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P a r t 5 : Voi c e
(2)
The active-passive relation involves two levels of grammatical description: the level of
the verb phrase, and the level of clause. What happens at each of these two levels when
an active construction is turned into the passive?
(3)
As is obvious from the above examples, and the structural schema, one of the most
conspicuous aspects of the passive constructions is the difference in the order of the
clause elements referring to the two main protagonists in the above events: the passive
construction in (3) b. begins with NP2. Voice can thus be defined as a grammatical
category that makes it possible in English to view the action of a sentence either from
the point of view of the doer or the agent, i.e. of the subject of the sentence, or from the
point of view of the undergoer, the affected/effected entity, i.e. of the patient of the
activity or its recipient. This other point of view takes in syntactic terms one of the
objects as its vantage point. The former point of view is expressed by the active voice,
the latter by the passive voice.
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Part 5: Passive
In what follows we shall take a closer look at the changes that may be observed in
pairs of sentences standing in the active-passive relationship by examining the two
grammatical levels in turn, beginning with the verb phrase and then proceeding to the
clause level.
appropriate tense form of the auxiliary be (or some other auxiliary, such as get);
In other words, the difference between the two voice categories is that the passive adds
a form of the auxiliary followed by the past participle of the main verb, and thus
invariably results in a more complex VP. Sometimes get can be used as the auxiliary.
All tenses of the common/simple aspect (including combinations with the perfective)
are found in the passive voice, but only two of the VPs exhibiting the progressive aspect
are actually attested, the rest being generally considered too clumsy to be used
(although, strictly speaking, grammatical). The present perfect progressive passive is
thus simply replaced by the present perfect non/progressive passive, i.e. (6) b. below
functions as a passive counterpart of has been taking in.
(4) a. I am taken in...
b. I am being taken...
(5) a. I was taken in...
b. I was being taken in...
(6) a. I have been taken in
b. ??I have been being taken in...
(7) a. I had been taken in...
b. ??I had been being taken in...
(8) a. I shall be taken in...
b. ??I shall be being taken in...
(9) a. I shall have been taken in...
b. ??I shall have been being taken in...
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The passive auxiliary is normally be. It can in some contexts be replaced by get
(which is not an auxiliary, properly speaking). Try to specify the limitations to which the
latter is subject. Study the following sets of data:
(10) a. The cat got run over (by a bus).
b. James got beaten last night.
c. James got caught (by the police).
The get-passive is avoided in formal style, and is less frequent than the be-passive
regardless of style and medium. Get is more common as a 'resulting copula' in
constructions that look like passives, but which could not be expanded by an agent:
(11) a. We are getting bogged down in all sorts of problems.
b. I have to get dressed before 8 o'clock.
c. I don't want to get mixed up with police again.
Such sentences may be analysed syntactically as follows:
(12) a. IS gotV completely confusedC.
b. IS wasV completely confusedC.
Copular constructions like those in (11) and (12) a. are called pseudo-passives.
What is the implication that often obtains in examples like (13-14)? Notice that this
also has to do with the presence of an explicit agent.
(13) He was/?got taught a lesson on the subjunctive (by our new teacher).
(14) How did that window get opened?
It is very frequently the case that get places emphasis on the passive subject referent's
condition (often an unfavourable one for which the subject is also in a sense
responsible, i.e. the event is not solely due to the agents action), or reflects an
unfavourable attitude towards the event. These implications may also account for its
distribution: it is less common with expressed agents, cf. (13). Sentence (14) is normally
interpreted as implying that the window should have been left shut.
Notice that the idea of passive can sometimes be conveyed even without a special
passive auxiliary, e.g. in the causative have constructions there is only have, in both the
active and the passive.
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Part 5: Passive
SUBJact is unknown or fairly low in referentiality, i.e. vague (somebody, one, they,
etc.):
(17) a. Milk is used for making butter and cheese.
b. The matter will be discussed tomorrow.
c. English is spoken all over the world.
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When the subject is heavy, i.e. long and complex in terms of the number of words,
especially when it is a coordinate structure consisting of two NPs linked by and. In
accordance with the principle of end-weight, such long structures are better placed
at the end of the sentence, as happens e.g. in sentences with extraposed clausal
subjects. The passive construction is an ideal means of repositioning such subjects.
When we take greater interest in the object (patient) than in the subject (agent) of
the action, i.e. when the result of the activity is in the fore. Note that en participles
that help form passives are very close to adjectives, whose primary function is to
refer to states:
(18) a. This poem was written by Keats.
b. Our cat was chased by the neighbour's dog.
When the subject of the active construction is not mentioned on account of modesty
or tact (especially 1st person in writing):
(19) Enough has been said here of a subject which will be treated more fully in a
subsequent chapter.
Passivisation provides us with very interesting and relevant data concerning the
status of indirect objects. If both objects are present, it appears that two passive
constructions are possible, since either can be made subject of the passive:
(21) a. I gave Mary a flower.
b. A flower was given to Mary.
c. Mary was given a flower.
It should be remembered that, as we have seen above, the passive construction in
English is not choosy about what becomes subject:
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Part 5: Passive
11.R. Readings
11.R.1. Recommended reading
Svartvik, J., G. Leech (1975: 676-682)
Thompson, A.J., A.V. Martinet (1960: 302-306)
11.R.2. Further reading
Leech, G. (1971: 146-154)
Greenbaum, S., R. Quirk (1990: 3.25-25)
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Part 5: Passive
corresponding to A man took away the mad dog we get the passive The mad dog was
taken away. A passive clause may include an NP, introduced with by, corresponding to
the transitive subject (e.g. by a man), but it does so only relatively seldom (in formal,
written English, more than 80 per cent of passives are agentless, and the figure is
undoubtedly higher for colloquial, spoken styles).
There is always a meaning difference between active and passive constructions.
There are some transitive verbs which - for semantic or other reasons - never occur in
the passive () and, for many verbs, ability to passivise depends on the nature of the
object. As Bolinger (1977: 10) puts it: We can say George turned the pages or The
pages were turned by George; something happens to the pages in the process. But when
we say George turned the corner we cannot say *The corner was turned by George - the
corner is not affected, it is only where George was at the time. On the other hand, if one
were speaking of some kind of marathon or race or game in which a particular corner is
thought of as an objective to be taken, then one might say That corner hasn't been
turned yet. I can say The stranger approached me or I was approached by the stranger
because I am thinking of how his approach may affect me - perhaps he is a panhandler.
But if a train approaches me I do not say *I was approached by the train, because all I
am talking about is the geometry of two positions.
The passive is a marked construction, used according to one or more of a number of
factors that are mentioned in 9.1. A passive should ideally be quoted together with its
discourse and sociocultural context; sometimes, a putative passive which sounds odd
when spoken in isolation is immediately acceptable when placed in an appropriate
context. When judging the examples quoted in this chapter, the reader is asked to keep
his or her imagination on a loose rein, adding a bit of prior discourse and attributing to
the speaker a motive for using a passive construction.
11.R.3.3. Dwight Bolinger: On the passive in English. In: The First LACUS Forum
1974., ed. By A. Makkai and V. Becker Makkai, Columbia, SC: Hornbeam
Press, 1975, pages 75-76.
Though most of the examples I have cited in the second half of this paper have used
either simple verbs or monotransitive prepositional verbs, ditransitives obey the same
principles. A couple of illustrations should suffice. It is normal, for instance, to service a
table by laying a tablecloth on it, but a book on a table is merely there. On the other
hand, a shelf is made to be loaded with books, not ordinarily with tablecloths:
Which tables have been laid tablecloths on?
*Which tables have been laid books on?
Which shelves have been put books on?
*Which shelves have been put tablecloths on?
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The last example suggests ludicrously that the shelves have been provided with
tablecloths. Although all four examples are lowered in acceptability by the addition of
the definite article (one usually services a table with tablecloths, indefinite, not with
tablecloths, definite), the relative acceptability remains the same and the contrasts show
more clearly:
?
11.E. Exercises
11.E.1. Rewrite the sentences in the passive.
1 Everyone knows this fact very well.
2 They opened the theatre only last month.
3 People will soon forget it.
4 You must write the answers in ink.
5 Someone has taken two of my books.
6 We have already filled the vacancy.
7 What should one do in such cases?
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Part 5: Passive
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Part 5: Passive
8 Your lawyer's advice should have been obtained before any decision was made by you
for the matter to be taken further.
9 He needn't have been caused so much distress by being told by the army authorities
that his brother had died in action, as it was later discovered that a mistake had been
made as to the missing man's identity.
10 Information about the source from which the startling news had been obtained was
withheld by the reporter.
11.E.5. Answer the questions using a passive form of the verbs in brackets, together
with a suitable adverbial particle (off, on, in, on, out, up, etc.)
1 What must be done with a bad tooth? (pull)
2 What has to be done with dirty crockery and cutlery at the end of a meal? (wash)
3 What should happen if mistakes appear in a student's work? (point)
4 What might happen if you crossed a busy road without looking? (knock)
5 What would happen to alighted candle if there were a sudden gust of wind? (blow)
6 What may happen to a man who has committed his first offence? (let)
7 What happens if negotiations look like being unsuccessful? (break)
8 What happens to traffic in a traffic jam? (hold)
11.E.6. Rewrite the sentences using the passive form of the verbs in italics.
1 They gave up the search after three hours.
2 They ought to have pointed that out to me at the very beginning.
3 No one brought up that question at the meeting.
4 Someone should look into the matter.
5 It was clear that the parents had brought the child up well.
6 We had to put off our visit until later.
7 I was shocked to hear that someone had broken into your house.
8 Don't speak until someone speaks to you.
11.E.7. Rewrite the sentences in the passive, making the italicized words the
subject of the sentence.
1 They gave the oldest councillor the freedom of the city.
2 They denied access to the secret documents to all but a few.
3 Someone showed the child how to use the telephone.
4 They declared him 'persona non grata' and allowed him only 48 hours to leave the
country.
5 They gave him artificial respiration.
6 Why didn't they offer him the job?
7 Didn't they promise you a rise in salary at the beginning of the year?
8 Someone left him a legacy of $ 10,000.
9 When he looked at the stamps, he found they had sold him forgeries.
10 Why did they pay you for doing the job?
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Part 5: Passive