Basically the peasants were
of three classes Riayah Khudkastha who had field and house in different villages, Riayah
Pahikashta, who had fields and house in different villages, Muqarrari Riayah were those who
had possession larger than they could cultivate. Housing, clothing, shelter determined the
social condition of the social class. The peasants of Bihar used primarily languta and the
women wore short dhotis. The clothing of the people in Bihar and Bengal was small, in
Bengal men and women went naked except for the loin cloth and in Orissa women used cloth
which did not cover anything expect for the private parts. Bengal huts were covered with
straw, they made mud walls. In Orissa the walls were covered with reeds while in Bihar the
roofs were covered with tiles. Around the Malwa region peasants lived in small huts. If the
belongings in the huts are to be considered then it only included pots and some cots, etc. The
food habits were also very simple. Rice, jowar, and bajra were the main cereals. During the
reign of the Mughals it as during the greatest ruler of the Mughal Empire, Akbar the Great
took stringent steps to improve the condition of the agriculture and in this way enhanced the
revenue of the Mughal empire. The Bihar especially during that time was very fertile and
supported a huge army of cavalry and the infantry. Bihar as known for its good quality of rice
16

Lee, Jin Hyuck, India in the 18th Century, Korean Minjok Leadership Academy International Program, June
2009.
17
Historical background, Chapter 1, shodhganga inflibnet.

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Kisari a crop resembling pulse was eaten by the poor people. Betel crop grown in Bihar
known as Maghi was known for its fragrance, colour and taste. At Maner a beautiful flower
known as Muchakand was grown. In the sarkar of Hajipur the fruits known as Kathal and
Barhal are grown in abundance. References of sarkar of Hajipur, Saran, Tirhut, Rohtas is
found from where huge amount of revenue was collected that supported the army.
Thus the farmers and indirectly agriculture as science helped the
Mughal emperors to maintain large armies and the mansabdari system. With the development
of the agriculture science, revenue departments commutation and collection also developed.
The farmers had to live on a bare minimum and maximum of the produce was collected by
the officers of the revenue department18. The peasants held land of reasonable sizes as the
pressure upon the land as not so much as compared to that of the population. The forests were
also a source of income for the farmers. Forests where the source of fuel, timber, floers,
herbs, honey and even some fruits. The peasants to support themselves financially also
depended on the cottage industries such as handicrafts. However, the peasants were taxed
heavily sometimes directly and sometimes by intermediaries, the Amils had various functions
to perform. The registers kept by patari, Karkun and muqaddam as cheked by the amils. The
duties of the Bitikchi as similar to that of the amils. The Potdar or Khizandar collected
revenues from the peasant and kept the treasury in safe custody. Similar other revenue
officers are Karkuns, Qanungos, and Patwaris. Each village had officer named as Muqaddam
and Patwari who maintained revenue records. Assessment of land was done on the basis of
measurement and crops After the assessment of the revenue it was converted into cash with
price schedules. For this purpose land was divided into Dasturs. The provinces were divided
into Sarkars or districts and that of a district into parganas or tehsil. Officer recruited to
collect revenue at the district level as Amalguzar and officers at the tehsil level ere known as
Amils. Each cultivator received a patta or title deed . The land revenue as payable in cash or
kind twice in a year. Besides regular revenue the farmers had to sometimes levy Abwabs
which can be classified under following heads- duties on the sale of the produce, fees on the
sale of immovable property, prerequisite taken by the officers by their on sake and fees or
commission taken for the state, license-tax for carrying on certain trades, forced subscription,
imposts on Hindus etc. Sharing as the method of taxation were share in the produce as made
when the crop as standing. The other method of measurement as called Batai or
18

Bhaskar Sunil, Revinue- The mughal empire, 29 November 2009, blogspot.in.

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GhallaBakhshi . In Batai state demand was 4 heaps if , 3 heaps if 1/3, 2 heaps if . Cash
payment was demanded by the peasants which was troublesome for the farmers of the
seventeenth century. The state demand of the revenue as 1/3 but it was greater than in actual
practice. In some areas it seems that the state demand reached 1/2of the produce. In Gujarat
and the areas which were fertile the demand went up as high as part and in barren lands it
as less than .The Khalisa lands after Akbars reign the assessment went up as high as .
During Jahangir reign it reached less than 5% and during Shah Jahan reign it as 7 % and
again during the reign of Aurangzeb it again increased to 1/5 part. The prices varied in the
various parts of India The foodgrains were cheaper in Nortern India than in Gujarat. The
prices of essential commodities were low. The prices showed regional and periodical
variations. This was due to transportation difficulties in carrying bulkier products from one
place to another. Every village thus tried to be self sufficient in itself. Sometimes in the same
region the fluctuation in the prices as seen. When the court was moved in the 43rd regnal year
from Lahore Akbar reduced the rates of the demand of taxation. The average prices of
principal foodgrains towards the end of Akbars reign as calculated on the basis of 82.3 lbs
equivalent to one maund. The agriculture and the taxation determined the socio economic
condition of the peasants. Village was the smallest working unit for the peasants. The villages
known as gaon and mauza had wide range of variations in the areas of the villages. It was
divided into fields and plots which were marked and raised. The peasants gave each plot a
particular name. The economic condition of the farmers determined their social condition
also. The economic condition also showcased their living standards such as fooding, clothing
and housing. It is mentioned that farmers has the worse condition of the house. It is also
found that men and women also went naked expect for the loin cloth. The food habits of the
farmers was also simple. Rice, jowar, bajra, were the food crops and cereals eaten by the
peasant class. Few vegetables were eaten and pot herbs also formed part of the staple diet of
the farmers. Ghee formed the integral part of the diet of people in the regions of Bengal and
Western India. Gur was consumed more in the villages than sugar. Salt was very expensive
and the cloves were the cheapest. Cloves were also used by women to make jewellery. Toddy
drinking and tobacco smoking was used as intoxicants. Thus, we see the producers of the
food themselves sometimes went starved and lead a simple and frugal live. The peasants19
had to bear the brunt of the taxation, floods, Famines, wild beasts, etc. The condition of the
peasants socially and economically was very poor. The burden of the taxes made their
19

The Mughal Empire Society, library.thinkquest.org.

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condition worse. The economic set up of the Mughal empire was based on agriculture and the
peasants. The economy largely based on the revenues collected by the farmers .The rate of
the land revenue demand of it depended on the mughal administration. However, sometimes
the revenue rates was so high that it was not enough for the survival of the peasants.
Sometimes the peasants were left with bare minimum for their survival.
But the land policy of Akbar was peasant friendly20. He
introduced quality assessment to ensure land revenue for his expanding empire. Loans and
implements were provided to the farmers to encourage them. Taqavi loans were provided to
farmers in case of emergency. However, not adequate steps were taken to improve the
economic condition of the farmers. When the farming season ended farmers used to leave
their villages and work as basket makers, weaver, or water carrier The society of pre- british
period had more self-sufficiency and was adorned with respect and admiration. The condition
of the peasants was comparatively good during the reign of Akbar.

Advantages of the reformative measures during Mughal reign:During the rule period of Mughals agricultural sector in India has
gone through a very crucial stage of development, as this sector is being unified and various
measures has been brought throughout the country. As it is seen that Mughals had concurred
almost all the parts of the country and agriculture being the main source of revenue so
development was mandatory for them to develop this sector inorder to increase revenue.
Various new crops and new reformative measures introduced during
that period which can be said to be among the most important contributions made towards
Indian agricultural sector. India being among one of the largest countries of the having a huge
agricultural land but all those land was not utilized properly and with the reformative
measures by the mughals, all those unused land and the under used land are brought up and
better utilization measures were imposed on them by acquiring the unutilized land
cultivating on it. Steps taken up during the reign of Akbar was a very remarkable in this
aspect of reformation, as during his period lands were being categorised into different heads
according to its potentiality and various alternative crops were being given to produce.
20

Garbe Richard Von, Akbar Emperor India, Hinduwebsite.

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Moreover the multi cropping system was been given more emphasis during that period.
Before the period of mughals generally only one crops were being cultivated in a certain area
moreover in a year only one crop is being cultivated, but with the measures taken by Mughals
it has flourished multicropping system whereby farmers started cultivating two or three
different crops in a year making the whole India more or less self sufficient in almost all the
agricultural produce. The practice of multi cropping yielded more inturn resulting in
generation more of revenue. The irrigation system in those period was also given importance,
various cannels has been built inorder to facilitate some dry land with water which resulted in
reuse of dry land in production of various cops. Nahr-i- Bihist was a canal at Khizrabad and
Nahr Faiz built during the reign of Shah Jahan reign carried water from Yamuna and irrigated
a large area of tract. Dams, reservoirs, tanks, canals etc. were built for cultivation, Wells,
rivers and rain water was also used for cultivation, wells were mostly used for irrigation. This
improvement in irrigation had helped farmers in using those land which did not had a proper
water facilities and was left uncultivated, thus it resulted in increase in the production.

Disadvantages of the reformative measures during Mughal reign:Although the advantages seen above, but it is backed huge
demerits. Firstly, there was a huge farmers rights violation during those Mughal reign,
during the reign of Mughals although there was huge production and self-sufficiency in food
still the farmers had to live a very poor life. In the reign of Mughals the farmers were
regarded as the lowest category of people in the hierarchy of the society. Moreover the tax
which was levied on them was so high that, it left the farmers with resources to meet the
house expenses at least. The land revenue payable was twice a year which was an excessive
burden on the farmers in some case where if farmers are not able to pay due to epidemics or
any reason the revenue, their lands were captured by jamindars appointed in order to collect
taxes from farmers. Moreover there was no secular system employed in collection of
revenues as the Hindu Farmers were taxed more than that of muslim farmers. No rebate was
given to farmers if any floods, Famines, wild beasts, destroys the harvest. It was taxed as high
as 4 heaps if , 3 heaps if 1/3, 2 heaps if and above all Cash payment was demanded,
which was troublesome for the farmers of the seventeenth century. The state demand of the
revenue as 1/3 but it was greater than in actual practice. In some areas the state demand
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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

reached 1/2of the produce. In Gujarat and the areas which were fertile the demand went up as
high as part and in barren lands it as less than . During Akbar reign there was some
reduction of taxes but still it was so high that farmers was left with least than they deserve.

Conclusion:The political and economic unification of India under the Mughal rule
and establishment of law and order over extensive areas created the favourable environment
for trade and commerce of agricultural products. The improvement of transport and
communications by the Mughals had a great role to play in Indian agrarian economy. Deccan
was the famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpursikri and Lahore were the main
centres of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign
trade. Agriculture was the most significant factors forming the basis of a strong economy.
The significant features of agriculture was firstly, that a large number of crops were
cultivated by the farmers and secondly, the life of peasant life was a combination of
agricultural work with manufacturing processes. The reformation brought in cropping
structure also had great role to play in the improvement of agriculture, it almost unified the
whole of the princely states in the country and brought a static reformation towards all. As
before India was divided by different princely states whereby there was problem in
implementing unified measures but in mughla rein, they concurred almost all the states which
made them in implementing a unified reformation to whole of India. The irrigation
reformation during mughals was a great reformation done during that period, with the
building of cannels even the land which was inaccessible of water was brought to production.
Although these improvements yet it left Indian economy in darkness, as excessive taxed was
extracted by the mughals and they framed policies which was not secular, moreover farmers
were taxed so high those days that it left even a penny with them to lead a proper family life.

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Aggrian Reforms in Mughal Period

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