Nation-building in Singapore: AY2014-5

HY2229/SSA2204: Lecture 10
BECOMING SINGAPOREAN: ETHNICITY AND LANGUAGE
A. Introduction: Ethnicity and Language in Singapore
1. Prevalent in various aspects of Singaporean society
a)

Public holidays, e.g. Deepavali, Chinese New Year, Hari Raya Puasa, Christian
holidays

b) Self-help groups, e.g. Mendaki, Chinese Development Assistance Council,

Singapore Indian Development Association, Eurasian Association
c)

Politics, e.g. Group Representation Constituency (GRC)

d) What other examples can you think of, or have had experience with before?
2.

Issues and Questions

a) Why are ethnicity and language issues so prevalent in Singapore society today?
Due to racial history of Singapore
b) How has Singapores historical experiences shaped its ethnicity and language
policies?
c)

3.

Are ethnicity and language issues inherently divisive? Can differences be

reconciled?

Ethnicity and Language issues directly affect nation-building in Singapore

a)

Defence, Economy and Government, Education, Politics, Society in general

b) Divisive or Unifying?
B. Historical Experiences
1.

Colonialism and its legacy

a)

2.

The Plural Society

Post-Second World War and Decolonization

a)

Political awakening, local self-determination

b) Violence
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i.

Maria Hertogh riots (December 1950)

ii. Race riots (July and September 1964): How is this event commemorated
today?
c)

Preservation of individual language and culture

i.

Chinese education: Boycott of government exams (e.g. 1951 and 1961);

Nanyang University
reforms of the education system from 6 3 3 to 6 4 led to boycott in 1960s
ii. Chinese students were also involved in demonstrations against National
Service registration in May 1954; provided support to striking workers
during Hock Lee Bus riots in May 1955; were the focal point of the
Chinese Middle Schools unrest in October 1956
iii. Question: Was it ethnic chauvinism, or attempts to protect and preserve
Chinese language and culture?
iv. Similarly, was it ethnic chauvinism or political? that led to the 1964 race
riots?
C. Impact on Post-1965 Nation-Building
1.

Wariness after August 1965

a)

Stark realities: Singapores geo-political position, e.g. Chinese-majority island

state in a sea of Malay

b) Feelings of vulnerability accentuated by manner of separation, on-going

konfrontasi with Indonesia (ended in 1966), need for economic stability, and
recent experiences
2.

Measures taken
a)

Legal measures: Government responsible to care for the interests of the racial
and religious minorities in Singapore
i.

Article 152(1) of Singapore Constitution - Presidential Council of Minority

Rights in 1970

152(1) It shall be the responsibility of the Government constantly to care for the interests of the
racial and religious minorities in Singapore.

ii. Special position of the Malays: enshrined in Singapores constitution, e.g.

Articles 152(2) and 153
152(2) The Government shall exercise its functions in such manner as to recognise the special
position of the Malays, who are the indigenous people of Singapore, and accordingly it shall be
the responsibility of the Government to protect, safeguard, support, foster and promote their
political, educational, religious, economic, social and cultural interests and the Malay language.
153. The Legislature shall by law make provision for regulating Muslim religious affairs and
for constituting a Council to advise the President in matters relating to the Muslim religion.
iii. Malay as national language since 1959, e.g. national anthem, military drill
commands
b) Emotive measures: S. Rajaratnam and the Pledge
i.
3.

Original draft of pledge asked Singaporeans to forget differences of

race...

Defence
a)

Malays and National Service during 1970s and 1980s; until recently, absence
from sensitive vocations in Singapore Armed Forces

b) Unintentional or otherwise, creates a social hierarchy based on ethnicity

4.

Economy and Government

a)

Inheritance more or less the colonial division of labour according to ethnicity,

buttressed by English as the working language of post-1965 economy and
government
i.

Chinese and Indians dominated the economy, British as political

administrators

ii. Malays not as involved in either during colonial period

b) Marginalization of certain individuals and groups in society, either by ethnicity,
by language, or both
5.

Education
a)

Education ideally to provide a level playing field via meritocracy, e.g.

opportunities for everyone

b) Continuation of education policies, e.g. equal treatment of four languages in

education, bilingual policy (learn certain subject in your mother tongue)
c)

Undermined by parents freedom to choose and circumstances in post-1965

Singapore, i.e. English as the lingua franca of government and economy

D. Late 1970s to Present Day

1.

The Goh Report on Education, published in 1979

a)

Preference given to Chinese language?

i.

Special Assistance Plan (SAP) Schools, aka former Chinese-medium

schools can learn subjects in chinese within school curriculum

ii. Malay, Tamil and other Indian languages as First Language? Had to
take it outside school hours
b) Implications of switch to English language. e.g. Westernization, impact on
values and social outlook
c)
2.

1979 Report on Moral Education: Religious Knowledge, including Confucian

Ethics, introduced in 1982 made non compulsory in 1987

Return to Cultural Roots & Increased Ethnic Consciousness (1979 to 1999)

a)

Speak Mandarin Campaign in 1979 85% speaks dialet back at home

i.

Response to implications of Goh Report and pending merger of Nanyang

University and University of Singapore (in 1980)

ii. What happened to Chinese dialects? Main household language fall from
close to 60% in 1980 to 37% in 1990 Other ethnic communities?
b) Organizations along ethnic lines: MENDAKI (Majlis Pendidikan Anak-anak
Islam; Council for the Education of Muslim Children ) set up in 1982, SINDA
(1991), Association of Muslim Professionals (AMP) in 1991, CDAC (1992)
Return to cultural roots
3.

Unexpected Developments
a)

Movement of ethnic groups and voting patterns

i.

Multiracial Electoral Politics: Group Representation Constituency (GRC)

in 1988

ii. Housing: Ethnic Integration Policy in 1989

b) Coincided with changes in education policy: insensitive evangelism,
religious revivalism around the world
i.

Maintenance of Religious Harmony Bill in 1990

ii. Reaffirmed Singapore as a secular state
iii. Referenced the Maria hertogh riots of 1950
iv. State power to intervene
v. Presidential council for religious harmony

vi. White Paper included report by the Internal Security Department on

incidents of inter-faith proselytization and intra-faith and community
tensions
vii. Christian proselytization outside hindu temple (1986)
viii. Christian and Muslim proselytization (1986)
ix. Muslim converts
x. intra faith tension within hindu and Christian communities
xi. Religion and politics, e.g priest call for social action, supported Marxist
conspiracy of 1987 ( using the pulpit to comment on government policis)
c)

Reversals in 1991 General Elections

i.

Singapore Democratic Party (SDP) and Workers Party (WP) increased

number of seats in Parliament to 4

ii. Silent majority backlash against policies that did not favour them, e.g.
attack on languages they used at home (dialects), downgrading of Chinese
language in education (e.g. end of Chinese-medium education from 1987)
4.

Global Developments (and Local Implications)

a)

Economic liberalization of China (after 1989)

i.

Greater emphasis on Chinese culture and heritage in the 1990s

b) September 11, 2001 and its aftermath

i.

Threat along religious / communitarian lines

E. Tensions: Ethnicity and Language, and Nation-building

1.

Idea of Meritocracy vs. Legacy of Colonial Society

a)

Clashes with socio-economic situation of individuals and communities

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b) English as working language of economy and government

2.

Ethnic self-help and Nation-building - does it make sense?

a)

Perceiving Singapore society in terms of ethnicity and language: divisive or

unifying? Ethnic self help seems divisive while nation building is a unifying act

b) Eugene Tans periodizations: Singaporean Singapore, or the hyphenated

Singaporean? Singaporean Singapore or a Chinese Singapore , malay
sngapore
c)

Have assumptions underpinning continuation of earlier policies changed?

Example of Viswa Sadasivan and Lee Kuan Yews response in parliament in
2009

d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

Self help groups based on ethnicity

SAP schools
Malay-muslims in the SAF
Cultural elitism
Apparent need to maintain racial distribution in Singapore Society
An ethnic minority (Prime minister always Chinese)
i.

Singapore Pledge: Ideology or Aspiration?

ii. Lees response: the role of history in Singapores approach to ethnicity,

language and culture, and in turn, nation-building