Materials For Design

i
iTextBook Transdisciplinary Learning Modules
c 2014 by theATLAS Publishing

Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior permission of TheATLAS Publishing.
c 2014 TheATLAS
ISSN: 1933-5423,
Published in the United States of America
www.theatlas.org
c 2014 TheATLAS
ISSN: 1933-5423,
Table of Contents
6 Materials for Design
6.1 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . .
6.1.4 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . .
6.1.5 Environmental Properties . . . . . .
6.2 Processes Used to Alter the Properties of
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Strain Hardening . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Classification of Materials . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.5 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.6 New Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Machinability of Metals . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1 Material Performance Requirements
6.5.2 Material Performance Indicies . . . .
6.6 Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys
6.6.1 SAE Numbering System . . . . . .
6.6.2 ASTM Standards . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3 Unified Numbering System (UNS) .
ii
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
15
16
18
18
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
18
19
24
24
25
25
32
33
34
34
34
36
36
38
39
44
45
45
46
MODULE
Materials for Design

aterials engineering is a field of engineering that includes the range of material kinds and how to use them in manufacturing. To convert the basic
materials into an engineering product, material should be selected with specific
properties. Material selection is a process that is performed to select the best
materials for specific application and product development. If an appropriate
material selection is not performed, the product life tends to be highly unpredictable.
6.1
Material Properties
When selecting materials for a design, it is important to understand the properties of a material. In this chapter, the following four main material properties
will be discussed.
Mechanical,
Physical,
Chemical, and
Environmental.
6.1.1
Mechanical Properties
One of the simplest tests for determining some of the main mechanical properties
of a material is the tensile test. In this test, a load P is applied along the
longitudinal axis of a circular test specimen shown in Figure 6.1(a). As shown
in the figure, two gages are marked at a distance L0 apart. The distance L0 is
called the original gage length of the specimen. Original cross-sectional area of
the central part of the specimen is denoted by A0 .
During an experiment the applied load and the change in gage length are
measured and converted to stresses and strains. The resulting stress-strain curve
in Figure 6.1(b) (not scaled) gives a direct indication of the material properties.
If L is the observed length corresponding to an applied load, P , the gage elongation L = L L0 . The elongation per unit of the initial gage length is called
strain, and given by
=
L
L0
(6.1)
As shown in Figure 6.1(b), as the strain increases, there are four well-defined
regions with distinct types of behavior. In the interval O-A, the plot is straight
line and materials show linear elastic behavior. In this region, deformations are
1
Figure 6.1: Result of tensile test.
fully recoverable when the applied load is removed. Beyond point A, for ductile
materials, deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed material will not
return to its original size and shape when the load is removed. This region of
the stress-strain curve is assumed to be horizontal. Within the interval B-u,
stress increases with increasing strain although at a much lower rate than E.
This is the strain hardening region. and finally, as the cross-sectional area of
the specimen decreases due to plastic flow, at point u necking starts. As shown
from the figure, from point u stress start decreasing until rupture occurs.
Elastic Modules
For elastic materials, the strain is proportional to the applied load and the slope
of the line O-A in the elastic region is designated by a constant, E and called
elastic modules or youngs modules (see Figure 6.1(b)).
Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the maximum stress within a solid material that can reach before
the onset of permanent deformation. When stresses are removed, the material
returns its original size and shape. (see Figure 6.1(b)).
Yield Strength
Figure 6.2:
Offset method.
The yield strength, Sy of a material is defined as the stress at which a material

begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform
elastically (leaving 0.2% permanent deformation) and will return to its original
shape when the applied stress is removed.
For some materials such as metals and plastics, the change from the linear
elastic region cannot be easily seen. In such cases, as shown in Figure 6.2, an
offset method to determine the yield strength of the material tested is used (see
ASTM E8 for metals and D638 for plastics). As shown in Figure 6.2, an offset,
OB is expressed as a % of strain. Usually value of offset is taken to be 0.2% for
metals and plastics. The yield stress Sy is determined by drawing a line from
Module 6. Materials for Design
Figure 6.3: Result of tensile test.
point B parallel to the straight line portion of the diagram. Intersection point
A becomes the Yield Strength by the offset method.
EXAMPLE 6.1
An initial part of the stress-strain curve is shown in Figure 6.3. As seen
from the figure, material shows strong nonlinear behavior and it is difficult
to identify yield point.
(a) Estimate the yield point, and
(b) Estimate the value of elastic modulus.
SOLUTION
(a) Since it is difficult to identify the exact yield point on the curve shown in
Figure 6.3, draw a parallel line from the 2% offset to line OA to indicate
the yield strength of 414 MPa.
(b) The slope of the line O-A in the elastic region is elastic module. Therefore,
E = tan =
AB
207 0
=
= 207 GPa
OB
0.001 0
Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate strength is the highest stress developed in material before rupture.
Usually, changes in area due to changing load and necking are ignored in determining ultimate strength.
Fr
a
c
t
ur
e
Ne
c
ki
ng
Figure 6.4: Necking leading to fructure.

Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the stress developed in a material at breaking point. It is not
necessarily equal to ultimate strength. Since necking is not taken into account
in determining rupture strength, it rarely indicates true stress at rupture.
Necking
Necking is a reduction in diameter in a small region of the material during the
tensile deformation (see Figure 6.4). A significant amount of shearing occur in
the necking area. Basically, it is a region of local instability in the material.
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
Assuming that the stress is constant over the crss-sectional area at the center of
the specimen the engineering stress, e can be calculated by
P
(6.2)
A0
where P is the applied load and A0 is the original cross-sectional area at the
center of the specimen. Engineering strain, e is found directly from the srain
gage reading or using Eq. 6.1. A0 is usually designated by A in calculating
engineering stress, e by using Eq. 6.2.
e =
EXAMPLE 6.2
A 20 mm diameter steel bar is subjected to a load of 3,000 kg. Calculate
the engineering stress.
SOLUTION
Engineering stress is give by Eq.6.2
e =
F
A0
where
F = ma = (3, 000 kg)(9.81 m/s2 ) = 29, 430 N

and the original cross section area, A0 is
A0 =
(20 103 )2 = 314 106 m2

4
Then
e =
29, 430
= 93.7 MPa
314 106
True Stress-Strain Curve

The dotted line in Figure 6.1 shows the true stress-strain curve. When the strains
get large enough original cross-sectional area, A0 becomes small. Therefore, the
actual true stress will not be same as the engineering stress. In such cases, the
total true strain, t is equal to the sum of incremental strains, , hence
t =
X L
(6.3)
L
where L is the current gage length of the specimen at the time the incremental
elongation, L occurs. Assuming that L0 is the initial gage length, if the limit
exists, L =0, the total true strain, t ( at the time when the gage length
reaches to final length, Lf ) defined by the following integral

Z Lf
Lf
dL
t =
= ln
(6.4)
L
L0
L0
=
Therefore, true strain, t is the instantaneous % change in length of test specimen

in pull test. It is equal to the natural logarithm of the ratio of length, Lf at any
instant to original length, L0 .
The true stress, t is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the instantaneous cross-sectional area, A.
P
(6.5)
A
Just before the necking, the strain is still uniform along the specimen length.
Thus, we can assume that there is no volume change in the specimen. Therefore,
t =
A0 L0 = AL
(6.6)
Using Eqs 6.5 and 6.6, we have

t =
P
L
Lo + L
= e
= e (1 + e )
A0
L0
L0
(6.7)
Similarly, the relationship between engineering strain and true strain can be
found as
t = ln(1 + e )
(6.8)
EXAMPLE 6.3
A steel tension test sample shown in Figure 6.5 has diameter of 7.62 mm at
the center. Before the sample is stressed, the length between two gage marks
(gage length) is 30 mm. After the sample is elastically deformed, the gage
length is found to be 39 mm. Calculate the engineering and true strains.
SOLUTION
Using Eq.6.1, engineering strain, e is
L
39 30
e =
(100) =
(100) = 30% elongation.
L0
30
Using Eq.6.8, true strain, t is
Figure 6.5:
Tension test samples
before and after stressed.
t = ln(1 + e ) = ln(1 + 0.30) = 0.26 = 26% elongation.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness, KIC is a very important material property that defines its
ability to resist stress at the tip of a crack. This subject will be discussed in
detail in Chapter 7 of this book.
Brittle and Ductile Behavior
Figure 6.6: Brittle and ductile materials behavior.

Material behavior can be classified into two categories. Namely, brittle and
ductile materials. In general, steel, aluminum, gold, silver and cupper are typical
examples of ductile materials. Glass, concrete and cast iron are considered in
the class of brittle materials. Brittle and ductile materials can be distinguished
by comparing the stress-strain curves as shown in Figure 6.6.
As shown in Figure 6.6, ductile materials show larger strains before failure. In
general, ductile materials failure is limited by their shear strengths. Ductile materials often have relatively small Youngs modulus and ultimate stresses. Brittle
materials fail at much lower strains and material failure is limited by their tensile
strengths. Since ductile materials dont fail without warning as brittle materials
do, they are preferable to brittle materials for building structural members.
Figure 6.7: Block under tensile load.
Ductility is measured by % elongation at the fracture point, that is, how large
a strain the material withstands before fracture. The most common measure of
ductility is the percent elongation to failure elongation = 100 (Lf L0 )/L0 .
Another measure of ductility is the percent reduction-of area at the necked region
of the specimen, measured after fracture, that is reduction of area (%RA) =
100 (A0 Af )/A0 .
Materials with 5% or more elongation are considered ductile. Ductile materials undergo a series of steps that lead to fracture under tension. Namely:
Plastic deformation produces necking,
Small cavities start in the interior of the material,
The cavities join to form a crack,
The crack propagates,
Fracture occurs, typically at a 45 degree angle to the tension as this is the
angle of maximum shear stress.
Brittle fracture shows little if any plastic deformation and is a result of rapid
crack propagation. Brittle fracture occurs perpendicular to the applied tension
and often has a relatively flat fracture surface. Materials with less then 5%
elongation are considered brittle.
Normal Strain
Consider a block shown in Figure 6.7. When it is subjected to a tensile load, P
the amount of stretch or elongation is called strain. Since the elongation of the
block is assumed normal to the cross section, the elongation per unit length,
is called unit normal strain.
x =
x
,
L
y =
y
L
(6.9)
where x and y are the total elongations or total strains in the x and y directions, respectively and L is the original length of the block. Stresses created by
the strain is
= E
(6.10)

In Eq.6.10, modulus of elasticity, E is one of the most important mechanical properties of a material. Stresses created by the applied load can also be
calculated by
P
(6.11)
A
Where A is the original cross sectional area of the block. The elongation, x of
the block shown in Figure 6.7 is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area
and the modulus of elasticity. This relationship is referred to as the Hookes law.
Assuming that the change in cross-sectional area during the loading is neglected,
this relationship is given by
=
PL
(6.12)
AE
Experiments showed that when a material is under tension, there exists not only
an axial strain but also lateral strain, y due to construction (negative strain).
The ratio of lateral contraction strain to axial extension strain is called Poissons
ratio, . The Poissons ratio is a dimensionless parameter that provides a good
understanding about the nature of the material. Poissons ratio is a material
property defined as
x =
y
x
(6.13)
Shear Strain
As shown in Figure 6.8, change in angle is known as shear strains. There is no
change in length. The measure of shear strain is the change in angle, of a
stress element when pure shear load is applied. The expression of a shear stress
is
Figure 6.8:
Stress element under
pure shear load.
yx = G
(6.14)
where the constant, G is a material property called shear modulus of elasticity

or modulus of rigidity. Three elastic constants , E, and G are related to each
other as follows
E = 2G(1 + )
(6.15)
EXAMPLE 6.4
Calculate the applied force, P to create 1% reduction in diameter of a steel
bar shown in Figure 6.9. Assume that the original diameter of the bar is 12
mm, elastic modulus of the steel bar material, E=207 GPa, and the Poissons
ratio, =0.3.
SOLUTION
Reduction in diameter in the x direction is x=12 0.01=0.12 mm. The strain
in the x direction is
x =
Figure 6.9:
Steel bar.
0.12
x
=
= 0.01
L
12

Using Eq.6.9 calculate the strain, y in the y direction
y =
x
0.01
=
= 0.033
0.3
Using Eq.6.10 the stress, that must be applied is

= Ex = 207 109 (0.033) = 6.831 109 Pa
Then, using Eq.6.5 calculate the force which will create 1% reduction in diameter
of the steel bar
P = A = 6.831 109
h
4
12 103
2 i
= 7.72 105 N
Hardness
Hardness is the property of a metal and defined as the resistance of a material
to a permanent indention of particular geometry over a specified length of time.
The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to permanent
deformation. Many methods have been developed for hardness testing. Those
most often used by industry are Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers hardnesses will
be discussed in this section. The three of these hardness measures are based on
identation hardness testing. A metals hardness is measured by the resistance
to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the
depth of a ball or cone which will sink into the metal, under a specified load,
within a certain period of time.
Brinell Hardness E10-12 standart test method for Brinell hardness (BHN)
of metalic materials is described by American Society for Testing & Materials
(ASTM). Brinell hardness uses a 10 millimetres (0.39 in) diameter steel or tungsten carbide ball as an indenter by applying specified load into the surface of a
material. The test machine applies a load of 500 kilograms for soft metals such
as copper, brass and thin stock. A 1500 kilogram load is used for aluminum
castings, and a 3000 kilogram (29 kN; 6.600 lbf) load is used for materials such
as iron and steel. The unit of Brinell hardness, HB is kg/mm2 . After the test,
the diameter of the indentation is measured to be used in Eq.6.16 to calculate
the Brinell hardness.
BHN =
Figure 6.10:
Brinell hardness test.
2D
D 2 d2
(6.16)
where P is the applied force, D is the diameter of the ball and d is diameter
of the indentation (see Figure 6.10). An approximate relationship between the
Brinell hardness and the tensile strength, Sut for stell is given by1

3.55 HB
(HB 175)
Sut (MPa) =
(6.17)
3.38 HB
(HB > 175)
1 Donghao Stainless Steel.
http://www.stainless-steel-tube.org/Relation-of-Hardness-toOther-Mechanical-Properties-Tensile-Strength-Yield-Strength.htm, accessed: July 20, 2013.
10
Figure 6.11: Relationship between Brinell hardness and yield strength

(Reproduced from reference, [2]).

Sut (psi)
515 HB
490 HB
(HB 175)
(HB > 175)
(6.18)
Relationship between Brinell hardness and yield strength, Sy is given by2

H = c Sy
(6.19)
where c is a proportionality constant. For a perfectly plastic materials, the value

of c is approximately 3. This value is reasanably consistent with experiemntal
data given in Figure 6.11.
EXAMPLE 6.5
Estimate the Brinell hardness of a steel material if the diameter of the indentation is 5 mm.
SOLUTION
Since the material is steel, we use 10 mm standard diameter ball as the indenter
and apply 3,000 kg force, P . From Eq.6.16, we have
BHN
Figure 6.12:
Rockwell hardness test.
=
=
2D

D D2 d2
3, 000
= 142.6 kgf/mm2 or HB
2 52
10
10
10
2
2 Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Printice Hall, p. 38. 2008.
11
Rockwell Hardness The Rockwell hardness test method, as described in

ASTM E-18, is the most commonly used hardness test method. The Rockwell
hardness test is used to measure the resistance of a metal to penetration like the
Brinell test, but in the Rockwell case, the depth of the impression is measured
instead of the diametric area ( see Figure 6.12). The Rockwell test is usually easier to perform, and more accurate than other types of hardness testing methods.
With this test method, different kind of indenters can be used: conical diamond
with a round tip for harder metals and ball indenters with diameters ranging
from 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch for soft materials. Common Rockwell hardness scales
used for metals include A, B, and C corresponding to major loads of 60, 100,
and 150 kg, respectively. The three most common scales used for plastics are
Rockwell E, Rockwell M, and Rockwell R.
Test procedure
The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
A minor load (10 kg) is applied and a zero reference position is established
The major load (60, 100, or 150 kg) is applied for a given time period
(dwell time)
The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
At the end of the test, material hardness is shown directly on the dial (depth
gage) attached to the test machine.
Vickers Hardness The Vickers hardness test method, also known as a microhardness test method, is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case
depth work. A square base pyramid shaped 136 pyramidal diamond indenter
is used for testing in the Vickers scale (see Figure 6.13). Applied macro force
changes between 1 kgf and 100 kgf (ASTM E92) whereas micro force ranges
between 10 gf and 1 kgf (ASTM E384). The full load is normally applied for 10
to 15 seconds. The Microhardness methods are used to test on metals, ceramics,
composites and many other type of materials. Typical Vickers number ranges
from HV 100 to HV1000 for metals and will increase as the material gets harder.
Eq6.20 is used to calculate the Vickers hardness.
HV =
Figure 6.13:
Vickers hardness test.
1.8544F
F
A
d2
(6.20)
where d is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm (see

Figur 6.13). The Vickers hardness is reported like 700 HV/5, which means a
Vickers hardness of 700, was obtained using a 5 kgf applied force during the test.
Table 6.1 shows the conversion of Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell B, and Rockwell
C hardnesses.3
Hardness Testing of Plastics The hardness testing of plastics is usually
measured by the Rockwell hardness test or Shore hardness test. Both methods
measure the resistance of the plastic to indentation, thus providing an empirical
hardness value. Rockwell hardness is usually used for harder plastics such as
nylon, polycarbonate, polystyrene, and acetal where the resiliency or creep of
the polymer may not affect the results. The three most common scales used for
plastics are Rockwell E, Rockwell M, and Rockwell R.
3 Engineers Handbook, http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/hardness.htm, accessed: August 4, 2013
12

Table 6.1: Hardness conversion.
Tensile Strength
(N/mm2 )
350
450
545
640
740
850
900
950
1030
1125
1220
1320
1420
1520
1630
1740
1845
1955
2070
2180
Brinell
(BHN)
105
133
162
190
219
252
266
280
304
333
361
390
418
447
475
504
532
561
589
618
Vickers
(HV)
110
140
170
200
230
265
280
295
320
350
380
410
440
470
500
530
560
590
620
650
Rockweel B
(HRB)
62.3
75.0
85.0
91.5
96.7
Rockwell C
(HRC)
24.8
27.1
29.2
32.2
35.5
38.8
41.8
44.5
46.9
49.1
51.1
53.0
54.7
56.3
57.8
*Applies for plain carbon and low-alloy steels and cast steel and to a limited
extent for high-alloy and/or work hardened steel.
The Shore A00 scale is used to measures hardness of very soft rubbers such
as gels. On the other hand, Shore D hardness scale measures the hardness of
hard rubbers, semi-rigid plastics and hard plastics. Shore Hardness becomes a
main factor when considering which mold rubber one should choose for making
a mold.
ASTM D2583 Barcol Hardness test method is used to determine the hardness
of reinforced and non-reinforced rigid plastics. The instrument used to test
hardness is called the Barcol impressor, gives a direct reading on a 0 to 100 scale
with the typical range being between 50B and 90B.
Relationship of Shore hardness with Brinell hardness and Rockwell-C hardness is given in Figure 6.14.
Impact Resistance and Energy Absorbing Capacity
Impact resistance standard test (ASTM Standard D-6110) basically measures
the energy needed to fully fracture a notched specimen. Impact tests are used
in investigating the toughness of material.
Toughness is the capacity of a material to absorb energy and plastically
deform without having fracture. Toughness, UT (also called module of toughness) can be determined by taking the integral under the stress-strain curve (see
Figure 6.1) up to the fracture point, f . That is:
Figure 6.14: Relationship of hardness numbers (reprinted with the permission of

International Nickel Co., NY.).
13
14
Z
UT =
(6.21)
Eq.6.21 can be approximated by

UT =
Sy + Sut
2

f
(6.22)
where f is the strain at fracture, Sy is the yield strength, and Sut is the ultimate
strength.
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that
can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent deformation.
Resilience, UR can be deterimined by integrating the stress-strain curve from
zero to the elastic limit.
Z
UR =
el
(6.23)
where el is the elastic limit. Eq.6.23 can be approximated as

UR =
Sy2
2E
(6.24)
Materials with smaller modulus of elasticity is desirable for better energy absorbsion.
EXAMPLE 6.6
Resilient Neoprene pads are widely used for all kinds of vibrating machinery
to isolate vibration. These pads are high grade neoprene isolation mediums which can efficiently control structure-born noise and reduces the resonant vibration of the system natural frequency considerably below the
driving frequency of the equipment. Which of the following pad is suitable as vibration isolation material for the shaker table legs shown in Figure 6.15 (This figure is adapted fromImages of Neoprene pad isolators:
http://www.bing.com/search?q=Neoprene+Pad+Isolators&FORM=HDR
SC1).
Figure 6.15:
Shaker table leg.
(a) Pad material-A with Sy =20 MPa and E=4 MPa

(b) Pad material-B with Sy =16 MPa and E=3 MPa
SOLUTION
(a) From Eq.6.23, Resilience, UR for material-A is
UR =
Sy2
202
=
= 50 MPa
2E
24
15

(b) Resilience, UR for material-B is
UR =
Sy2
162
=
= 42.67 MPa
2E
23
Although material-B has smaller modulus of elasticity, material-A will be

selected because of its better energy absobsion.
6.1.2
Physical Properties
Properties that define the behavior of materials in response to physical forces

rather than mechanical is called physical properties. They are observable and
measurable. A materials performance depends on its physical properties. Material selection with appropriate physical properties, for specific application can
reduce the product impact on environment. Following physical material properties will be discussed in this section.
Thermal properties
Electrical properties
Thermal Properties
Density Temperature and pressure are the two factors that influence the
density of a substance. A materials density is defined as its mass per unit
volume. The SI unit of density is gram per cubic meter (g/cm3 ). Density is
calculated by dividing mass by the volume of the material and is represented
using a Greek letter .
M
(6.25)
V
where M and V are the mass and volume of a material, repectively. Strength to
density ratio (S/) and modulus to density ratio (E/), are important parameters in material selection.
=
Thermal expension Thermal expansion refers to the change in volume of

substance due to the change in temperature. When the material is a solid,
thermal expansion is usually expressed in terms of change in length, height, or
thickness. Thermal expansion, can be defined by the degree of expansion
divided by the change of temperature in a material. For example, Thermal
expansion, of a solid bar can be calculated by change in length of the bar for
a given temperature change as
=
L2 L1
T2 T1
(6.26)
where L1 and L2 are the initial and final lengths of the bar, repectively and T1
and T2 are the initial and final temperatures of the bar, respectively.
Most of the materials used in engineering design have positive thermal expansion co-efficient. In structural design, generally materials with co-efficient
of thermal expansion that doesnt change considerably are used. On the other
hand, bridges are built with metal expansion joints, so that they can expand
and contract to keep the integrity of the overall structure of the bridge.
16

Another example is the thermal expansion of concrete which is important in
the analysis and design of concrete structure. The thermal expansion and contraction of a concrete pavement can have a significant effect on its performance.
Thermal expansion can cause joint lock-up and blow-up. Thermal contraction
can cause in transverse cracking of slabs depending on the joint spacing.4
Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and expansion fit of two or more components by heating or cooling them, thus making the use of thermal expansion
in order to make a joint.
Melting point The melting point of solids and boiling points of liquids are
intrinsic physical properties and can be used to identify them. Each material
will have a specific melting point and can be useful in deciding whether the
material is pure or not. If the melting point of any pure substance is known,
then the melting point of the substance under consideration can be matched
with the pure one. If the melting points are not identical it indicates that the
two substances are not same in their purity.
Melting point of a material is an important factor in metal casting and plastic
molding. Materials with lower melting points are usually easier to cast.
Specific heat The specific heat is the amount of heat required to change a
unit mass of a substance by one degree in temperature. The amount of heat, Q
needed to change the temperature of a substance is calculated by
Q = mcT
(6.27)
where c is the specific heat of the metarial, m is the mass, and T is the temperature change. Specific heat is important because it determines how quickly a
substance will heat up or cool down. The smaller the specific heat of a substance,
the quicker the substance heats up or cools down.
Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity, is a measure of the ability

of a material to transfer heat. It is defined as the heat energy (Q) transferred
through a unit thickness (L) in a direction normal to a surface of unit area
(A) due to a unit temperature gradient (T ). That is given by the following
equation
=
QL
A T
(6.28)
Materials with high values of thermal conductivity such as copper are good
conductors, and those with low values such as cork and polystyrene are good
insulators. Some of the physical properties of the materials are given in Table
B-1 in Appendix B.
6.1.3
Electrical Properties
General understanding of the electrical properties of the materials is necessary

to design electrical circuits. Electrical properties include: electrical resistance,
electrical conductivity,
4 David K. Hein, concrete coefficient of thermal expansion (cte) and its significance in
mechanistic-empirical pavement design, Applied Research Associates, Inc., Toronto, Canada.
17

Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity, r is the opposition of a material to the flow of electrical

current flow. The amount of resistance changes with respect to material types.
Materials with low resistivity are good conductors of electricity and materials
with high resistivity are good insulators. The SI unit for electrical resistivity is
the ohm-meter and given by
A
(6.29)
L
where R is the resistance af the material, L is the length, and A is the cross
sectional area of the wire.
r=R
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity, is a measure of how well a material will allow the
movement of an electric charge. The SI unit for electrical conductivity is the
Siemens per meter (ohm-m)1 and calculated by the reciprocal of resistivity
1
(6.30)
r
Electrical conductivity knowledge is used for measuring the purity of water,
sorting materials, checking for proper heat treatment of metals. Metals are
the best conductors and insulators and ceramics, wood, plastics are the poor
conductors.
=
Permeability
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to hold the formation of
a magnetic field. It is the ratio of the flux density (B) created within a material
to the magnetizing field (H) and is defined by the following equation:
B
(6.31)
H
A material with high carbon content will have low permeability and will
retain more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon content.
=
Electrochemical corrosion
Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of materials by an electrochemical
processes. Electrons to flow between the anodes and the cathodes is the driving
force for corrosion to occur. Electrochemical corrosion occurring in aqueous
solutions at ambient temperatures is a major damaging process that results in
destructive effects as the formation of rust and other corrosion products. It will
damage any product made by any metals except gold.
Under a given set of environmental conditions, materials with low rate of
corrosion tendency should be selected for specific applications. A crucial factor
controlling the rate of corrosion is the existence of the phenomenon of passivity
(conditions existing on a metal surface lower the rate of corrosion tendency) for
certain metals and alloys, such as stainless steels and titanium. Corrosion has
many severe economic, health, safety, technological, and cultural consequences
to our society5 .
5 Jerome Kruger. electrochemistry of corrosion, http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/, accessed: August. 28, 2013
18
6.1.4
Chemical Properties
A chemical property is basically whether or not the material will react with
another substance. For example, iron reacting with oxygen to form rust. Some
of the material chemical properties include: Corrosion resistance and hygroscopy.
Corrosion resistance
See electrochemical corrosion covered in Section 3.1.3.4.
hygroscopy
Hygroscopy is the ability of a material to attract and store water molecules from
the surrounding environment through either absorption or adsorption. Material
will change as a direct result of attracting and absorbing water. For example,
the caking or hardening of sugar and salt after absorbing moisture from the air.
The existence or absence of hygroscopic materials has a direct impact on indoor
relative humidity levels. For example, existence of hygroscopic materials will
reduce the humidity level during periods of high humidity seasons by absorbing moisture from the environment and release the moisture during periods of
low humidity seasons and thus maintaining a relatively constant indoor relative
humidity level.
6.1.5
Environmental Properties
To find data on the environmental properties of materials, one can use databases
published by companies and government organizations.
Embodied energy of materials
A materials embodied energy is the non-renewable energy that must be used to
extract, process, transport, and process the material. A best way to reduce embodied energy is to specify recycled materials when designing a system to ensure
that those materials can be recovered at the products end of life. For example,
using some of the recycled materials can cut embodied energy considerably.
Health impacts of materials
Materials can occasionally also have negative health impacts, and some materials
are regulated for this reason by national organizations. For example, materials
sold in the United State need to meet the requirements of the government agencies such as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Institute
for Occupational Safety (NIOSH). For example, some building materials in the
housing sector that are harmful or potentially harmful to peoples health and
the environment. Risks to health usually result from producing harmful material
(toxic), use and disposal of such materials.
6.2
Processes Used to Alter the Properties of

Materials
Using various processes certain characteristics of metals and alloys can be changed
in order to make them more suitable for a particular kind of application. For
example, heat treatment can significantly influence mechanical properties such
as strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, and wear resistance of the materials.
19
Figure 6.16: (a) Strain hardening, (b) Examples of cold work.
6.2.1
Strain Hardening
Strain hardening also called work hardening or cold work is a process to increase
the hardness and strength of the material by plastic deformation usually at ambient temperature. Many ductile metals with a relatively high melting point as
well as several polymers can be strengthened in this way. This kind of hardening
is effective to increase the strength of metals that cannot be hardened by heat
treatments.
When a material is subjected to a load, microscopic defects known as dislocation generation occur within the crystal structure of the material. When
the load continue to increase, these dislocations grow and interact with each
other, forming new internal structures that resist to slip deformation. These
new formations increase the materials yield strength, or ability to resist being
stressed.
As shown in Figure 6.16(a), when material is stressed, the strain increases
with stress and a certain amount of deformation is put into the material (line
from O to A). If the load is removed at this point, the material returns to a
zero stress at point B along a new elastic line AB with the same original slope,
E. If the material reloaded immediately, the curve again rises from B to C and
consequently material ruptures if the loading is continued. Since, further increase
in strength will cause reduction in ductility and formability, hardening process
should be stopped to anneal the metal. In other words, heat it up to remove the
accumulated dislocations before the sequence of hardening process continued. As
shown in the figure, by strain hardening yield strength of the metal significantly
increased. The strain has two components recovered elastic strain, e and an
inelastic strain (parmanent deformation), p . Then the total strain, T becomes
T = p + e
(6.32)
20
EXAMPLE 6.7
If a steel solid rod is loaded to a stress of =480 MPa and then unloaded,
what is the permanent strain? As shown in Figure 6.17, yield strength of
the steel is 310 MPa corresponds to a strain of 0.0015 m/m and the total
strain, T is approximately 0.005 m/m.
SOLUTION
The original slope is
E=
310
Sy
=
= 206.7 GPa
0.0015
Recovered elastic strain, e at 480 MPa can be calculated by using the original
elastic modulus, E as
Figure 6.17:
Stress-strain curve.
stress-strain curve.
e =
480
=
= 2.32 103 m/m
E
206.7
The total strain, T is given by

T = p + e
Then
p
T e
5 103 2.32 103 = 2.68 103 m/m
Strain Hardening and Residual Stresses

Figure 6.16(b) shows an example of strain hardening through metal-working
processes. This process is known as cold working or cold forming process. During most metal forming operations, such as rolling and extrusion, the material
undergoes non-uniform plastic deformation resulting in a pattern of residual
stresses throughout the materials cross section. Consider a metal sheet being
rolled as shown in Figure 6.16(b). During the rolling process, plastic deformation occurs only near the surfaces that are in direct contact with the rollers. The
arising non-uniform deformation results in elongation of the surface fibers while
the fibers near the center of the sheet stay unchanged. However, for the sheet
to remain in equilibrium as a continuous body, the center fibers tend to restrain
the surface fibers from stretching, whereas the surface fibers tend to elongate
the central fibers. This results in a pattern of residual stresses throughout the
sheet with a compressive value at the surface and a tensile value at the center
of the sheet (see Figure 6.16(b-1).6 Note that the residual stresses shown in
Figure 6.16(b-1) is simplified and approximated stress fields.
As seen from Figure 6.16(b-1), residual stresses are in the elastic region.
In other words, they are below yield strength of the material. If a uniformly
6 A. Ertas, and J. C. Jones, The Engineering Design Process, Second Addition, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1996.
21
distributed tensile stress (sufficiently over yield strength) is applied, first compressive stress will become zero then it exceed the level of yield strength and
finally stress distribution will become uniform as shown in Figure 6.16(b)-2.
When the load is removed, elastic energy will be recovered and the material will
be free of residual stresses. Residual stresses can also be reduced or eliminated
by annealing.
Analysis of Strain Hardening
Although analysis of work hardening is difficult, there are several constitutive
stress-strain relations have been formulated. Most commonly used formula is
the power law.
t = Knt
(6.33)
Where t is the true stress, t is the true strain, K is the strength coefficient
(numerically equal to the extrapolated value of true strain of 1.0), and n is the
strain hardening exponent. Taking log of both sides of Eq. 6.33 gives
Figure 6.18:
Log/log plot of true
log t = log K + n log t
(6.34)
Eq. 6.34 is a straight line with intercept, log K and the slope, n. The true
stress against true strain is plotted on a log-log scale is shown in Figure 6.18.
The values of strain-hardening exponent, n may change from n = 0 to n =
1. If n=0, material is perfectly plastic and does not show any strain hardening.
If n=1, material is elastic. As shown in Table 6.2, n values for most of the
materials changes between 0.10 and 0.5 (see Table 6.2).
If two points are known on the curve (not including the region after the
necking) shown in Figure 6.18, strain hardening exponent can be calculated
from Eq. 6.35.
Slope = n =
EXAMPLE 6.8
log t2 log t1
log t2 log t1
(6.35)
A solid metal rod is stressed in tension beyond its yield stress. It had a gage
length of 50 mm and an area of 50 mm2 before the loading. At one point
during the loading, the gage length L1 becomes 60 mm and the corresponding
engineering stress e1 becomes 160 MPa. At another point during the loading
prior to necking, measured gage length, L2 is 80 mm and engineering stress,
e2 is 190 MPa. Determine the strain-hardening exponent.
SOLUTION
Strain hardening exponent from Eq. 6.35 is
Slope = n =
log t2 log t1
log t2 log t1
Calculation of parameters for the first point is as follows:

Engineering strain, e1 is
e1 =
L1 L0
60 50
=
= 0.2 mm/mm
L
50
22
Table 6.2: K and n values for selected metals and alloys.*
Material
Aluminum, 1100-O
2024-T4
5052-O
6061-O
6061-T6
7075-O
Brass, 7030, annealed
85-15, cold rolled
Bronze (phosphor), annealed
Cobalt-base alloy, heat treated
Copper, annealed
Molybdenum, annealed
Steel, low carbon, annealed
1045 hot rolled
1112 annealed
1112 cold rolled
4135 annealed
4135 cold rolled
4340 annealed
17- P-H, annealed
52100, annealed
304 stainless, annealed
410 stainless, annealed
Strength
Coefficient
K (MPa)
180
690
210
205
410
400
895
580
720
2070
315
725
530
965
760
760
1015
1100
640
1200
1450
1275
960
Strain Hardening
Exponent
n
0.20
0.16
0.13
0.20
0.05
0.17
0.49
0.34
0.46
0.50
0.54
0.13
0.26
0.14
0.19
0.08
0.17
0.14
0.15
0.05
0.07
0.45
0.10
*Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for

Engineering Materials, Printice Hall, 2008.
True stress, t1 is
t1 = e1 (1 + e1 ) = 160(1 + 0.2) = 192 MPa
True strain, t1 is
t1 = ln
L1
60
= ln
= 0.18 mm/mm
L0
50
Calculation of parameters for the second point is as follows:

Engineering strain, e2 is
e2 =
L2 L0
80 50
=
= 0.6 mm/mm
L0
50
True stress is
t2 = e2 (1 + e2 ) = 190(1 + 0.6) = 304 MPa
23

True strain, t2 is
t2 = ln
80
L2
= ln
= 0.47 mm/mm
L0
50
Using Figure 6.19, strain hardening exponent, n can be calculated as

Figure 6.19:
Log-log scale
n=
log(304) log(192)
log t2 log t1
=
= 0.48
log t2 log t1
log(0.47) log(0.18)
Material Instability in Tension

Now consider events that occur just before the necking (before the final fracture)
of a specimen tested in uniaxial tension. When ultimate tensile strength is
reached, necking will start and deformation will no longer be uniform. Finally,
a point of plastic instability will be reached in the stress-strain curve. Although
material will get stronger with the increase of strain due to strain hardening,
the cross-sectional area starts to decreases rapidly at some point along the gage
section of the specimen. Since the rate of decrease in cross-sectional area is
greater than the rate of increase in strength at the necking region, the strength
of the material will decrease considerably and eventually material will rupture.
This condition is called as geometric softening. The true strain at the onset
of necking which corresponds to the maximum load is numerically equal to the
strain hardening exponent, n.7
EXAMPLE 6.9
Referring to Example 6.8, calculate the true ultimate tensile strength, S(ut)t
and the engineering ultimate strength, S(ut)e .
SOLUTION
Using Figure 6.20, the slope, n is given by
n = 0.48 =
y2 y1
log(192) log(K)
2.283 logK
=
=
x2 x1
log(0.18) log(1)
0.745 0.0
Therefore,
Figure 6.20:
Log-log scale
logK = 2.64 K = 102.64 K = 437 MPa

The value of K can also be calculated directly from Eq. 6.32
K=
t2
304
=
= 437 MPa
n
t2
0.470.48
From Example 6.8 and Section 3.2.1.1, we have = n = 0.48 at necking region.
Then the true ultimate strength, S(ut)t in the region of necking is
S(ut)t = Knt = 437(0.48)0.48 = 307 MPa
7 Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Printice Hall, p. 38. 2008.
24

The true strain at necking, (t)neck is

(t)neck = ln
A0
Aneck

= n = 0.48
Above equation leads to

Aneck = A0 e0.48
Necking strain corresponds to the maximum load, Pmax at which the material
reaches to its ultimate strength. That is,
(max)neck =
Pmax
Aneck
where (max)neck is the true ultimate tensile strength, S(ut)t . Then the maximum
load at necking is
P(max)neck = S(ut)t Aneck = 307(2.718)0.48 A0 = 190A0
Finall, engineering ultimate strength, S(ut)e is
S(ut)e =
6.2.2
190 A0
Pmax
=
= 190 MPa
A0
A0
Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process of producing a metal component by hammering or pressing to increase its strength. Forging improves the grain structure and
alters physical properties of the metal. As the metal is shaped during the forging
process, grain structure deforms to follow the general shape of the component,
thus giving rise to the metal component with improved strength characteristics.
6.2.3
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is another process of altering the properties of the materials by

heating and cooling operations. A few common heat-treating processes are given
below.
Aging (Age Hardening)
Age hardening is a type of heat treatment to strengthen metal alloys. It is
also called precipitation hardening, as it strengthens metal by creating solid
impurities, or precipitates, by heating it for a long time.
Annealing
Annealing is a heat treatment that alters a material to increase its ductility and
to make it more workable by first heating and then slow cooling of a metal. This
process removes residual stresses, gases, and improves cold working properties.
25

Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a material by immersion in oil or water to alter

the material properties. Quenching is usually performed to maintain mechanical
properties that would be vanished with slow cooling. It is usually applied to
steels, to increase the hardness.
Tempering
Tempering, is a process involving slow and moderate heating to increase the
hardness and toughness of metals which was previously heat-treated. For example, quenched steel is tempered to reduce residual stresses while storing certain
amount of ductility and improve toughness.
Case hardening (Surface Hardening)
Case hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a part so that it will
have tough and hard coating. This process is done by heating the material in
the presence of carbon. This process is the infusion of carbon into the outer
layer of the material to harden the surface. Case hardening is often done after
the part has been formed into its final shape such as guns.
6.3
Classification of Materials
There are numerous kinds of materials used in the field of engineering. As shown
in Table 6.3, materials can be classified into six groups. Namely, metals, ceramic
and polymers, composites, semiconductors and new materials. These classes can
be further organized into various sub-groups based on their mechanical, physical,
and chemical properties.
6.3.1
Metals
The basic part of any element is the atom. Atoms are the basic building blocks of
all materials. A single atom contains of a positively charged nucleus, surrounded
by a cloud of negatively charged particles called electrons. In an atom, the
electrical charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal, but opposite. It turns
out to be the overall electrical charge of an atom is neutral. The outmost
electrons in the atoms of metals are held loosely and they can travel easily from
atom to atom. The main attribute that distinguishes a metal from a nonmetal
is the presence of these free electrons8 .
A pure metal consists of atoms of only one element and does not include any
other types of atoms. It has its own unique physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, and thermal or heat conductivity. Examples of some pure
metals are aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and silver (Ag).
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements into a solid, metallic solution.
Therefore alloys have properties that are different from those of its constituent
elements. Steel is the best known alloy which is made up mostly of iron and
also contains carbon. Inclusion of carbon makes the iron stronger increase in
tensile and/or shear strength.
8 Materiasl Classification. ASME International, http://www.asminternational.org/content/
ASM/StoreFiles/250491 ch.pdf, accessed: August 28, 2013
26
Table 6.3: Classification of materials.

Material type
Metal
Ceramic
Plastics
Composite
Semiconductors
New Materials
Sub-groups
Ferrous metals and alloys (irons, carbon steels,
alloy steels, stainless steels, tool and die steels)
Nonferrous metals and alloys (aluminum, copper,
magnesium, nickel, titanium, precious metals,
refractory metals, superalloys)
Glasses
Glass ceramics
Graphite
Diamond
Thermoplastics
Thermoset
Elastomers
Polymer-matrix composites
Metal-matrix composites
Ceramic-matrix composites
Silicon
Smart materials
Nano materials
Bio materials
Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Ferrous metals and alloys are iron-based materials that are used in many industrial applications.
Irons
Iron is the tenth most abundant element in the earth and it is the most essential
industrial metal. It is shiny, ductile, malleable, and is the most used of all the
metals.
Wrought iron Wrought iron is an iron alloy contains a very low carbon
(less than 0.1%)and 12% slag. Wrought iron is a soft,ductile, easily worked,
fibrous metal. Wrought iron is made by melting in a forge with charcoal, which
served both as fuel and reducing agent. While it is still hot, it goes through
hammering and rolling operation to put the iron into a coherent mass. Its
resistance to corrosion is better than the steel.
Cast irons
Cast iron is iron alloy with more than 2% carbon. Cast irons also contain from
1 to 3% silicon which combined with the carbon provide excellent castability.
Cast iron is usually made from pig iron (combination of iron ore, charcoal,
and limestone melted together under extreme pressure). It is more brittle than
pure iron and steel, however it melts at a lower temperature. The melting
temperature is ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 C (2,102 to 2,192 F), which is about
300 C lower than the melting point of pure iron. Since it is more malleable it
is good for industrial applications. Cast iron is used in pipes, machine parts,
27
Table 6.4: Composition for typical cast irons.

Composition*
Type of iron
Gray (FG)
Ductile (SG)
Compacted
graphite (CG)
Malleable (cast
white) (TG)
White
Carbon (C)
2.5 4.0
3.0 4.0
2.5 4.0
Silicon (Si)
1.0 3.0
1.8 2.8
1.0 3.0
Manganese (Mn)
0.2 1.0
0.1 1.0
0.2 1.0
Sulfur (S)
0.02 0.25
0.01 0.03
0.01 0.03
Phosphorus (P)
0.002 1.0
0.01 0.1
0.01 0.1
2.2 2.9
0.9 1.9
0.15 1.2
0.02 0.2
0.02 0.2
1.8 3.6
0.5 1.9
0.25 0.8
0.06 0.2
0.06 0.2
*Reprented with permission of ASM International. All right reserved. www.engineershandbook.com.

automobile components and, skillets. Compositions of typical cast irons are
given in Table 6.4.
White cast irons White cast irons are usually made by restricting the
silicon content to a maximum of 1.3 percent, so that no graphite is present
but all of the carbon exists as cementite (Fe3 C). White iron is hard and brittle
and has a white crystalline fracture because it is essentially free of graphite.
White irons are too hard to be machined.
Malleable iron The white iron castings become malleable iron through annealing process by heating at approximately 900 C. The casting is melted and
then kept at a controlled temperature for certain time. It is then allowed to
cool very slowly over about 24 hours. The properties of malleable cast iron are
similar to mild steel. Comparing with the gray cast iron, malleable cast iron
has better strength and ductility, particularly better impact resistance in low
temperatures.
Grey iron Gray Iron is a type of cast iron which includes carbon and silicon
in addition to the iron, in various concentrations, with respect to different applications. Grey iron is not very malleable or strong. It fractures easily. Therefore,
it is not suitable for applications where high tensile strength is needed. Since it
conducts heat very well, it is used to make cast iron pans. Gray iron contains
more silicon, thus less hard and more machinable than white iron. Properties of
gray cast iron is given in Tbale B-2 in Appendix B.
Ductile iron Ductile iron is a family of cast irons which has high strength,
ductility and resistance to shock. It is heat treated by the process of annealing.
Cast ductile iron can be put to different shapes without fracturing. The mechanical properties of ductile iron is better than either gray or malleable iron. Ductile
Iron castings is effective, lower cost alternative to malleable iron castings, steel
forgings and steel fabrications. It is made of cast iron by adding magnesium in
it. This process causes the graphite to form in small spheroids which creates
fewer discontinuities in the structure of the metal and produces a more stronger
structure.
28
Steels
Steels are also mainly iron with carbon (C) as the main alloying element. While
steels contain less than 2% carbon, all cast irons contain more than 2% carbon.
Properties of steels are given in Table B-3 in Appendix B.
Carbon steel Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the
carbon content may range from 0.015% to 2%. Adding this small amount of
carbon produces a material which shows incredible strength, fatigue resistance,
wear resistance, hardness and toughness. Carbon steel is one of the most widely
used materials in industrial applications. They are used broadly for automobile
bodies, appliances, machinery, ships, containers, heavy wall pipe and tube, and
building industry.
Carbon Steel with a low carbon content has the same properties as iron. It
becomes soft and easily formed. With the raising carbon content it becomes
harder and stronger but less ductile and more difficult to weld. Usually, higher
carbon content lowers steels melting point and its temperature resistance.
With respect to carbon content, grades of carbon steel covered by ASTM,
ASME and API specifications are:
Mild (low carbon) steel has approximately 0.05% to 0.25% carbon content
with up to 0.4% manganese content. Less strong but inexpensive.
Medium carbon steel has approximately 0.29% to 0.54% carbon content
with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese content. Fairly good ductility and strength
and has good wear resistance.
High carbon steel has approximately 0.55% to 0.95% carbon content with
0.30 to 0.90% manganese content. Very strong.
Very high carbon steel has approximately 0.96% to 2.1% carbon content,
specially processed to produce specific atomic and molecular microstructures.
Alloy steel Alloy steel is a steel in which one or more elements besides
carbon have been added to produce a preferred physical properties or characteristics. These elements are: molybdenum, boron, chromium and vanadium. In
general, alloy steels are categorized into two groups high alloy and low alloy
steels.
1. High alloy steels has more than eight percent of its weight is other elements
besides iron and carbon.
2. Other elements in low alloy are considerably low compared with the amount
of the entire steel.
Stainless steel Stainless steel also called inox steel is corrosion-resistant
metal alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass in it. Addition
of this amount of chromium to low carbon steel provides stain resistance. Advanced stainless steel may also contain other elements, such as nickel, niobium,
molybdenum, and titanium. Stainless steel does not quickly corrode, rust or
stain with water as ordinary steels do. It is used where both the properties of
steel and resistance to corrosion are required. Stainless steel has different grades
and surface finishes going well with the environment and withstanding to high
stresses.
The chromium in the steel come together with oxygen in the atmosphere and
form an invisible passive thin film (a few atoms thick) layer. If the thin layer is
29
cut or scratched, more oxide will quickly form and recover the exposed scratched
surface, protecting it from oxidative corrosion. The passive film needs oxygen
to self-repair, so stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in low-oxygen
and poor circulation environments. It is extensively used in constructions as
well as in kitchens. It is ductile, ductile, long-lasting and much inexpensive as
compared to other metals. Properties of stainless steels are given in Table B-4
in Appendix B.
There are three main types of stainless steels austenitic, martensitic, and
ferritic.
Austenitic stainless steels They are the most widespread and effectively used steels. Including other elements such as nickel, nitrogen and manganese, it contains 0.15% carbon and 16% chromium. It is ductile and also
highly corrosion resistance.
Martensitic stainless steels They are low carbon steels with composition of iron, 12% chromium, and 0.12% carbon. It has also nickel added (2%)
for improved corrosion resistance. .Martensitic stainless steel are magnetic and
can be hardened by heat treating. The martensitic grades are primarily used
where hardness, strength, and wear resistance are necessary. Martensitic stainless steel, containing the lowest alloy content of the three basic stainless steels
which has low cost, broadly used and heat treatable stainless steel. Normally,
it is used where corrosion is not severe (air, water, some chemicals, and food
acids). Typical applications include springs, cutlery, and highly stressed parts
requiring the combination of strength and corrosion resistance such as fasteners.
Ferritic stainless steels These types contain chromium in the range
of 12% to 27% and whose structure consists largely of ferrite. Such steels have
good ductility and are easily worked but can not go through the processes of
hardening or tempering. Ferritic steel can be successfully used in sea water as
it is highly resistant to corrosion, in washing machines, boilers, automotive trim
and architectural shield.
Tool and die steels They have carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%
and they are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the
necessary quality. Tool and die steels are high carbon steels have high hardness,
strength and wear resistance. They are heat treatable. To increase hardness
and wear resistance of tool steels, chromium, tungsten, vanadium, manganese,
and molybdenum are added to the composition.
Cast steels The differences between steel castings and its wrought steel are
mainly in the method of production. In the case of wrought products (rolled or
forged) are mechanically worked to produce sheet, bar, tube and other product
forms. On the other hand, steel castings are produced in the final product form
without any intermediate mechanical working. Steel castings are almost net
shape products. High carbon cast steels offer very good wear resistance. The
differences between cast steel and cast iron is, later has higher carbon content
of over 2% than cast steel. Both cast irons and cast steels have good physical
characteristics such as wear resistance, creep resistance, etc.
Cast steels and wrought steels of the same composition, have similar mechanical properties. However, more complicated products can be made in one
single step by using steel casting. Steel castings are used for extremly important
components in the mining, railroad, truck, construction, military, and oil and
30

gas industries. Typical products include, valves, pumps, tooling and industry
parts. Cast steels with high yield strength in low temperature environment and
good weldability are used for offshore structures. Because of its creep resistant,
cast steels play an important role in fossil fuel fired power plants.
Non-ferrous metals
They are any metals that do not contain iron in noticeable amounts. Although
non-ferrous metals are relatively more expensive they are used over ferrous metals because of their low weight, higher strength, nonmagnetic properties, higher
melting points, or resistance to chemical and atmospheric corrosion.
Some of the important non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead,
nickel, tin, titanium and zinc, and alloys such as brass. Precious metals such
as gold, silver and platinum and exotic or rare metals such as cobalt, mercury,
tungsten are also non-ferrous metals. Some of them are discussed below.
Aluminum
Pure aluminum is a silvery-white metal with many attractive characteristics.
However, it is soft with low strength. With alloying addition of small amounts
of copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and other elements to aluminum
creates aluminum alloys with desirable properties. Many different kinds of aluminum alloys are available and their properties are given in Table B-5 in Appendix B.
Aluminum is enormously available in the earths crust and substantially recyclable. However, it is not readly available in the nature, the Bayer process is
used to refine aluminum from bauxite, an aluminum ore. Aluminum is excellent
thermal and electrical conductor, highly corrosion resistant in air and water,
non-toxic, non-magnetic, and it can be formed in almost any shape.
Aluminum alloys are used in building and construction industries, aeronautical, aviation and automotive industries, manufacture of electrical products,
packaging and containers, and in many other applications.
Copper
Copper provides a different range of properties good thermal and electrical conductivity, high resistance against corrosion, ease of forming and joining. Copper
is non-magnetic, non-sparking and non-bacterial. However, copper and its alloys have relatively low strength-to-weight ratios. Some copper alloys are also
subject to stress-corrosion cracking unless they are stress relieved.
Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their main component.
Best known copper alloys are: the brasses (zinc is a significant addition) and
bronzes (tin is a significant addition) are available in rod, plate, strip, sheet,
tube shapes, forgings, and wire. With moderate strength and high fatigue resistance, copper alloys are main metals for electrical applications. Properties of
copper are given in Table B-6 and Table B-7 in Appendix B.
Zinc
Zinc is inexpensive and enormously available metal in Earths crust with many
industrial and biological uses. It has relatively low melting point (419.5 C) and
boiling point (907 C). Its strength and hardness is considerably less than that
of aluminum or copper. Zinc is not a strong metal with a tensile strength less
than half that of mild carbon steel. Therefore, it is generally not used in stressed
applications. One of the most important characteristics of zinc is its resistance to
atmospheric corrosion. Fifty percent of its use is for the protection of steelwork.
31
Table 6.5: Common magnesium alloys.*

Alloy
Designation
Alloying
Additivies
Uses &
Applications
Reasons
for Use
AZ91
9.0 % Al-0.7 % Zn-0.13 % Mn
AM60
6.0 % Al-0.15% Mn
General casting
alloy
High pressure die
casting alloy
AZ31
3.0 % Al-1.0 % Zn-0.2 % Mn
Good castability, good mechanical

properties at T<150 C.
Greater toughness and ductility
than AZ91, slightly lower strength.
Often preferred for automotive
structural applications.
Good extrusion alloy.
ZE41
4.2 % Zn-1.2 % RE-0.7 % Zr
AS41
4.2 % Al-1.0 % Si
Wrought magnesium
products
Specialist casting
alloy
General casting
alloy
Rare earth addition improves creep

strength at elevated temperatures.
Pressure tight.
Better creep resistance than AZ91
at elevated temperatures but lower
strength.
*Reprented with permission of ASM International. All right reserved. www.engineershandbook.com.

Zamak is a family of alloys with a base metal of zinc and alloying elements of
aluminium, magnesium, and copper. Some of the commercially available zamak
alloys are given in Table B-8 in Appendix B.
ZA alloys with a base metals of zinc and aluminum along with other minor
additions of magnesium and copper were developed for gravity casting. The
numbers associated with the alloy name represent the amount of aluminum in
the alloy. For example, ZA8 means alloy has 8% aluminum. Some of the ZA
alloys are also given in Table B-8 in Appendix B.
Magnesium
Magnesium is a relatively strong, malleable, ductile, silvery-white, and lightweight metal (one third lighter than aluminum) that slightly blackens when
exposed to air. Since it has low modulus of elasticity and high damping capacity,
magnesium alloys can absorb energy elastically.
Since magnesium has favorable strength-to-weight ratio, the use of magnesium alloys in aerospace is growing, mostly driven by the increasing importance
of fuel economy and the need to reduce weight. Die-cast magnesium parts are
used in the transport industry. The use of magnesium in aluminum alloys is
predominately in packaging applications. Common magnesium alloys are shown
in Table 6.5. Properties of magnesium alloys are given in Table B-9 in Appendix
B.
Nickel
Nickel (Ni) is one of the worlds most useful metal. It is shiny, silvery-white looking, well known for being ductile, corrosion and oxidation resistant. It has high
melting point, magnetic at room temperature, and can be deposited by electroplating. Its unique qualities make it useful for stainless steel, nonferrous alloys,
and superalloys production. Its wide range of applications include televisions,
rechargeable batteries, CD/DVD pressing. It is also used in nickel electroplating
and nickel plating.
32

Properties of nickel alloys are given in Table B-10 in Appendix B. As listed
in this table, nickel 200 is used in food processing equipment, chemical shipping drums, piping, aerospace and missile components. Nickel 201 is needed
over nickel 200 for applications involving exposure to temperature above 316 C.
Permanickel alloy 300 is used for magnetostriction devices, thermostat contact
arms, solid-state capacitors, springs, clips, an fuel cells. Duranickel alloy 301 is
an age- hardenable high nickel alloy which has high strength and hardness, good
corrosion resistance, and good spring properties.
Nickel-copper alloys have high strength, good weldability, excellent corrosion
resistance, and toughness. Nickel-chromium-iron alloys, are developed for high
temperature oxidizing environments. Nickel-iron-chromium alloys are used in
high temperature environments where resistance to oxidation or corrosion is
required. Nickel-iron alloys are used for curing composite airframe components,
for semiconductor lead frames and glass sealing applications. Nickel-chromiummolybdenum alloys preferred for severe corrosion environments. Nickel-powder
alloys have high creep-rupture strength and is also age hardenable that results
with high strength at low temperatures up to 700 C.9
Titanium
Titanium is widely found in the Earths crust. It is an extremely strong, light
metal alloy. It is 60% heavier than aluminum, but it is twice as strong. Because
of their unique properties, titanium alloys are crucial to the aerospace industry,
medical, chemical and military applications. Pure titanium is a shiny white
metal with low density, high strength, and high corrosion resistance. Titanium
can be alloyed with iron, aluminum, vanadium, molybdenum, including other
elements, to produce strong lightweight alloys for many industrial applications.
Properties of different grades of titanium are given in Table B-11 in Appendix
B.
6.3.2
Ceramics
The word ceramic is from the Greek work keramic which means made of clay. In
the past, ceramic has been used as a material mainly for pottery and tableware.
Ceramic is a non-organic material made from compounds formed between metallic and non-metallic elemnts. In general, they are brittle and porous. Recently,
advanced developments have made ceramics to become tougher, more workable,
and useful in wider range of fields.
Ceramic materials can be crystalline or non-crystalline. Non-crystalline ceramics, such as glasses, are formed from melts. If glass goes through heattreatment it becomes partly crystalline. This resulting material is called glassceramic. Carbon ceramic materials are significantly strengthened by the inclusion of carbon fibers. They are lightweight, remarkably strong and able to
operate at very high temperatures. For example, 1500 C (2732 F). Ceramic
materials are very strong, stiff, brittle, and chemically inert. Although ceramic
is widely used to make electrical insulators, some ceramic compounds are superconductors. Ceramic is a material for harsh environments that make it ideal
for the paper processing industry. Although common uses for ceramic today are
still tableware, pottery, and tiles, ceramics are now used in bullet proof vests,
cars, computers, toys, and repair material for dentures.
Diamond is a material with outstanding features such as extraordinarily hard,
conducts heat well and is practically inert to chemical substances. Especially
high-performance ceramics are also able to demonstrate special qualities such as
they are robust and withstands extreme temperatures. The composite material,
9 Mechanical
Engineers, handbook, 2nd addition, Wiley, New York, 1998.
33
diamond-coated ceramics brings the best of both materials together. Places

where components and tools are subjected to heavy strain such as in pumps or
forming and shaping dies, ceramic composites are used. It provides maximum
wear-resistance with low values of friction. For more information see reference10
6.3.3
Polymers
Polymers are giant organic molecules composed of a long, repeating chain of

smaller subunits called monomers. Polymers have the highest molecular weight
among any molecules, and may consist of billions of atoms. It is interesting to
know that human DNA is a polymer consist of over 20 billion atoms. Polymers,
both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many monomers.
Many synthetic polymers are called plastic which comes from the Greek word
plastikos, suitable for molding or shaping. Plastics are divided into three main
categories which are themoplastics, thermosets, elatsomers.
Thermoplastics
When heated, thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition. Thermoplastic materials can be formed into desired shapes under heat and
pressure and returns to a solids upon cooling. If the same process is repeated
with the same conditions of heat and pressure, they can be remolded again and
again. Five common types of thermoplastics are polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, ABS, and acrylics.
Although polyethylene has a wide variety of uses, it can be harmful to the
environment. Its applications include gallon milk jugs, lawn chairs, garbage
cans, and disposable gloves, etc.
In general, polypropylene has certain advantages in improved strength, stiffness and higher temperature capability over polyethylene. Its application may
include dishes, automobile parts, and sterillizable hospital tools, etc.
Extruded polystyrene is lighter and has as much tensile strength as unalloyed
aluminum. Polystyrene materials are used to make a variety of molded products
such as plastic tableware, CD cases and model cars, etc.
ABS (combination of acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene monomers) has
good impact strength compare to polystyrene. ABS is used for tough consumer
products such as refrigigerator door liners, telephones, interior automative trims
etc.
One of the most common acrylic plastic is polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA),
which is sold under the brand names of Plexiglas, Lucite, Perspex, and Crystallite. PMMA is a durable, highly transparent, and it has excellent resistance
to ultraviolet radiation and weathering. The applications are included: airplane
windshields, skylights, windows , automobile taillights, contact lenses, and outdoor signs, etc.
Thermosets
Thermosets can melt and take shape once under heat and pressure and cannot
be remolded after they have solidified, they stay solid. Cured thermoset materials can be soften when heated, but do not melt or flow. Curing changes the
material permanently. In general, thermoset materials are stronger than thermoplastics due to polymer cross-linking and have a higher resistance to heat.
Thermoset molding components have excellent dimensional stability, resist creep
under load at elevated temperatures, and provide excellent thermal properties.
10 A powerful duo: diamond and ceramic, http://www.fraunhofer.de/en/press/researchnews/2010/05/diamond-coated-ceramics.html, accessed: September 4, 2013.
34

They are more brittle than thermoplastics and many cannot be recycled due
to irreversibility. Thermoset materials are very suitable for high-temperature
applications.
Elastomer
Synthetic rubbers known as elastomer is a polymer with low Youngs modulus
compared with other materials. Elastomers can be stretched to several times
their original length, and can return back into their original shape without permanent deformation. Elastomers are extensively used in automotive, aerospace,
defence, and sport industries and many other applications such as dental products, electrical products, paints and coatings, appliance parts, cement and concrete adhesives, special wood protection coatings, medical and dental adhesives.
Properties of different types of plastics are given in Table B-12 in Appendix
B.
6.3.4
Composites
In general, composites are made of two phases matrix and reinforcement. The
matrix is a less stiff and weaker material than the reinforcement and used to
hold the reinforcement together to provide the main load-carrying capability of
the composite.
Composite materials are usually used for buildings, bridges, swimming pool
panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, and storage tanks, imitation
granite and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. The fibers and matrix of
advanced composites are used by the aerospace and automotive industry.
Different combinations of materials will create different kind of composite
materials. Three main catagories of composites are:
Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMC) Polymer-matrix composite is the
material made up of a polymer (resin) matrix combined with a fibrous
reinforcing dispersed phase. Polymer-matrix composite are very desirable
due to their low cost and simple fabrication process.
Metal-Matrix Composites (MMC) Metal-matrix composites having high
specific stiffness and with almost zero coefficient of thermal expansion
(CTE), have been developed for space applications.
Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMC) Ceramic matrix composites, a material that combines the heat resistance of ceramics with the strength of
metal. Important aviation applications of this material include combustor
liners and blades.
6.3.5
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity such as copper and is insulator such as glass. Semiconductors are the substance of solid
state electronics (transistors, solar cells, etc.) and digital and analog integrated
circuits.
6.3.6
New Materials
New materials are necessary for innovative new design development. Big spikes
in design fields are often related with the innovation of new materials that impact
not only the feasible solutions but the very nature of design problems. The
35
development and application of new materials may provide more safe, economical
and stringent design.
Material atoms can be combined in new ways to produce new materials with
smart properties. For example, a window glass changes color to control the
room temperature. New materials can be developed from existing materials by
applying high pressure, temperature, electric or magnetic fields. Some examples
of new materials are as following:
Smart Materials
Smart materials can considerably change their mechanical or other properties
in a controllable manner. Based on input and output, the smart materials are
classified as follows:
Shape Memory Alloys The field of smart materials is growing rapidly,
with one of the most fascinating areas being that of shape memory alloys. A shape memory alloy can undergo significant plastic deformation,
and then returns to its original shape by the application of heat. Nickeltitanium-copper, Gold-cadmium, and Nickel-titanium are good examples
for the shape memory alloys. Some of the examples of applications of
shape memory alloys are: Micro-actuators, thermostats, electrical circuit
breakers, fire dampers, and many medical applications.
Magnetostrictive Materials Magnetostrictive materials exhibit change
in shape when exposed to a magnetic field. Some of the applications of
magnetostrictive materials are: Actuators, transducers, magnetostrictive
film applications, sensors and many other applications. Magnetostrictive
materials include nickel and alloys such as Fe-Ni, Co-Ni, and many others.
Piezoelectric Materials Piezoelectric materials produce an electric current if deformed by mechanical stress. The Piezoelectric process is also reversible: creating deformation due to the application of an electrical field.
Some of the applications of piezoelectric materials are: mechanical sensor
to pick up a mechanical deformation, used as an actuator, used for imaging, mostly in medicine, used as gas lighters. The most commonly known
piezoelectric material is quartz Quartz (SiO2 ), berlinite (AlP O4 ), barium titanate (BaT iO3 ), zinc oxide (ZnO), Aluminum Nitride (AlN ).
Electro-Rheological Fluids Electro-Rheological (ER) fluids change their
physical properties when exposed an electric field. They can be transformed from the liquid state into the solid state like gel in milliseconds by
applying an electric or a magnetic field. The change is reversible once the
electrical field is removed. Electro-Rheological (ER) fluids research area
produced significant impacts on automobile industry, bridge and building
construction, aerospace industry, defense industry, design of fast actuated
hydraulic devices, energy production and energy conservation.
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be metals, ceramics, polymeric materials, or composite materials. Their defining characteristic is containing nanoparticles, smaller than
100 nanometres in at least one dimension. Nanomaterials properties are different from those of the same materials with micron- or mm-scale dimensions
and intentionally produced and designed with very specific properties related to
shape, size, surface properties and chemistry. Its relative-surface area is one of
the main factors that increase its reactivity, strength and electrical properties.
36

The applications of nanomaterials include, but are not limited to: better insulation and absorption materials, low-cost flat-panel displays, superior cutting
tools, high energy density batteries, high-sensitivity sensors, automobiles with
better fuel efficiency, fuel cells, reliable satellites design, coatings, nano balls
bearings, nanoscale magnetic materials in data storage device, and nanostructured membranes for water purification.
Although many potentially beneficial applications exist, in contrast, many
scientific institutions and government organizations across the world have underscored the need to assess their possible health and environmental risks. Among
them, worker protection during manufacture, use of nanomaterials, safe disposal
of engineered nanomaterials, disposing of contaminated equipment, contamination of soil, air, and water.
Bio-materials
Biomaterials are any natural or manmade materials that interacts with biological
systems. They are used to replace natural functions. Biomaterials are used to fill
bony defects, an implant for young children that resorbs after the bodys bones
have healed, used to provide faster healing and reducing complications, used in
dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. Some examples of biomaterials
are: a knee brace, contact lens, breast implant, heart transplant.
6.4
Machinability of Metals
Machinability of a material can be defined as the ease or difficulty with which

it can be machined. Machinability changes on the physical properties and the
cutting conditions of the material. Materials with good machinability require
minimum power to machine, can be cut relatively fast, easily obtain a good
finish, and do not wear the tooling as much.
There is no quantitative measurement on the machinability of a material. In
general, machinability is expressed as a percentage or a normalized value. The
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has determined AISI No. 1112 carbon
steel a machinability rating of 100%. Machinability of different materials based
on 100% machinability for AISI 1212 steel are given in Table B-13 in Appendix
B.
6.5
Material Selection
Selecting proper materials and understanding the fabrication processes related

with design are two of the most critical responsibilities of a design engineer.
In some cases, materials selection for a product design can be a challenging
task, especially when multi objectives and constraints such as minimum weight,
flexible, strong, minimum cost, environmental impact, and recyclable etc., are
considered.
A primary design requirement in the selection of a material for a product
design is that the material be capable of meeting the design service life requirement at the least cost. For a defined service life, the designer normally narrows
available choices to a few candidate materials by using trade offs analysis. The
final selection of a particular material can be made from past experience with
similar materials. Selecting materials based on past experience is still common
because the designer feels confident in using a tried and proven material.
For initial selection of candidate materials for a product design can also be
performed by using Ashby charts shown in Figures 6.21 and 6.22. These charts
37
Figure 6.21: Ashby chart forYoungs modulus versus density. (Reprinted from: Ashby, MF. On the engineering
properties of materials Acta Metallurgica, 37, p. 1278, 1989.)
provide physical insight into trade-offs (usually between product performance

and cost) by pairing properties which must normally both should be considered
at once. This process will help to prevent the need to work with many material
property tables. Ashby materials selection charts are a unique graphical way of
presenting material property data. These charts provide the materials property
data as balloons in an easy way to compare and show the relative position for all
of the materials being considered for a specific design application. This will help
to focus on possible candidates, and also helps to develop physical insight for the
relative performance of materials. When data for a given material class such as
metals, ceramics, composites, and polymers are plotted, as shown in Figure 6.22
38
Figure 6.22: Ashby chart for strength versus density. (Reprinted from: Ashby, MF. On the
engineering properties of materials Acta Metallurgica, 37, p. 1280, 1989.)
they are grouped in an enclosed field balloon. These distinct balloons which
define the ranges of their properties may overlap and may have little balloons
within their enclosed region.
6.5.1
Material Performance Requirements
Material properties and characteristics cover a broad range of parameters and

play an important role in satisfying the design requirements. In general, material
strength has three distinct elements11 :
11 A. Ertas, and J. C. Jones, The Engineering Design Process, Second Addition, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1996.
39
1. Static strength. The ability to withstand a constant load at ambient temperature.

2. Fatigue strength. The ability to withstand a time-dependent fluctuating
load.
3. Creep strength. The ability to withstand a load at elevated temperatures
over a sufficiently long time.
Although strength of the material is important for performance requirements,
for minimum weight design, material density is also important. Namely, product
performance is not limited by only one property and one should compare materials based on several properties at once. High strength is desired for many design
applications, however, it should be remembered that machining and processing
of high strength material are costly. To increase the strength of the product by
changing its shape (geometry) may also effect the processing of the material and
consequently the cost. Functionality of the final product depends on the choice
of the material and the shape. All the parameters mentioned in this section for
material performance are interrelated. Then, one should conclude that materials
selection should be based on the following criteria:
Functionality of the product
Shape of the product (geometry)
Properties of the material used (material strength)
Process used in manufacturing
Cost
Reliability and the material capability of meeting design service life requirement
6.5.2
Material Performance Indicies
Usually, performance depends on a combination of properties, and then the best

material is selected by optimizing one or more material performance indices. A
material performance index is a group of material properties which governs some
aspect of the performance of a product.12,13
There are two kinds of effects inherently associated with any product or
system:
1. Undesirable effects, such as high cost, excessive weight, large deflections,
and vibrations.
2. Desirable effects, such as light weight, long useful life, efficient energy
output, good power transmission capability, and high cooling capacity.
Optimum design can be defined as the best possible design from the standpoint of
the most significant effects, that is, minimizing the most significant undesirable
effects and/or maximizing the most significant desirable effects.
Application of optimization to a design problem requires functionality of the
product to be designed, formulation of an objective function such as weight, cost,
or shape, the expression of design constraints as equalities or inequalities, and
design variables (desirable and free design variables) from which an optimum
solution is sought.
12 Ashby,
13 Ashby,
1293, 1989.
MF. Materials selection in mechanical design Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1992.

MF. On the engineering properties of materials Acta Metallurgica, 37, pp. 1273-
40

Material indices are derived from the objective function of the optimization,
as illustrated by the following example.
EXAMPLE 6.10
Define the material performance index for a light, stiff solid cylinder in bending shown in Figure 6.23.
SOLUTION
Figure 6.23:
Solid cylinder
under bending.
In this problem, desirable function is to support bending load, P objective is to

minimize the mass, m, constraints are length of the solid cylinder and the the
stiffness, Sb . Free design variable are the cross sectional area and the material
to be used. The objective function to be minimized is
m = V = L(r2 )
where r, and V are the radius, density and volume of the cyclinder, respectively.
The design constraint stiffness in bending, Sb is given by (see Figure F-1 in
Appendix F)
Sb =
48EI
P
=
L3
where E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the second moment of area, and is the
central deflection. The second moment of area, I for cylindrical cross sectional
area is given by (see Figure E-1 in Appendix E)
I=
r4
4
t The area A and consequently r are the free design variables to be considered
to minimize the mass, while satisfying the constraints. Substituting I in the
stiffness equation and eliminating r using mass and stiffness equations, we have
m=
1/2
L5/2 [Sb ]
1/2
2(3)
E 1/2
For a given bending stiffness Sb = P/, the weight of the solid beam is minimized
(performance is maximized) when material performance index, Mpi = E 1/2 /
has the largest value.
As shown in Example 6.10, If the desire is to design a light but stiff structure,
then we want to choose a material that has a high stiffness E to density ratio.
In another words, (E 1/2 /) must be maximized. Let the material performance
index, M P be a constant quantity
MP =
E 1/2
=C
Rewriting Eq. 6.36 by taking the base-10 logarithm of both sides gives
(6.36)
41
1
log E = log C + log
2
(6.37)
log E = 2 log C + 2 log
(6.38)
or
Eq. 6.38 represents a straight line equation as

Y = a + bx
(6.39)
where b=2 is the slope of the straight line. Eq. 6.38 provides a family of parallel
straight line plots of logE versus log all having a slope of 2. Each line, called
design guidelines , in the family corresponds to a different material performance
index,
M P1
M P2
M P3
0.11/2
E 1/2
=
= 3.16 103
0.1
E 1/2
11/2
=
= 1.0 104
0.1
E 1/2
101/2
=
= 3.16 104
0.1
As shown in Figure 6.21 only three material performance indices are included.
All materials that lie on one of these lines will perform same in terms of stiffnessper-mass basis. However, materials on line for M P3 will perform better than
materials on lines for M P1 and M P2 .
EXAMPLE 6.11
Define the material performance index for a light, strong solid cylinder in
bending shown in Example 6.10.
SOLUTION
In this problem, desirable function is to support bending load, P . Objective is
to minimize the mass, m, constraints are length of the solid cylinder and the the
bending strength, b . Free design variable are the cross sectional area and the
material to be used. The objective function to be minimized is
m = V = L(r2 )
where r, and V are the radius, density and volume of the cyclinder, respectively.
The design constraint bending strength in bending, b is given by
b =
Mc
I
where, for the maximum fiber stress, c = r, I = r4 /4, and maximum bending,
M = P L/2. Then
b =
2P L
r3
42

The area A and consequently radius, r are the free design variables to be considered to minimize the mass, while satisfying the constraints. Solving r from
bending stress equation and substituting into mass equation, we have
m = (4)1/3 (L5 P 2 )1/3 (
2/3
b
For a given L and P , the above result shows that the weight of the solid beam is
2/3
minimized when material performance index, M P =
has the largest value.
As shown in Example 6-11, If the desire is to design a light but strong

structure, then we want to choose a material that has a high strength, to
density ratio. In another words, ( 2/3 /) must be maximized. Let the material
performance index, M P be a constant quantity
MP =
2/3
=C
(6.40)
Rewriting Eq. 6.40 by taking the base-10 logarithm of both sides gives
2
log = log C + log
3
(6.41)
or
log =
3
3
log C + log
2
2
(6.42)
Eq. 6.42 represents a straight line equation as

Y = a + bx
(6.43)
where b=3/2 is the slope of the straight line. Eq 6.42 provides a family of parallel
straight line plots of log versus log all having a slope of 3/2. Each line, called
design guidelines , in the family corresponds to a different material performance
index,
M P1
M P2
M P3
1.02/3
2/3
=
= 10.0 104
0.1
2/3
102/3
=
= 46.3 104
0.1
2/3
1002/3
=
= 214.8 104
0.1
Three material performance indices M P1 , M P2 , and M P3 are shown in Figure 6.22.
43

Table 6.6: Mechanical properties of material candidates.
High strength steel

Aliminum alloy
Titanium alloy
2/3
S/
MP (S )
Mg/m3
7.7
2.7
4.5
MPa
1700
350
1100
MPa/(Mg/m3 )
221
130
244
(MPa)2/3 /(Mg/m3 )
18.4
18.3
23.6
Material
EXAMPLE 6.12
Identify material candidates for a light but strong rotating shaft under bending loads for a double overhung integrally geared centrifugal compression
stage shown in Figure 6.24. Consider following design creterion:
1. Use material performance index, M P1 shown in Figure 6.25 for material candidate selection.
2. Strength of the rotating solid bar under bending should not be less
than 250 MPa.
Figure 6.24:
Rotating machinery.
3. Material cost.
SOLUTION
In this problem, strength will be designated by S instead of . The two constraints material performance index, M P1 and strength>250 MPa defines the
shaded search region as shown in Figure 6.25. Within this region possible material candidates are:
Carbon fiber-reinforced composite
Glass fiber-reinforced composite
Aluminum alloy
Titanium alloy
High strength steel
Ceramics
Although composite materials have high strength to weight ratio, compared
to metals, for this application composites may not be practical solution due to
the cost consideration. Ceramic materials are more brittle than their metallic
counterparts, and carry a greater risk of catastrophic failure when fatigue loading
under high speed is exist. Therefore, ceramic materials will be eliminated from
the consideration. As shown in Table 6.6, three remaining materials Aluminum
alloy, Titanium alloy, and High strength steel will be evaluated and compared.
The results in Table 6.6 substantiate that aluminum alloy can clearly be eliminated from the selection process because of its low strength/weight (S/) ratio.
The question is which material to select from the remaining two. Titanium has
a high strength/weigh ratio and better material performance index. However,
because of the higher cost (twice as much) of the titanium compared with the
steel, selected material candidates would be steel.
44
Figure 6.25: Ashby chart for strength versus density. (Adapted from: Ashby, MF. On the
engineering properties of materials Acta Metallurgica, 37, p. 1280, 1989.)
6.6
Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys
Describing materials by a numbering system is crucial in order to find the proper

metal, or make an intelligent substitution. One should be careful when making
substitutions by chemical comparisons alone. Depending on the manufacturing
processes used, metals with the identical chemical compositions may have quite
different mechanical properties. Thus, the correct material with the correct
specification should be used.
Many numbering systems have been developed for metals and alloys by trade
associations, professional engineering societies, standards organizations, and by
private industries for their own use. Most common numbering systems are:
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) numbering system, The
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) numbering system, Unified Numbering
System (UNS) developed by the National Bureau of Standards in the USA, and
CEN standards, a numbering system developed for European.
45

Table 6.7: SAE numbering for carbon and alloy steels.
Metal Type(s)
Carbon Steels
Nickel steels
Nickel-chromium steels
Molybdenum steels
Chromium steels
Chromium-vanadium steels
Tungsten-chromium steels
Silicon-manganese steels
6.6.1
Numbers Designating
Material Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SAE Numbering System
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) uses a four-digit numbering system

such as (1XXX) to define a carbon and alloy steel and their specific chemical
composition. The first digit (1), indicates a carbon steel. The second digit of the
numbering system shows the concentration of the major element in percentiles
(1 equals 1%). The last two digits show the carbon content of the steel alloy in
weight percent. Table 6.7 shows the SAE numbering for alloy steels for the first
digit. For example SAE 4130 indicates a molybdenum steels (number 4 in the
table), containing 1% of molybdenum and 0.30% of carbon.
Note that, initially numbering designation was called SAE-AISI system because SAE and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) worked together
to create a four-digit numbering system. The American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) stopped writing material specifications with SAE.
6.6.2
ASTM Standards
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is an international

standards organization that develops and publishes technical standards for a
wide range of materials, products, systems, and services. ASTM standards
(consensus standards) can usually be considered into two types. First one is a
product standard that provides various different categories of the materials and
the other is procedure standard that gives the methods of testing to determine
compliance with the individual product standards.
In ASTM numbering system, if the designation for a forged carbon steel
piece, A105 is written as (A105-69T Gr. 1030), the 1st letter indicates general
classification, namely A stands for ferrous material. If the first letter is B it
means that the material is non-ferrous. 2nd number 105 is the serial number
of specification. 3rd number 69 is the year of adoption or last revision, in this
case 1969. If a T is behind date it represents a tentative specification. 4th
number is a Grade, Alloy or Class.
Large number of the ASTM specifications has been adopted by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) with almost no modification; the only
dofference is ASME uses the prefix S for their numbering system. For example,
ASME-SA105 and ASTM A105 are same.
46

Table 6.8: UNS Categories.
UNS Series
AXXXXX
CXXXXX
DXXXXX
EXXXXX
FXXXXX
GXXXXX
HXXXXX
JXXXXX
KXXXXX
LXXXXX
MXXXXX
NXXXXX
PXXXXX
RXXXXX
SXXXXX
TXXXXX
WXXXXX
ZXXXXX
6.6.3
Metal Type(s)
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
Copper and copper alloys
Specified mechanical property steels
Rare earth and rare earthlike metals and alloys
Cast irons
AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels (except tool steels)
AISI and SAE H-steels
Cast steels (except tool steels)
Steels, including Maraging, Stainless Steel, HSLA,
Iron-Base Superalloys
Lead Alloys, including Babbit Alloys and Solder Alloys
Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys
Nickel and nickel alloys
Precious metals and alloys
Reactive and refractory metals and alloys
Heat and corrosion resistant (stainless) steels
Tool steels, wrought and cast
Welding filler metals
Zinc and zinc alloys
Unified Numbering System (UNS)
The Unified Numbering System was developed by the Society of Automotive

Engineers (SAE) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
to create uniformity among metal and alloy identifications. UNS is a systematic
structure in which each metal is designated by a letter followed by five numbers.
For example, a letter S indicates stainless steel alloys, T indicates tool steels,
and so on. Table 6.8 shows the material types and their designated letters. For
example SAE-AISI 1018 steel becomes UNS G10180.
47
PROBLEMS
6-1 A 100 mm circular steel bar was stretched 2 mm by a force of 120 N. If
the diameter of the circular bar is 20 mm calculate the elastic modulus of
the bar.
6-2 Three steel rods holding a tower against wind is under a tension of 20,000
N. If the diameter of each rod is 30 mm and the original length is 10 m
calculate the stretch of the rod. Use E=207 GPa for steel (see Table B-1
in Appendix B).
6-3 Calculate the Poissons ratio of stainless steel using Equation 3-11. Use
E=190 GPa and G=74.1 GPa for stainless steel (see Table B-1 in Appendix
B).
6-4 A 2 mm in diameter and 1.0 meter length steel rod is supporting 500 kg
steel block. If elastic modulus, E for wire is 200 GPa what is the extension
in the wire?
6-5 A 4 in long steel pipe is stressed to its yield point. When the load is
removed what is the final length of the steel pipe.
6-6 Calculate the applied force, P to create 1% reduction in diameter of a steel
bar. Assume that the original diameter of the bar is 12 mm, the material
elastic modulus, E=207 GPa, and the Poissons ratio is 0.3.
Figure P6.7
Stress-strain curve.
6-7 From the stress-strain curve obtained in tension test given in Figure P3.7
(note that, only initial part of the test result is given in this figure), determine:
(a) The modulus of elasticity,
(b) The yield strength, and
(c) The maximum tension load before yield that can be applied on a steel
rod in 2 in diameter.
6-8 As shown in Figure P3-8, a 1,000 kg sign is hanged by two steel rods with
the diameter of 6 mm. Calculate:
Figure P6.8
Sign.
(a) The tension in rod,

(b) The stress in the rod,
(c) The strain in the rod, and
(d) The stretch in the rod if the original legth, L0 = 30 cm.
6-9 Which of the steel materials shown in Figure P3-9 provides
(a) Maximum strength
(b) Maximum stiffness
(a) Maximum modulus of resilience
(a) Maximum modulus of toughness
Figure P6.9
6-10 If a metal has a strength of 414 MPa at the elastic limit with the strain of
Comparison of stress-strain
0.2%, calculate the modulus of elasticity.
curves.
6-11 Hypothetical stress-strain curve for G43400 cold drawn steel is shown in
Figure P3-11.
48
Figure P6.11
Hypothetical stress-strain curve for G43400 cold drawn steel.
(a) Identify the elastic, plastic, yielding, strain hardening, necking regions.
(b) What is the yield strength?
(c) What is the elastic modulus?
(d) Calculate the modulus of resilience.
(e) Calculate the modulus of toughness.
(f) How well Figure P3-11 represents G43400 cold drawn steel.
6-12 A tensile test specimen have an original diameter of 12.8 mm at the center.
After fracture at f =500 MPa, measured diameter of the specimen is 10
mm.. Determine the ductility and the true stress at fracture.
6-13 S41400 steel is heat-treated at 400 F to 415 Brinell hardness number.
Estimate the ultimate strength of the steel for this hardness.
6-14 Cold worked carbon steel has 150 Brinell hardness number. Estimate the
yield strength of the material for this hardness.
6-15 Estimate the Brinell hardness of a steel material if the diameter of the ball,
D=10 mm, indentation diameter, d= 5 mm, and the applied force, P =
3,000 kgf.
6-16 Referring to question 3-9, if the Brinell hardness of the steel material is
150 estimate the indentation diameter, d.
6-17 If the indentation diameter, d is 4 mm estimate the Brinell hardness of a
low-alloy steel with tensile strength of 545 N/mm2 . Whar is the hardness
interm of Rockwell-B and Vickers?
3-18 Calculate the Vickers hardness number if the applied force, F is equal to
50 kgf. Assume that the two diagonals, d1 and d2 are 0.5 mm and 0.6 mm
respectively.
6-19 What is the reason of annealing an alloy? Explain in detail.
6-20 What is the reason of quenching steel? Explain in detail.
6-21 What kind of metals can be forged? Compare them.
49
Figure P6.25
Catastrophic failure of T2 oil tanker.
6-22 What are the possible health and environmental risks of nanomaterials?
Explain how you can eliminate these resks using the concept of Prevention
through Design (See Chapter 1 for Prevention through Design).
6-23 What kind of material would you select for a car bumpers? Explain why.
6-24 To demolish large buildings, a wrecking ball hung from a crane is used.
What kind of material properties would you select for the wrecking ball?
Explain why.
6-25 As shown in Figure 3-25, the T2 oil tankers splitted in two in cold weather
built in large quantities in the United States during World War II. Investigate the reasons for failure.
6-26 A metal rod is loaded in tension beyond its yield strength. Assume that
the original gage length, L0 =40 mm. Measurements during the two steps
loading show that
Figure P6.27
Steel bar with residual
stresses and subjected to an 6-27 Steel bar 0.05 m in diameter subjected 950 kN external load shown in
Figure 3-27 has yield strength of 600 MPa. Steel bar also has residual
external loading.
stresses as shown in the figure (c =150 MPa and t =150 MPa). Determine
the safety factor guarding against yielding.
6-28 Steel rod shown in Figure 3-28 has t =450 MPa and c =450 MPa residual
stresses. If the length of the rod is 30 cm, how much the rod should
be stretched to eliminate the residual stresses when the load is removed.
Assume Sy =480 MPa.
6-29 Using Ashby material charts select four possible materials that can be
used for airplane landing gear cylinder. Explain each material candidates
advantages and disadvantages. Make your final selection from the four
material candidates and explain why.
Figure P6.28
Steel rod residual stresses.
6-30 Compressed natural gas (CNG) is an alternative to petroleum-based fuels

for the transportation sector. Because of its very low energy density, CNG
must be compressed in a cylinder to a pressure of 1625 MPa to store it
on board a vehicle. Using Ashby charts identify three materials which can
be used for pressure vessel design. Make your final selection and explain
why.
6-31 Fuel cells powered by hydrogen have the potential to significantly reduce
the dependence on oil and lower harmful emissions that contribute to climate change. Hydrogen storage is clearly one of the major challenges in
50

emerging hydrogen economy and hydrogen storage for vehicle and other
applications. Low storage performances are the main shortcoming of high
pressure vessels in hydrogen storage.
Using Ashby charts identify four materials to design hydrogen storage tank
at 10,000 psi for vehicles. Make your final selection and explain why.
6-32 Drive the material performance index based on cos-strength and coststiffness for the solid cylinder in bending shown in Figure 6.23.
Figure P6.33
Structure parts of bi-plane.
6-33 A biplane shown in Figure P3-33 is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main
wings stacked one above the other. Eight main parts shown in the figure
are: Part 1- upper wing; Part 2- struts; Part 3- propeller; Part 4- landing
gear; Part 5- tire; Part 6- tensioned wire (wire braced ); Part 7- body of
the bi-plane; Part 8- tail assembly.
Considering cost, light wait, stiffness, and strength, determine the appropriate material choise by using Ashby charts for each parts of the bi-plane.
Explain the reasoning for material selection in detail.
51
Bibliography
1. Juvinall, R. C., Marshek, K. M., Fundamentals of Machine Component
Design. John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
2. Norton, R. L., Machine Design: An Integrated Approach. Prentice Hall,
NJ, 2006.
3. Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements. Macmillan, 1965.
4. Shigley, J. E., Mischke, C. R., and Budynas, R. G., Mechanical Engineering
Design. Mc Graw Hill, New York, 2004.
5. Ugural, A. C., Mechanical Design: An Integrated Approach. Mc Graw Hill,
New York, 2004.
6. Burr, A. H., Mechanical Analysis and Design. Elsevier, New York, 1982.
7. Hamrock, B. J., Jacobson, B., Schmid, S. R., Fundamentals of Machine
Elements. Mc Graw Hill, New York, 1999.
8. Collins, J. A., Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines.
John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
9. Kalpakjian, S., Schmid, S. R., Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials. Prentice Hall, NJ, 2008.
10. Deutschman, A. D., Michels, W. J., Wilson, C.E., Machine Design: Theory
and Practice. Macmillan Company, New York, 1975.

Materials For Design - Module 6

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials For Design - Module 6

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i

iTextBook Transdisciplinary Learning Modules

c 2014 by theATLAS Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a

Materials for Design

Figure 6.1: Result of tensile test.

The yield strength, Sy of a material is defined as the stress at which a material

Module 6. Materials for Design

Figure 6.3: Result of tensile test.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Materials for Design

Figure 6.4: Necking leading to fructure.

Module 6. Materials for Design

(20 103 )2 = 314 106 m2

True Stress-Strain Curve

Therefore, true strain, t is the instantaneous % change in length of test specimen

Using Eqs 6.5 and 6.6, we have

Materials for Design

t = ln(1 + e ) = ln(1 + 0.30) = 0.26 = 26% elongation.

Figure 6.6: Brittle and ductile materials behavior.

Module 6. Materials for Design

Figure 6.7: Block under tensile load.

Materials for Design

where the constant, G is a material property called shear modulus of elasticity

Module 6. Materials for Design

Using Eq.6.10 the stress, that must be applied is

Materials for Design

Figure 6.11: Relationship between Brinell hardness and yield strength

Relationship between Brinell hardness and yield strength, Sy is given by2

where c is a proportionality constant. For a perfectly plastic materials, the value

Module 6. Materials for Design

Rockwell Hardness The Rockwell hardness test method, as described in

where d is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm (see

Materials for Design

Module 6. Materials for Design

Figure 6.14: Relationship of hardness numbers (reprinted with the permission of

Materials for Design

Eq.6.21 can be approximated by

where el is the elastic limit. Eq.6.23 can be approximated as

(a) Pad material-A with Sy =20 MPa and E=4 MPa

Module 6. Materials for Design

Although material-B has smaller modulus of elasticity, material-A will be

Properties that define the behavior of materials in response to physical forces

Thermal expension Thermal expansion refers to the change in volume of

Materials for Design

Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity, is a measure of the ability

General understanding of the electrical properties of the materials is necessary

Module 6. Materials for Design

Electrical resistivity, r is the opposition of a material to the flow of electrical

Materials for Design

Processes Used to Alter the Properties of

Module 6. Materials for Design

Figure 6.16: (a) Strain hardening, (b) Examples of cold work.

Materials for Design

The total strain, T is given by

5 103 2.32 103 = 2.68 103 m/m

Strain Hardening and Residual Stresses

Module 6. Materials for Design

log t = log K + n log t

Calculation of parameters for the first point is as follows:

Materials for Design

Table 6.2: K and n values for selected metals and alloys.*