PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

Modular Approach
BY: PROF. GENARA B. PACANA
MODULE 2: Facilitating Student Learning
I.

Introduction
Teachers can do a better job of helping young children develop intellectually by providing them with opportunities for
self-development and self-expression in the social, emotional, and physical areas of life. All of these aspects of
development are interrelated and we cannot expect them to advance more rapidly along cognitive lines than they do in
other aspects. Educational trend brought about by a number of ground-breaking researches tells us that a teacher can be
effective or efficient in facilitating human/student learning if he has a good working knowledge of the learners
development and ways of learning. In this module, the basic developmental and learning theories are discussed.

II.

Objectives
1. Explain the different theories of development.
2. Use these theories to explain students behavior inside and outside the classroom.
3. Justify the different theories of learning through concrete learning situations.
4. Make a comparative analysis of the impact of behavioral and cognitive theories to the teaching-learning process.

III.

Instructions
1. Read thoroughly the discussion/power point presentation.
2. Research on other theories of development and of learning in order to have a wider view about human growth and
development.
3. Answer the pre-test and post-test.
4. Perform the requested activities efficiently.
Pretest

IV.

Multiple Choice: Read the questions well and find out what is asked. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Children in general will be ready to learn abstract concepts during:
A. sensorimotor stage
C. formal operations of the mind
B. preoperational stage
D. concrete operation of the mind
2. Based on Eriksons psychosocial theory, the child could basically learn how to trust thru:
A. constant prayer of his family
C. giving him a reward after a good work
B. touch therapy of the mother
D. spontaneous games with age mates
3. I am able to function as a separate person. This statement applies in which of the
following psychosocial stages?
A. Trust vs. Mistrust
C. Initiative vs. Guilt
B. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
D. Industry vs. Inferiority
4. Which the following high school students will probably have the most problems in school?
A. Cynthia, who works a weekend job for ten hours per week
B. Mario, who works after school in job related to his school major for 1 hour per day
C. Becky, who works 30 hours a week in factory
D. Julio, who works in his parents business, which he hopes to take over some day
5. The argument that children learn aggressive behavior from the violence shown on television is
most consistent with which theory?
A. Skinners operant conditioning theory
C. Kkohlbergs moral reasoning theory
B. Piagets cognitive=-developmental theory
D. Banduras social cognitive theory
6. Psychologist revealed that most adolescents who attempted to commit suicide have:
A. displayed significantly deviant behavior for some period of time before the event
B. displayed normal behavior up until the time of the suicidal behavior
C. few if there are stressors in their lives
D. no real opportunity to kill themselves
7. A characteristic common to vulnerable children is:
A. an easy temperament
C. a high IQ
B. an insecure attachment
D. good social skills
8. Two criteria are usually used in deciding whether a give child is functioning at a mentally
retarded level. The first is IQ and the second is _________.
A. adaptive behavior
C. achievement test scores
B. EQ
D. social skills
9. Based on researches, who of the following children, all of whom are growing up in poor,
tough neighborhoods, has the best chance of growing up without any problems with delinquency?
A. Juan, who is having 5 brothers and 5 sisters
B. Patrick, who is living with his grandparents
C. Gregor, whose mother is devoted to him
D. Saul, who is living with his father
10. Parents who pick up on their childs signals appropriately, and then react in sensitive ways to the childs needs are
described as:
A. anxious
C. responsive
B. controlling
D. loving

V.

Discussion
A. The Nature of the Learner
If teaching is to be interpreted as the process of stimulating, directing and guiding the learner, then the teacher
should have a deeper knowledge and understanding of the psychological principles governing human behavior.
Jean Jacques Rousseau on his part, pointed out that by nature the learner is good. Philosophers also
emphasized that by composition, every individual is a union of sentient body and rational soul. This body experiences
sensations and feels pleasure or pain. On the other hand the soul becomes the source of spiritual abstraction, selfreflection, and free rational volition. (Corpuz, 2007). Teachers then need to nurture both the body and the soul.
Characteristics of the learner.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

The learner is a unique individual.

Each learner has physical, biological, psychological, social and spiritual needs.
The learner follows a natural pattern of developmental tasks.
The learner has tremendous potentialities to be explored.
The learner has an impressionistic mind.
The learner is bombarded by sense stimuli and uncensored influences.
The learner is a person in context (family, community, and nation).
The learner is a human being with a soul.

B. Fundamental Equipment of the Learner

All learners are equipped with the cognitive and appetitive faculties. These faculties can be summed up into the
following elements:
1. Ability
This determines students capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use and application.
2. Aptitude
This is the students innate talent or gift that indicates a natural capacity to learn certain skills.
3. Interest
This refers to the students attraction or strong appeal to a certain activity.
4. Family and Cultural backgroundStudents who come from different socio-economic background manifest a wide range of behavior due to
differences in upbringing and practices.
5. Attitudes
This refers to the individuals perspective and disposition. Given an exposure to the same situation, students think
or react differently depending on their personal characteristics.
Examples of Positive Attitudes:
5.1. Curiosity-curious students are eager to learn
5.2. Responsibility-responsible students pursue their assigned tasks to
completion despite personal constraints
5.3. Creativity-students with creative minds are capable of generating their own ideas on how to do things.
5.4. Persistence-persistent students sustain interest in a learning activity not mindful of the extra time and effort
being spent.
6. Others Inborn Tendencies of the learner
gregariousness, imitation, play, collecting and hoarding, competition, manipulation
C. Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner postulated that cognitive development is strongly linked to input from
others. He added that all individuals are capable of developing at least seven domains.
Intelligence
Description
Samples of Occupation
Logical-mathematical
Sensitivity to & capacity to discern,
Scientist,
mathematician,
(number/reasoning smart)
logical or numerical patters
engineers,
computer
programmers,
researchers,
accountants
Linguistic (word smart)
Sensitivity to the meaning & order of
Poet, journalist, writer, teacher,
words & to spoken & written language
lawyer, politician, translator
Spatial (picture smart)
Ability to think in pictures, to perceive Navigators,
sculptors,
visual
the visual world accurately & recreate
artists,
inventors,
architects,
or alter it in the mind or on paper; the
interior designers, mechanics,
skills include reading, writing,
engineers
understanding charts & graphs; puzzle
building; have a good sense of
direction, sketching, painting,
constructing, fixing, designing,
engineering
Musical (music smart)
Ability to understand & create music;
Singers, composers, disc jockey
involve skill in the performance,
composition, & appreciation of musical
patterns; have the ability to produce &
appreciate music

Bodily-Kinesthetic ( body smart)

Interpersonal (people smart)

Intrapersonal (self smart)
Naturalist (nature smart)
Existential (wondering smart)

Ability to use ones body in a skilled

way for self-expression or toward a
goal; it includes ability to use mental
abilities to coordinate body movements
Ability to perceive & understand other
individuals, their moods, desires &
motivation
Ability to understand ones own
emotions, feelings, recognize fears,
doubts & can regulate his own life
Ability to recognize & classify plants,
minerals, animals, including rocks,
grass; enjoy outdoor activities
Ability to exhibit understanding about
life, death, ultimate realities & try to
know the invisible

Dancers,
basketball
players,
athletes, P.E teachers, actors,
firefighters, artisan
Counselor, salesperson, politician,
business person
Researchers,
philosophers

theorists,

Environmentalist,
farmers,
hunters, botanist, researchers,
chef
Theorists, philosophers

Note: It is of utmost importance that we recognize and nurture all of the varied human intelligences, and all of the
combinations of intelligences. We are all so different, largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences. If
we recognize this, I think we will have at least a better chance of dealing appropriately with the many problems that we face in
the world. (Gardner, 1987)
D. Theories of Development
a. Piagets Cognitive Development
Piaget postulated that development precedes learning. He added that a child is
an active organism and that development depends in large part on the childs
manipulation of and his active interaction with the environment.
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage ( birth -2 years old)
- what is immediately sensed becomes knowledge and is symbolically
remembered; this situation is the cause of response but usually insignificant
2. Intuitive or Preoperstionsl stage ( 2-7 years old)
- cognitive process increases the ability to store words and language structures
- there is the capacity to understand and make use of the words; this is the age
adults need to communicate with the children for it is essential for their
language development
-children are able to fantasize, dream, imagine, and freely associate
-they talk to their toys, tell wild stories, and have imaginary friends
(collective monologue)
3. Concrete Operations (7-11 years old)
- logical thinking in relation to functions is developed
-children can understand measurement and are able to test different problems
by applying certain principles; they are also literal-minded
-they easily laugh at humor; giggle and shout at the top of their voices at
scenes like pounding of the head, pulling of the nose, sitting on a gum,
throwing of pies
-their minds are full of questions; they are puzzled with what is taught to them
and what they are experiencing
4. Formal Operations ( 11 years old & above)
-this stage is characterized by hypothesis testing
-before making conclusions, things must be tested with logical evidences
-children have the ability to search for the truth
-they have their own mind and thoughts about others
-perspective thought or relativism is formed
-abstract thinking is developed
Educational Implications
Learners must be involved in different activities for it increases the ability of the mind to
understand.
Piagets principles pertain to the significance of activity as a source of intelligence
Sensorimotor Stage
Important Concepts
1. Egocentrism the infant
or the baby is concerned
with the self and not
interested with the opinion of
others
2. Obj. Permanence
-objects or persons do not
exist once out of sight

Preoperational Stage
Important Concepts
1. Egocentrism
-children need things as
what they want them to be ,
other viewpoints have no
meaningd
2. Centering
-children focuses on a
particular part of the object

Concrete Operations
Important Concepts
1. Conservation
-the knowledge or
understanding that the
essence of a thing remains
the same although other
features may be varied
Types of conservation:
1.) argument of identity

Formal Operations
Important Concepts
1. Separate the Real from
the Possible
-looking for & trying different
possibilities in problem
solving
2. Propositional
-deals with abstract concept
that contains concrete

3. Space & Time

-when the baby moves to
reach objects, the sense of
distance develops into
concepts of space & time
4. Casuality
-the baby starts to identify
the causes of things and
their significance

or activity & its relationship

to other things is not
considered
3.Irreversibility
-the child is unable to
reverse his thinking
Example:4+4=8 but the child
may have difficulty in
understanding 8-4=4
Note: learners can start
counting numbers orally,
then go on associating with
objects or pictured objects
4. Realism
- this is the ability to accept
the difference of the real
world
5. Animism
- the tendency to associate
life with moving objects
6. Artificialism
-a conclusion that things are
created by humans

2.) argument of
reversibility
3.) argument of
compensation
2. Seriation
-the capacity to sequence
objects according to their
quantitative order
( size, shape order of
occurrence)
3. Classification
-children have the capacity
to group objects based on
their quantitative similarities
4. Number Concepts
-further development in
understanding numbers and
their application
-includes determining which
is more or less
and starting to demonstrate
set theory

statements or proposition
3. Gathering Much
Information as Possible
Solution to a Problem
-data gathered are organized
by seriation and
classification which lead to a
proposition
-different propositions are
formulated and tested by
reasoning to solve a
problem.
-researching, interviewing,
giving of opinion, reading
various materials &
observing current situations
regarding certain issues are
developed in the student

Note: Please check the PowerPoint Presentation of:

b. Eriksons Eight Stages of Psychological Development
c. Freuds Psychosexual Development
d. Kohlbergs Moral Development
e. Golemans Emotional Development
E. Theories of Learning
Behavioral Theories
1. Thorndikes Connectionism/Association Theory
Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response
3 Basic Laws:
a. law of readiness
b. law of exercise
c. law of effect
2. Pavlovs Classical Conditioning
It is based on ADHESIVE PRINCIPLE which means that a RESPONSE is attached to a STIMULUS
occurring just prior to the response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the
response (ex. dogs salivation experiment)
Applications:

Facilitate emotional, behavioral, and cognitive response to neutral stimuli thru positive
association
Build positive associations between teaching & learning activities
Relate learning activities with pleasant events
Assist every student to experience success
Maintain a positive learning environment
Develop skills in recognizing differences and similarities among situations to enable them to
discriminate and generalize situations
3. Skinners Operant Conditioning
An organism has to do something in order to get a reward. And in order to get a reward, it must operate
on its environment.
Operant Conditioning-using pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of
behavior
Reinforcer- any consequence that strengthen a behavior
>Primary reinforcer- related to basic needs, like food
>Secondary reinforcer the value of something is acquired when
associated with the primary reinforcer, e.g. money
>Positive reinforcer consequence given to strengthen behavior
>Negative reinforcer release from any unpleasant situation to strengthen
a behavior
>Intrinsic reinforcer- pleasure is inherent in the activity
>Extrinsic reinforcer- praises or rewards given to motivate people to
engage in an activity
Schedule of reinforcement- a rule when to reinforce following a performance

 Continuous reinforcement- every occurrence of behavior

Intermittent reinforcement given every now and then
*ratio schedule given after a set number of responses
*interval schedule given after the first response is made
following a predetermined period of elapsed time
Punishment- any unpleasant consequence to weaken a behavior
* aversive stimulus- a consequence that a person avoids
Shaping-teaching of new skills or behaviors by reinforcing learner to help him reach goals
Extinction-eliminating or decreasing a behavior by withdrawing the reinforcement
Cue signal as to what behavior will be reinforced or punished
Prompt a reminder that follows a cue to make sure that a person reacts to the cue

Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning

Principle of Consequences-behavior changes according to its immediate consequences:

pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior; unpleasant consequences weaken it

Principle of Reinforcement any action taken following a response that increases the
likelihood that the response will occur again

Premack Principle or Grandma Rule

Less desired activities can be increased by linking them to more desired
activities

Principle of Extinction when reinforcement for a previously learned behavior is withdrawn,

the behavior fades away
Applications:

Recognize positive behaviors from the students perspectives

Reinforcers have different effects to different students, hence, varied reinforcers for different
children/students
Assist students in making appropriate generalization
Continue reinforcing desirable behaviors
Carefully and systematically praise students
Give reinforcement to those who deserve it
Use negative reinforcement instead of punishment
Avoid comparing students performance
Be fair and consistent if punishment is applied
Focus punishment, if given, to the behavior not to the person

Cognitive Theories
4. Banduras Social Learning Theory (Bandura embraced both behavioral and cognitive views)
An individual learns thru observation and imitation of others

Model
Learner
( attractive, popular, competent, successful, interesting)
1. Models the behavior --------------------------------Pays attention
2. Demonstrates the behavior---------------------------Imitates and practices behavior
3. Continues modeling ----------------------------------Reproduces and matches behavior
4. Praises/graduates a student/learner---------------- Shows satisfaction in imitating the model

Concepts in Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning consists of 4 phases: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Vicarious Learning acquired by observing consequences of others behavior
Self-regulated Learning occurs when an individual observe, assess, and judge his own behavior against
his own standard, and subsequently reward or punish himself
Models are classified as: real life, symbolic, representational
Components of Successful Modeling
1.) Attention-make sure students are observing and thinking about what is being done
2.) Retention provide mechanism to help students remember the behavior
3.) Motor reproduction- students must be physically capable of performing the behavior being shown
4.) Motivation students should be informed why they demonstrate the behavior of the model
5.) Self-management- help students gain control of their own learning
- goal setting phase
- recording and evaluating
- self-reinforcement
Applications:
Teachers serve as models to students. They should demonstrate behaviors and attitudes that they want students to acquire

 Modeling demands close attention from observers. Instruct the students to pay attention.
Check students capacity to cope with the model
Let the students be aware of the reason for imitating a behavior
Expose the students to a variety of real life, symbolic and representational models
5. Kohlers Insight Theory gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring
perceptions until a solution is arrived at.
6. Gestalt Theory ( Kohler, Wertheimer, Koffka) the primary focus of this theory is on perception and
how people assign meanings to visual stimuli. The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
7. Kurt Lewins Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory) The behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space (Internal and External
Forces)
8. Bruners Instrumental Conceptualism Theory Learning involves 3 simultaneous processes:
acquisition, transformation and evaluation.
9. Atkinsons Information Processing Theory focus is on transforming information from input to output
Processes: Sensory register-Short Term Memory-Long Term Memory
10. Gagnes Cumulative Learning Theory learning occurs as the individual develops higher level skills
that build successively on lower skills (Klausmeier)
Learning Paradigm
Problem Solving
Concept Learning
Multiple Discrimination
Motor Chain

Verbal Chain

Stimulus Response
Signal Learning

11. Ausubels Meaningful Learning Theory

An individual learns by relating newly acquired information to what he/she already knows.

Dimension 1

Dimension 2

Forms of Meaningful Learning

The way by which knowledge

The way the learner
Is made available for the learner incorporates new info.
into existing info.
Reception Learning ___________Relates to existing ______Meaningful Reception Learning
In final form
knowledge
Discovery Learning
Learner identifies ___________Relates to existing ______Meaningful Discovery Learning
and arrives at the info.
knowledge
himself
Basic Concepts:
Meaningful Learning Set the attitude that one can make sense out of the info to be learned
Relevant Prior knowledge-contains info to which a new idea can be related
Organization finding connections among the various pieces of info
Elaboration expanding on new info based on what one already knows
Visual Imagery- forming a mental image of the info
Advance Organizers-initial statements, activities, and techniques that provide a structure for the
new info and relate it to info students already possess
Cognitive Structure refers to stability, clarity, and organization of the learners subject matter
in a given discipline
Types of Learning:
A. Cognitive Learning-Is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts.

B. Affective Learning-Involves assimilation of values, emotional reaction and acquisition of attitudes.

C. Psychomotor Learning-understanding the external world through the senses and muscles.
Analogical Process and transfer of learning
The theory of transfer of learning was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how individuals would transfer
learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristic. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on
the learning task and the transfer task being identical, also known as identical elements; lose relationship between transfer of learning
and problem solving, since transfer of learning generally occurs when previous knowledge is applied to solve a problem in a new
situation.
Type

Characteristics

Near

Overlap between situations, original and transfer context are similar

Far

Little overlap between situation, original and transfer settings are dissimilar

Positive

What is learned in one context enhances learning in a different setting.

Negative

What is learned in one context hinders or delays learning in a different setting

Vertical

Knowledge of a previous topic is essential to acquire new knowledge.

Horizontal

Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new topic

Literal

Intact knowledge transfers to new task

Figural

Use some aspect of general knowledge to think or to learn about a problem

Low Road

Transfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion

High Road

Transfer involves abstraction so conscious formulation of connections

between contexts

High Road/
Forward Reaching

Abstracting situations from a learning context to a potential transfer context

High Road/
Backward Reaching Abstracting in the transfer context features of a previous situation where new
skills and knowledge where learned.
..
F. Learning Style
Please Read the Power Point Presentation (Learning Style)
G. Learning Environment
Please Read the Power Point Presentation(Kurt Lewin)
H. Principles of Learning
Guiding Principles Concerning the Nature of the Learner
The teacher must:
1.) regard the learner as an active, thinking and feeling human being who needs to be stimulated, directed and
guided toward the realization of all his potentialities.
2.) make the nature of the learner the basis of the science of teaching and the principles of learning.
3.) consider that the growth and the development of the child is orderly and unified.
4.) keep in mind that the mental growth and development of the child do not follow a similar pattern for all learners
5.) understand the distinctive growth patterns and developmental characteristics of each learner and their effect on
his behavior.
6.) understand that there is high correlation between mental and physical growth as measured on the basis of
chronological age.
7.) consider the learner as an individual and as a member of the community
8.) utilize the innate tendencies as drives or powers for school work and as stimuli for learning.
9.) redirect all innate tendencies in such a way that it will produce activities that will lead to further activities.
10.) select and organize the subject matter, methods or procedures and other means of guidance to anticipate the
natural growth and development of the child.
11.) utilize the natural tendencies of the learner in developing new habits.
12.) consider the nature of the learner in the formulation of ultimate and immediate aims of education.
13.) bear in mind that the nature of the learner rather than the nature of the subject matter should determine the
nature of teaching.
14.) consider that each pupil differs greatly within himself in his potentiality to learn

15.) keep in mind that the learner is endowed with the tendency to create and is therefore capable creativeness in his
expressions.
I.

Principles of Motivation
Motivation
Basic Concepts:
Refers to a number of ideas that direct an individual to act or do something
The desire to approach something or to avoid others
Statement of desires, goals, likes, dislikes, wants and fears
Something that energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour
Theories of Motivation

Instinct Theory/Genetic Pattern-motivation is built into everyone thru heredity

Association Theory deprivation of need will cause the indi. To act to satisfy the need
Psychoanalytic/Drive Theory individuals behave as they do because their early experiences drive them
instinctively to do so
Humanistic or need gratification theory-an individual does something to satisfy deficiency needs
Cognitive Theory Man is rational and consciously decides on he will and will not do
Attribution Theory- people seek to understand why they succeed or fail
Self-efficacy Theory- The key to individual achievement lies with the learners own belief in his ability to organize and
execute actions required for a successful performance
Self-determination Theory- an attitude of determination is the foundation for motivated behaviour
Kinds of Motivation
1. Intrinsic a drive from within, inner desire to do something
2. Extrinsic-an influence from the external environment
VI.
Post Test
Part 1. Tell whether the following teaching-learning concepts pertain to BEHAVIORAL or COGNITIVE learning theories.
__________1. Learning is inferred on what people say or do.
__________2. Human behavior is shaped entirely by the environment.
__________3. Reinforcement makes the response more likely to occur.
__________4. Learning involves association between stimulus and response.
__________5. How learning takes place does not include thoughts, feelings and beliefs.
__________6. Differences of the learners do not affect learning.
__________7. Information is processed mentally.
__________8. Learning comes from the learners own experiences.
__________9. Instruction fully accounts for student learning.
_________10. Learners doubt of their capabilities to learn would affect learning.
Part 2. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. One cannot be labeled as dull following Multiple Intelligence Theory postulated by:
A. Tolman
C. Bruner
B. Thorndike
D. Gardner
2. Shown the film, The Best of PBA Games, the P.E. students observed closely how their idol dunk
the ball. This demonstrates learning through observation according to:
A. Pavlov
C. Watson
B. Bandura
D. Thorndike
3. Punishment will leave a painful mark in the heart of a child. So it is better to give a reward than to
punish a child. This statement is based on the theory of:
A. Atkinson
C. Skinner
B. Hull
D. Maslow
4. Every child is a product of the external and internal influences. In the classroom you see him like
other ordinary child but there is one thing that you dont know in him, that is, his experience.
This is according to:
A. Kohler
C. Lewin
B.Gagne
D. Freud
5. The use of drill activities inside the classroom is supported by the theory of:
A. Pavlov
C. Watson
B. Thorndike
D. Dewey
6. Which of the following changes is an instance of learning?
A. Growing heavier
C. Associating red light with stop
B. Learning to walk
D. Feeling drowsy after taking of drug
7. In classical conditioning, which are paired together in order to elicit the desired response?
A. Unconditioned stimulus and natural stimulus
B. Conditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus
C. Unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus
D. Unconditioned response and neutral stimulus
8. Cecile completes her home assignment daily to avoid staying after class to work on
unfinished assigned tasks. Which type of effects illustrates this situation?
A. Positive reinforcement
C. Punishment
B. Negative reinforcement
D. Primary reinforcer
9. Which of the following is an operant behavior?

A. Writing an essay
C. Receiving a medal
B. Getting high grades
D Being scolded
10. Every time you get the correct answer to a problem, you may get a fruit from the basket.
This teachers statement illustrates
A. Continuous reinforcement
C. Ratio schedule
B. Intermittent reinforcement
D. Interval schedule