THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

THE NEED FOR AN ISLAMIC PEDAGOGY

By
MOHAMMED SABRIN

A Thesis submitted to the

Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Science

Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2010

Copyright 2009
Mohammed Sabrin
All Rights Reserve

The members of the committee approve the thesis of Mohammed Sabrin defended on April 8,
2010.

_________________________________
Peter Easton
Professor Directing Thesis
_________________________________
Jeffrey Milligan
Committee Member
_________________________________
Tom Luschei
Committee Member

Approved:
_________________________________________________________________
Patrice Iatarola, Chair, Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.

ii

In The Name Of Allah, And May The Peace And Blessings Of Allah Be Upon The
Messenger of Allah.
Oh Allah Accept This From Us, Undoubtedly You Are The
All-Hearing, All-Knowing (Qur'an 2:127)

Whatever is contained herein which is correct, then it is from the blessing of Allah,
and whatever is contained herein which is wrong, then it is from me.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................. v
Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Research questions ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Literature Review: Western Analogues to Islamic Pedagogy............................................................................... 6
Theory ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
Application ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Evaluating Our Lenses .................................................................................................................................... 13
Presentation of Data ............................................................................................................................................ 21
Knowledge in Islam ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy? ...................................................................................................... 30
Basis for Islamic Pedagogy in the English Sources? ...................................................................................... 34
Islamic Pedagogy Directly from the Quran, Sunnah, and Contemporary Arabic Works on the Topic ......... 46
Analysis of Data.................................................................................................................................................. 58
Islamic Pedagogy as it Relates to the Western Analogue of Ethical Caring ................................................... 58
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
List of References ............................................................................................................................................... 71
Biographical Sketch ............................................................................................................................................ 78

iv

ABSTRACT
For the neo-colonized Muslim ummah1 (nation) without a place to fully practice Islam
since the fall of the Ottoman Empire, there is pressing demand in the Muslim world for an
Islamic pedagogy extracted from the Quran and Sunnah (and the rich scholarship that exists
concerning them) that illustrates the Islamic perspective of knowledge and morality and how it
could be practiced in the various disciplines of the educational system to promote human
development (Cook 1999; Cook 2001). Re-newed identification of the general public of Muslims
with pre-colonization identities has been particularly on the rise since the 1970swhich is
commonly known as the beginning of the Islamic Awakening in the Muslim world (Cook,
2001, p.381; Haddad and Esposito, 1991, p.1). However, similar to many other institutions in
most modern day Muslim countries, formal education mostly consists of teaching methods
inherited from previous colonizers, like rote memorization (Gesink, 2006, pgs. 328-329; OforiAttah, 2008, pgs.15, 18). This dissonance of values is perpetuated by corrupt authoritarian
puppet regimes who seek to maintain their power by supporting Western hegemony in the
region; hence, providing quality education that enhances critical thinking skills that might
challenge the status quo is not an initiative that receives much support (Kincheloe and Steinberg,
2004, p.149).
While teachers in the Muslim world, in places like Egypt, often teach Islamic and
positivistic empirical sciences, both are taught through a banking theory approach that does little
to develop critical thinking skills, let alone master basic conceptual knowledge. Aside from the
ineffectiveness of such methods, such a teaching philosophy spreads a passive slave-like
mentality to education which does not cultivate active citizens who will work for social justice2 .
How one teaches reflects their values. The following exemplar of an Islamic pedagogy hopes to
1

The Muslim ummah refers to the Islamic belief that all humans born after prophet Muhammads birth are
considered from the ummah of Muhammad in general (ummat Al dawa or invitation), but those who choose to
believe and follow him are the more specific ummat Al ijaaba (ummah of those who responded), who we would call
Muslims today. Muslims believe in all the prophets (ie: Adam, Abraham, Jesus, Muhammad, etc.) in the sense that
they all originally came with the same central message of Tawheed (worshipping only One God), but different
branches/details (how to pray, etc.) contextual to their time/location; each prophet had their own branches for their
particular ummah (the ummah of the Jews, of the Christians, etc.). Prophet Muhammad is believed to be the seal of
the prophets from his time till judgment day for the entire world. Differences between the three monotheistic
religions over even the central meaning of Tawheed today (the status of Jesus being more than a prophet, etc.) are
believed to be due to tampering/alterations of the older scriptures by various theologians and others throughout
history. For a fuller discussion, see Dr. Umar Ashqars Belief in Allah.
2

See Paulo Frieres Pedagogy of the Oppressed (2003)

offer a culturally relevant solution. The intent of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy
that inspires an active approach to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and
working to be an active contribution to societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on
Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branches-developing caring student/teacher relationships
and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based learning approach where students learn
how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from their peers. While this research is
mostly theoretical and could possibly be valid for many parts of the Muslim world, the main
geographical intent for application is Egypt.

vi

INTRODUCTION
Egypt has a population of about 82 million; it is split into 26 governorates with about 90% of the
people living on the 10% of the land around the Nile, and the currency is the Egyptian pound. Egypt is
ruled by an authoritarian regime that has ruled by marshal law since 1981. This emergency law is the
primary obstacle to change in Egypt, including in the field of educationnot to mention that 1.3 of the
1.7 billion in American funding is spent on support of the military which upholds these policies
(Boustany, 2008; Kelly, 2006; Zuhur, 2007, pgs. 2, 18 )5.
Egypt has the largest educational system in the Middle East (Sadik, 2006, p. 87). This is mainly
due to the tremendous population explosion over the last half a century, which has also caused a great
decline in per student expenditure (at 40 percent per five years in the 1990s) and is getting worse (World
Bank, 2009, p.12). Education in Egypt is very centralized and controlled by the Ministry of Education
with two sub ministries. The main educational system in Egypt is governed by a sub ministry called
the Ministry of Education and Learning and is divided into two stages: the first compulsory stage, from
ages six to fourteen, is split into two cycles, five then three years (only about ten percent of the
population can afford any level of private education). At the end of the second preparatory cycle,
students take a high-stakes national final exam which will essentially determine the rest of their life,
whether they go to general or technical secondary education (Leavitt, 1992, pgs.96-97). If admitted to
general education, the second stage is two years of general studies and one year specializing in a
particular subject. The type of certificate granted at the end of the third year depends on the score
achieved on the final national exam which will determine potential entrance into a university, and if
admitted, the field qualified for out of the students list of preferences (i.e.: Arts, Engineering, Medicine,
etc.). This final exam covers every course taken in high-school and is such a catastrophic event that
some students commit suicide every year from sheer stress (Elhakeem, 2008)! The Ministry of
Education has repeatedly defeated efforts to change the national exam (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). For the
other half of the student population that get tracked into technical secondary education, about 1 percent
get admitted to a university while the rest usually enter a trade or end up unemployed (Leavitt, 1992,
pgs. 96-97).
There is also the parallel Islamic educational system of Al-Azhar, which is administered by the
sub ministry Al-Awqaaf, and was established 975 CE. Al-Azhar has a four year primary stage, a three
5

For the often underplayed details of U.S foreign policy see Howard Zinns Peoples History of the World or William
Blums Rogue State: A Guide to the Worlds Only Superpower.

year preparatory stage, a four year secondary stage, and higher education (Leavitt, 1992, p. 97). Both the
main educational system and the parallel Al-Azhar system have public, private, and semi-private
branches with the main difference between these being that the size of the classroom decreases and use
of international languages such as English (for instruction) increases as one moves down the spectrum
from public to private. Correspondingly, under both ministries public schools are free, semi-private at
varying costs, and private rarely within reach except for the elite classof course aside from tuition,
there are numerous indirect expenses like transportation, uniforms, books, and other materials.
The demanding nature of the national exam at the end of secondary school combined with the
poor quality of curriculum/ instruction cause millions of dollars to be wasted each year on private
tutoring and bribes to get around the educational system. Ethnographic research from the Culture and
Education in Egypt Working Group (CEEWG) of the Middle East Awards Program explicated how
private lessons have become a market themselves due to the tremendous failure of the educational
system. Linda Herreras work with teachers allowed for discussions that highlighted the importance of
improving the regular learning experience so students would not have to purchase their education on
their own--which of course condemns most of the poverty-stricken of Egypt. However, these
conversations also highlighted the need to motivate teachers to put forth more effort and enthusiasm in
their teaching (despite the institutional obstacles) and acknowledge their social responsibility towards
their students (Herrera and Torres, 2006, pgs.100-118).
In regard to teaching methods and content, Egyptian education has been reduced to rote
memorization of dated textbooks. Students, from basic through secondary education, are lambasted with
facts and figures with no guidance on how to practically apply such knowledge or its relevance (Herrera,
2006, p. 9). During basic education, students learn manners and some academic content (like language,
communication, agriculture, and industrial skills) in this manner (Leavitt, 1992, p.97). In preparatory
and secondary education, the curriculum changes little, aside from an increased workload and having the
opportunity to specialize during the last year (in general secondary education). In Al-Azhar schools,
curriculum consists of the same Ministry of Education and Learning curriculum with added Islamic
sciences. The minute percentage that can afford Western private schools either receive a Western
curriculum, usually in English or French, or a language acquisition curriculum; there are some special
education schools as well (Leavitt, 1992, p.98).

Regarding Universities, Said laments:

Universities in the Arab world are generally run according to some pattern inherited from, or
once directly imposed by, a former colonial powerclasses populated with hundreds of students, badly
trained, overworked, and underpaid faculty, political appointments, the almost total absence of advanced
research and of research facilities, and most important, the lack of a single decent library in the entire
regionthe few promising students who manage to make it through the system are encouraged to come
to the United States to continue their advanced workthe patronage system in scholarship, business,
and research makes the United States a virtual hegemonic commander of affairsthe Arabic and
Islamic world remains a second-order power in terms of the production of culture, knowledge, and
scholarship (Said, 1979, pgs. 322-323).
This is how Edward Said described Higher Education in the Middle East in 1979 and it has not
particularly changed much except for the fact that all of these issues have only gotten worse, primarily
due to authoritarian political regimes that hinder any possible change that might put their power at risk,
lack of planning/organization in ministries of education, widespread corruption, lack of resources, and
the population boom mentioned previously (Christina, 2003).
There are many issues that need to be addressed in Egyptian education including curriculum
(Herrera & Torres, 2006, p. 9), funding (Zuhur, 2007, p.19), teacher training (NCERD, 2000, p.7), and
early childcare education (NCERD, 2000, pgs.7-14), but what has been seen over the last 2 decades to
the common observerand of course professionals in the field as well (AREME 2003; Birdsall, 1999,
p.3; Herrera 2006; ; UNESCO, 2007)to be the greatest problem in improving education in Egypt has
been quality. Aside from the horrible economic prospects for employment, Egyptian education does not
motivate students to intellectually grow and it produces citizens who have merely memorized and
forgotten a lot of books. This pattern is quite ironic given that traditional6 (pre-colonization) Islamic
pedagogy centers on a case-based learning approach where students practically apply knowledge
through an apprentice-style relationship with their teachers and cooperative group work which allows
them to participate in their own moral and cognitive growth. Due to the complexity of political
constraints in improving many institutional aspects of Egyptian education, enhancing teachers abilities
to teach will empower them to change what they cantheir classroom.

Some academics label the 18th and 19th centuries the traditional period of the Muslim world, thereby, dismissing much of
pre-Western Enlightenment history as of negligible significance (Bray, 2007).

PURPOSE
The objective of this research is to develop an Islamic pedagogy that inspires an active approach
to creating change in ones society by changing oneself and working to be an active contribution to
societal change simultaneously. This thesis focuses on Islamic Pedagogy as it relates to two branchesdeveloping caring student/teacher relationships and utilizing these relationships to apply a case-based
learning approach where students learn how to apply knowledge directly from the educator and from
their peers. To stimulate such relationships, I have focused on utilizing metaphysical (Islamic)
motivation in improving teacher effort/ability. Muslim teachers who practically live according to the
belief that teaching is an act of worshipthrough the way proper education produces active citizens
who improve societyare more effective teachers. Through such relationships, I have concentrated on
utilizing case-based learning to stimulate critical thinking, which enhances the quality of education.
Islamic pedagogy, with its high emphasis on caring apprenticeship relationships between teacher and
student allows teachers to utilize their personal relationships with students to scaffold them to higher
concepts. When teachers draw on classroom occurrences/ disturbances to model appropriate behavior
and elaborate on various academic concepts, they will construct live learning experiences inside the
classroom. I will provide specific examples of how to accomplish this. More generally put, every
moment in the classroom is a learning experience. This is what I intend by case based learning.
Through the aforementioned student-teacher relationships and teaching methods, educators set a
certain example for students, thereby not only directly guiding students moral/cognitive development,
but also creating mini role models among them to affect peer influence. Complimentary group
activities in such an environment would allow students to help each other morally and cognitively
develop. Given that family and peers have been two of the biggest indicators of childrens future
academic and social achievement globally (Hanushek, 2007, p.277), empirical research appears to
support an approach that does not neglect peer influence. A common theme on the parts of teachers and
students I will highlight is Ihsaanworshipping God as if you see Him, and even though you dont see
Him you live according to the acknowledgment that He sees you. The potential of this concept in
addressing motivation will be elaborated on. From my research and personal experience in Egypt, I have
seen the potential for these aforementioned threads due to the very social nature of Egyptian society.

Research questions
In order to craft a pedagogy such as what has been described above, it will have to be asked first
and foremost, what is Islam and what are the epistemological definitions of knowledge and education
within this belief system; are there different types of the former or latter? What is the purpose of seeking
knowledge in Islam; how and with whom should it be done? What do we intend by pedagogy and has a
particular Islamic pedagogy ever been outlined before by scholars in the past or present? Subsequently,
these questions will lead us to a framework of what an Islamic pedagogy might look like.

LITERATURE REVIEW: WESTERN ANALOGUES TO ISLAMIC

PEDAGOGY
Education involves the cultural patterns that determine how a people pass on their values and
accumulated knowledge/experiences to future generations. I have consciously used as neutral a
definition as possible for our purposes here of presenting varying conceptions of education in the East
and West. Education involves two processes, official curriculum content and moral education; in other
words while a particular subject matter is being taught, teachers also educate and socialize students into
the accepted value system of their society either directly (through the curriculum) or indirectly (through
their behavior and how they teach). How we teach is just as important as what we teach; undoubtedly
they are intimately linked. Pedagogy has various usages in the field of education; a common definition
used is the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such
goals may be achieved (Pedagogy, 2010). Accordingly, the main factors to be addressed when
discussing pedagogy are the educator, student, and content; however, this research strives to provide a
pedagogy that can be utilized for theological or empirical knowledge (irrespective of content). The
pedagogical definition that will be used here is the teaching methods and corresponding relationship
between teacher and student utilized to reach ones educational objectives.
While much of the literature in the field of education has focused on the cognitive aspects of
education, more recent research has highlighted the importance of discussing what kind of moral
education goes on in the classroom (Lickona, 1991; Moore, 2007). In America, values are often derived
from the liberal arts public education system, citizens various personal religious beliefs, or some
combination of both (Moore, 2007; pgs.1-10). The focus of this study is on developing a pedagogy
culturally relevant to one particular belief systemIslam; however, it will be analyzed in comparison to
existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as well as some analogues from the Liberal Arts value system. I
will present existing literature on Islamic pedagogy as background in the presentation of data section.
This literature review will focus on Western literature regarding moral education and outline one of the
closest analogues to Islamic pedagogythe Ethic of Careincluding the specific teaching methods that
would logically accompany such a philosophy of teaching.

Theory
Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist by profession, was one of the earliest academics to comment on
the importance of reconnecting the link between cognitive and affective factors when researching the
human psyche (Goldstein, 1999, pg.648).Vygotsky defined a zone of proximal development as the

distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the
level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers (as cited in Goldstein, 1999, p.649 emphasis added). Therefore,
using a customized student-centered pedagogy, an educator could scaffold a student along to higher,
more intricate concepts (building on their previous knowledge) depending on the supportive guidance
received either from the teacher or other peers who had comprehended the concept (Goldstein, 1999,
pgs.649-654). Vygotsky realized that learning is not simply an individual activity (otherwise not much
disciplinary analysis would be needed outside of a psychological lens), and that more insightful analysis
of educational development needs to be discussed in relation to the social interactions that take place
between the actors involved. Accordingly, by developing deeper relationships with their students,
educators can consciously care for students in a way that provides a suitable environment for growth.
Such deliberate attention to students needs on the part of the educator would also provide a role model
for other students to help each other grow in cooperative learning settings. As will be highlighted, the
quality of the student-teacher relationship is pivotal to Islamic pedagogy as well.
Many academics7 have elaborated on the nature of this affective and caring relationship between
teacher and student (Bailey, 2000; Noddings, 1984; Rogoff, 1990). At the time that Nel Noddings wrote
Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education (1984), she was responding to a growing
sentiment (as evident through the increasing moral education literature) that more attention should be
paid to treating students like humans who need time, attention, and guidance to intellectually and
emotionally develop (Lickona, 1991). Noddings took this concept a step further by clarifying that an
educator has a moral obligation and responsibility to actively care for their students and embody the
values they want to instill in them by virtue of the educators position as a role model (Noddings, 1984).
She goes as far as to say that the one-caring (the educator) must receive the cared for (the student)
into themself by being engrossed with their goals and needs; this motivational displacement involves
temporarily preferring the student to ones self (Goldstein, 1999, p.656). On the part of the cared for
they are expected to somehow acknowledge or reciprocate this care in every caring encounter
(Goldstein, 1999, p.657), but are not ordered to (Noddings, 1984, p. 72). In fact, this reciprocity could
involve the teacher being directly acknowledged or simply witnessing the cared fors happy growth
(Noddings, 1984, p.74).
7

I am purposely using academics to refer to Western scholars affiliated with universities and academia to differentiate
them from Islamic Studies scholars/theologians (university related or otherwise) in the Muslim world who will be referred to
as ulamaa (sg: alim).

Consequently, Noddings (1984) has differentiated between naturally caring and ethically caring
for ones students; the former is not a reliable form of care because the educator might simply not
naturally care for or be drawn to a particular student, while the latter involves an active, professional
choice to care acknowledging an ethical obligation. Ethical caring is an action, not a quality. A
student/teacher relationship based on ethical caring is more important because naturally caring for all of
ones students may or may not occur. Also, people are naturally more drawn to those they are similar to
in some way, in which case natural caring would not suffice for equitable guidance of students.
Educators should choose to care in strategic ways, irrespective of whether natural caring develops over
time or not. Ethical caring demonstrates a sincere dedication on the part of educators to help students
grow, whether they are having a bad day or not, whether they like the students or not; this choice
requires a genuine belief in childrens ability to succeed, which empowers the teacher and student
throughout the learning process. Such a practical and tailored approach to each child helps students
develop intellectually and morally. While this caring approach seems ideal in explaining what should be
done, one question is left unanswered, how do we motivate practitioners to care? Why should they
maintain a concern for the ethical self (Noddings, 1984, p.75,) in the unpredictable daily hustle and
bustle of over-energized children, increasing discipline problems, and even occasionally violent
behavior? This will be developed in the discussion of Islamic pedagogy, but first lets look at practical
examples of Noddings approach in the field.

Application
Concerned about the moral state of youth in his time, Thomas Lickona undertakes the task of
outlining a detailed stratagem for the practical application of a caring pedagogy. Lickona applies the
concept of Vygotskys ZPD to not only demonstrate the importance of teachers taking active roles in
helping their children cognitively and morally develop, but that the teachers themselves must embody
the potential results of that development. He particularly goes a little further than Noddings by
highlighting that ones private life affects their public behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.49, 79). One has to
become a role model of the behavior one wants to see in students; the caring relationship that will be
developed is what will allow students to reach their potential development intellectually and
emotionally. An artificial faade played out every time a teacher comes to class is easily seen through;
Lickona states we are coming to see that our societal moral problems reflect, in no small measure, our
personal vices (Lickona, 1991, p.49). On the issue of role models one could also add to this that on a
macro level, the leaders of the nation should be the first exemplars in demonstrating these morals on the
8

world stage for them to really have any effect and trickle their way down to the masses. However, the
causal direction of social change is not predetermined and teachers are also in a decisive position to
effect long-term societal change from the roots upthrough the children that will inherit their legacy.
Undoubtedly, one has to truly change oneself before one can hope to be a role model for others.
Doing so will pragmatically show children how to identify when moral action/judgment is needed, how
to reflect on it, and then act. By using daily occurrences, positive or negative, in the classroom as
teaching moments instead of mere disruptions, Lickona shows how educators can act out the moral
reflection process right in front of their students. Teachers can literally think out loud when a teaching
moment occurs, about their primary reaction to it, the weighing of opportunities for possible further
action, and then following through assertively to respond to the situation. This process could involve for
example, teachers modeling composure as they pause to deliberate a situation requiring a moral
decision, making value judgments in front of students as to the particular pros and cons of a particular
course of action, and then acting (Lickona, 1991, pgs.54-57). This process of using classroom incidents
as teaching moments is often called case-based learning. Modeling moral reflection in front of ones
students will pragmatically show them how to consciously represent the values they profess.
Lickona also gives examples of how the lack of role models to model moral behavior cannot
even be substituted for by any of the material recompense that is often offered to children for good
behavior. Role models pass on their morals to others they interact with since moral behavior is a social
act that is enacted publically and affects everyone involved. Ergo, the better students treat others
socially, the better they will feel about themselves internally. Accordingly, lack of such role models
leaves many students in despair, selfishness, and loneliness. Children without role models are often left
undisciplined and only interested in material consumption (Lickona, 1991, p.50). Many people are
slowly realizing that material pleasures will never substitute for beneficial human interaction. Given that
Lickona has shown how moral behavior should be taught, He also gives suggestions for which values
should be modeled.
Lickona advises educators to start with the core values of respect and responsibility and then
build upon these concepts a customized set of morals (such as honesty, tolerance, fairness, prudence,
self-discipline, compassion, cooperation, and courage) according to contextual needs (Lickona, 1991.
pgs.43-44). Lickona acknowledges that getting agreement about shared values does not, of course,
guarantee that people will agree about how to apply those values in every situation (Lickona, 1991,
p.47). This potential ambiguity illustrates once again the importance of using the case-based approach

outlined above. By using the curriculum, disturbances, and other opportunities in the classroom to
model good morals, ethical behavior is no longer as challenging (Lickona, 1991, pgs.62, 69, 72).
Teachers who develop caring relationships with students can help students to experience the world
from the perspective of others (Lickona, 1991, p.55), an ability essential for teaching respect.
Becky Bailey, on a similar strand of ethical care, highlights the background disposition needed
for teaching morals, the importance of maintaining composure at all times so that one maintains control
and assertiveness no matter what the situation (Bailey, 2000, pgs.26-30). To actually maintain
composure, given the hectic bustle of life in the classroom, one should differ between management
demands and moral demands (Kohlberg & Selman, 1972, p.39); by stressing serious moral
infractions much more than the usual spills and misunderstandings, educators can prioritize their
demand of childrens short attention spans/ mental capabilities. Only with a composed demeanor can
one act purposely, and not off mere emotion, a temperament essential for moral reflection. Also, the
importance of acknowledging accomplishments through praise and other methods by the educator is
crucial for encouraging students along throughout their moral growth (Bailey, 2000, pgs.82, 85, 92).
Lickona describes the aforementioned procedure for exemplifying moral reflection by saying
that good character consists of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the goodhabits of the
mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action (Lickona, 1991, p.51). A striking parallel will be seen to
this method in Islam of how once someone has knowledge of a virtue, they purify their intention to do it,
and then carry out the action. Some teachers even use ethics journals that helped students to critically
reflect on their daily actions in the process of developing effective moral reflection skills (Lickona,
1991, p.56).
Cooperative learning activities are also opportunities to develop bonds between students so that
they can assist each other in modeling moral behavior (Lickona, 1991, p.74), while still allowing
opportunities for teachers to interject their own moral feedback and guidance (Lickona, 1991, p.85). The
feedback on behavior is recommended to be given in private, guiding students to understand why what
they did was inappropriate, and is followed up on by the teacher to monitor progress (Lickona, 1991,
p.86). Through cooperative learning, students experience trial and error opportunities with their peers
to practice moral reflection and action, and are then scaffolded to the desired objective through caring
educators guidance. Students participation in their own moral growth empowers them to begin to act
independently, raises their self-esteem, and has longer effects on their long-term behavior. Accordingly,
Lickona has outlined a framework for developing the caring student/teacher relationship and the process

10

for utilizing this relationship to teach moral education, either directly between student and teacher or
through mini-role models created in cooperative learning structures.
Subsequently, Ethical Care pedagogy has been shown to focus on the importance of educators
consciously caring for their students and developing the relationships needed to scaffold them from their
existing level of cognitive/affective ability to the next. This process is accomplished through a casebased learning approach that takes advantage of every opportunity in the classroom as a teaching
moment to apply knowledge practically. Such an approach creates transformative learning experiences
in the classroom that help students grow. There are many such academics that use some version or
another of what we could label Ethical Care pedagogy in Western literature (such as Gloria LadsonBillings for example; see Dreamkeepers), but I have highlighted these particular authors to preserve
space while simultaneously providing an in-depth analysis of such work. The aspects of Ethical Care
mentioned here will be compared to similar traits found in Islamic pedagogy.

11

METHODOLOGY
I have defined education and pedagogy thus far; therefore, we should define some other essential
terms to be utilized before proceeding. Islam, as used in this paper, refers to Sunni Orthodox Islam
(more specifically Ahl Al Sunnah wal Jamaaa, ASWJ; lit: the people of the Sunnah and the
Community); ASWJ Islam makes up roughly 90% of the Muslim world and includes the four major
jurisprudence schools of thought: Hanafi, Maaliki, Shaafii, and Hanbali. ASWJ works are known for
their clear reliance on the actual revelation as evidence when they write about anything regarding Islam;
this is opposite of the methodology of Sunni Ahl Al-Kalaam (lit: the people of talk) who sometimes
prefer their own personal reasoning over textual evidence by default and minimally cite Islamic scripture
when theorizing about Islam (Ashqar, 2003; Phillips, 2006). Ironically, Ahl Al-Kalaam, who represent
about 5% or less of Islamic scholarship and Muslims throughout history, are the sole perspectives
formally acknowledged in Western discourses about Islam (except for minute exceptions sometimes in
Islamic Studies departments)8. The other ten percent of the Muslim world consists of a mixture of
various sects (Shiism, varieties of Sunni like Sufism, etc.) which generally have some different
fundamental beliefs. Sunni Muslims follow the Quran (believed to be the literal word of God revealed
to prophet Muhammad) and the Sunnah (the teachings, sayings, and way of prophet Muhammad, peace
be upon him9, on how to practice the Quran).
There is a lot of literature on Islam in general concerning almost every disciplinary lens;
however, relatively little has been written on the development of a specific Islamic pedagogy. One must
preface such a statement by clarifying that the author has had limited time to research in a Muslim
countrywhere Islamic literature is expectedly much more accessible. There is particularly much more
literature in Arab Muslim countries since Arabic is the language that the Quran and Sunnah were
revealed in, and therefore the language used in most serious theological works written about them. This
being said, one would normally be left with the limited English scholarship that exists on Islamic
Education as a whole here in America. However, I have had the opportunity to research for a small
period of time in Egypt searching for Arabic works on Islamic pedagogy. These combined with the
8

These ulamaa who tried to incorporate Greek philosophy into Islam as early as the 9th century, are known for placing their
own reasoning over textual proofs. They include scholars such as Al-Ghazaali, Al-Razi, and Ibn Rushd; some of them took
on W. philosophy as their own substitute belief system, such as Ibn Sina and Ibn Arabi. Ahl Al-Kalaam, philosophers, and
Sufis are usually the few ulamaa deemed worthy of mention in Western academia) for obvious reasons (Halstead, 2004).
Fazlur Rahman and others (Afsaruddin, 2005) go as far as to translate Mutakallimun (derivative of Ahl Al-Kalaam) and
Kalaam as Muslim theologians and theology respectively, thereby delegitimizing all mainstream academic scholarship of Ahl
Al-Sunnah over the last roughly 1400 years.
9
Muslims are encouraged to say peace be upon him at least once the first time they mention prophet Muhammads name in
a gathering or paper, etc.

12

Arabic Quran and Hadeeth (the individual narrations of the Sunnah; pl. ahadeeth) exegesis available
here in America have been the primary sources for this research. For exegesis, I have relied the most
heavily on those of Ibn Kathir (the most widely known exegesis in the Muslim world, compiled by the
named 13th century alim), Al-Ashqar (which is an abridged version of the famous 18th century AlShawkaanees exegesis), and Arkahdaan (which is an abridged version of the widely respected Al-12th
century Qaasimi exegesis). In regard to the Sunnah, I have relied mostly on the two most authentic
collections of ahadeeth (the compilations of Al-Bukhari and Muslim). Other than my own scriptural
reflections, I have also highlighted the educational perspectives of two of the most knowledgeable
ulamaa in the past half century, Shaykhs Bin Baz and Uthaymeen, as well as educational specialist Dr.
Ahmad Mutawalee.
Quran and Hadeeth exegesis ulamaa have frequently highlighted pedagogical issues in their
works although they did not usually dedicate specific treatises to the topic. The works that have been
found specifically described as Islamic pedagogy actually dealt more with outlining a specific
curriculum of Islamic values that promote social, psychological, academic, and moral development, but
less on how to teach them. Paradoxically, what would normally be viewed as a dearth in the literature
has a lot to do with what exactly Islamic pedagogy is as will be explicated. There are over 6,000 verses
in the Quran and more than 20, 000 authentic ahadeeth; accordingly, to knowledgably speak about the
Islamic stance on a topic is not just to mention one verse of the Quran or one hadeeth from the Sunnah
as proof, but rather to present all pertinent revelation with the appropriate corresponding analysis.
Understandably, such a task is more appropriate for an entire lifetimes work than a Masters thesis;
ergo, what is presented here is a survey-natured textual analysis of the Quranic method of teaching in
the Quran itself, the pedagogical wisdoms behind the fashion in which scripture was revealed, and the
pedagogical techniques that prophet Muhammad used with his companions. Glimpses of how this
pedagogy was utilized historically will be brought to light as well.

Evaluating Our Lenses

Given the overtly politicized nature of scholarship related to Islam in Academia (see Orientalism
and Covering Islam among others by Edward Said), a note of caution must be heeded. Most academic
scholarshiphere I do not intend the quality of the work, but merely that which is produced within the
ivory tower of Western universities and other learning institutions)on Islam is taught from a
Modernistic lensa belief system promoted through our Liberal Arts educational system that preaches
that the only ultimate Truth is that there are no fixed Truths or constants, but rather everything is
13

variable and based on opinion. This seems self-defeatist if pondered; but in any case this is a belief
system that was borne out of the European Enlightenment of the 18th and 19th centuries mostly due to
perceived contradictions between various aspects of Christianity and empirical science as well as the
centuries old religious based conflicts between France and Britain. This rationalist school of thought
could really be traced as far back as the Greek philosophy of scholars such as Plato, Socrates, and
Aristotle, but its current day revivers were European philosophers such as Descartes, Nietche, and Kant
(Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo (2), 2010).
Christian theologians called for higher criticism of the Bible and came to the conclusion that
not all aspects were appropriate for all time; hence, followers of the faith could choose the aspects of the
faith they personally deemed appropriate for their particular time and location. Such action was justified
by a belief that religion is an evolutionary process (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Bible scholars acknowledged
(then and now) that the Bible was written by more than 40 authors many years after the time Jesus is
believed to have died in Christianity (Dirks, 2010); accordingly, the Bible was no longer treated as an
ultimate Truth in official discourse. Some fruits of this movement were the reform movements that
occurred, like various Christian reformations, and corresponding alternative belief systems being
constructed to take the place of religion in many public institutions, like Darwinism.
Due to the aforementioned reasons, many academics and politicians concluded that the ideal
solution was to secularize society and simply accept the parts of religion that not only did not contradict
existing scientific theories, but that which also didnt contradict their own cultural preferences. Not only
were human-based empirical sciences taken as a universal Truthwhich has its human faults/biases (see
Cuviers work on the Hottentot Venus and The Origin of Species by Darwin for example)but so
were any Western philosophical theories that gained widespread acceptanceessentially those that
agreed with Western European culture. Philosophers individual personal reasoning/opinions became a
post-hoc response to justify societys changing religious attitudes and new liberal culture in Western
Europe (Zarabozo 2, 2010). Anything that was Western was presented as Human and Universal
objective Truth, and everything else was subjective uncivilized notions of culture, bias, and savageness
(Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58,; Willinsky, 1998). One wonders if the maps of Chaucers time with
Western Europe shown, and the rest of the globe shaded black are not still relevant.
Ironically however, this culturally relativist belief system of Modernism was intolerantly
forcefully spread throughout much of the Muslim worldeither through formal colonization or neocolonization through media and educationas the solution to the intolerance of certain peoples during

14

the Medieval period (Zarabozo (2), 2010). Westernization of Muslim countries educational systems
imposed not only epistemological frameworks, but entire Western value systems that were inconsistent
with local values for the sake of cultural/political hegemony. Post colonization, many countries were
trying to unyoke themselves of colonial cultural hegemony (imposed through remaining transplanted
educational systems), while simultaneously trying to redesign relevant aspects of these systems to
improve the perceived weaknesses that led to their colonizationmainly military and industrial
expertise (Hussein, 2008, pgs.16, 21). Native attempts at such a task in the 20th century were Modernists
such as Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani of Iran, Namik Kemal of Turkey, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of India, and
Muhammad Abduh of Egypt (Spring, 2006, p.155,). While some of these Modernists had questionable
intentions to begin with, most of them wanted to import the scientific and military expertise of the West
while preserving the Islamic belief system; as Muhammad Abduh noted for example, If one seeks to
educate and improve the Egyptian nation without religion, it is as if a farmer would try to sow seed in
unsuitable soilhis efforts will be in vain (Spring, 2006, p.155). Later however, ulamaa like Abduh,
particularly after traveling to study in Western educational institutions, soon tried to replicate Western
culture as a whole (Hussein, 2008, pgs.19-20; Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs.142-144).
Modernism spread through the academic circles (and the elite sectors) of major centers of
Islamic culture like Turkey, Egypt, and the sub-continent; however, particularly with the decreasing trust
that laymen had in theologians connected to the authoritarian regimes controlling most of the Muslim
world post-colonization, Modernism did not widely spread among the masses (Hussein, 2008, pgs.2050). Many of these Modernists were viewed as foreign implants connected to the puppet regimes that
were ruling the Muslim world at the time since many of them not only promoted the idea that Muslims
only salvation after colonization was to Europeanize completely, but many even rejected the notion of
fighting colonial armies10 (Hefner and Zaman, 2007, pgs. 108, 118; Hussein, pgs.22-24, 106, 2008;
Kincehloe and Steinberg, 2004, pgs. 128, 149; Zarabozo 1, 2010). In short, Modernist philosophy was
(and is today) to reform the parts of Islam that were/are not compatible with Western culture/interests:
the most popular being the criminal code, polygamy, belief in miracles/universal Truths, prohibition of
interest in business transactions, prohibition on women being head of state, women wearing hijab, and
much of the Sunnah in general since it specifies Quranic legislation (Modernists prefer to go by the

10

Modern Modernists include Egypts Syed Tantawi who considered building a gigantic wall on the Egyptian border to
effectively imprison Palestinians in Gaza and cut off their aid supplies a religious obligation (Suleiman, 2010).

15

spirit of the faith and not the specific commandments)1112 (Hussein, 2008; Kayum, 2010; Zarabozo, 1,
2010). I merely highlight this phenomena lest readers presume that authors with Islamic sounding
names necessarily offer a native perspective because usually only people with the cultural capital of a
Modernistic worldview are admitted into Western-oriented academic institutions in Muslim or nonMuslim countriesI hope to be one of the few exceptions to this screening process. The Modernist
movement, and its later sub-branches of post-modernism and the like, was not widely accepted among
much of Western European laity in places like Britain, just officially conformed to in academia and
government circles for purposes of promoting secularism and similar ideologies that served economic
among other interests (Zarabozo 1, 2010). Part of the reason for this trend might be Western Europes
long historical ties to religion as a source of identity and the fact that Darwinism as an alternative
perspective on life has been arguably disproved by many scientists, particularly European onesmuch
of the evidence used to support the theory has even been found to be forged (Yahya, 2001). What
concerns us however is that Modernism spread much wider among laity in America and is the lens
through which knowledge is produced, particularly that concerning religion (Zarabozo 1, 2010).
The Modernistic lens is antithetical to religion because it portrays religion as tales of the
ancients (Quran, 16:24) (Wheeler, 2003, pgs.22-23), irrational, and uncivilized (by European
Enlightenment definitions) and Modernism as the opposite objective alternativean us vs. them
demonization of the other (Moore, 2007, pgs.36, 57-58). Modernism dons a cloak of supposed
scientific precepts, which are much more based on culture than empirical proof, to try to promote a
myth in academia that the advancement of civilization itself depends on Modernism as educational
theorist James Carper has demonstrated (Moore, 2007, p. 57). However, it has been realized that it was
never so much the empirical sciences advanced in the West, such as Chemistry and Biology (or even the
technology), that were at odds with Islamic values as some have posited (Talbani, 1996, p.70), as much
11

The most common strategy of Westernizing Islam has been a conscious attempt, particularly over the last half century, to
delegitimize the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad and his companions by various methods, like portraying it as a sort of
cultural baggage left over from the pre-Islamic era. An example is seen in Hallaqs The Origins and Evolution of Islamic
Law. Hallaq ignores any reference to tens of early works on Hadeeth, Fiqh, and Rijaal to purportedly claim that a Qadi (lit:
judge who rules by Quran and Sunnah) in early Islam did not have to know the Quran and Sunnah or that Quranic
legislation evolved since the prohibition/punishment on/for drinking alcohol was not applied to Tilaa (a Middle Eastern
fruit drink)which is not technically alcohol (khamr) according to Islamic jurisprudence (Nadwi, 2005).
12
Even Seyyed Hossein Nasr (a Sufi Modernist affiliate himself of IIIT, which is a mildly Modernist institution) notes, the
prejudices that have marred the study of Islam in the West since the time of Peter the Venerable, when the Quran was first
rendered into Latin and even beforehand, must finally be overcome if in-depth understanding is to be achieved.
Unfortunately, despite so many claims to objectivity, much of Western scholarship concerning Islam remains distorted due to
many old prejudices, to which new ones have been added, resulting from the Arab-Israeli conflict and the rise of so-called
fundamentalism (Nasr, 2009, p.23).

16

as it was the culture and value system (especially of Western philosophy) being transplanted along with
them (Cook, 1999, p.11).
As has been mentioned, Modernism views everything as a matter of opinion; religion does not
have any constants but is merely a product of its environment and therefore inherently variable in all
aspects. Due to Modernisms secular nature, notions of providential guidance are not entertained.
Subsequently, most American academics when speaking about Islam take their own prerogative on, and
present their own opinions on what should be the real True interpretation of Islam since it coordinates
with Western culture (despite the fact that it might contradict the belief and practice of millions of
Muslims). Accordingly one finds a wide diversity of opinions (Moore, 2007, pgs. 35, 127-128,) as
Moore and others (Sheridan and North, 2004, p.149; Barazangi; Bonakdarian 1998; Anscombe 2007;
Sells 1999; Abou el-Fadl 2002; and Esposito 1999) have mentioned, but they are all from the default
Modernistic perspective13 mistakenly applied as a universal Truth that all humans must follow. Many
such authors often write about very advanced theological issues with little or no experience/knowledge
of the Islamic scienceslike ilm Al rijaal (the science of authentication for chains of narrators of
ahadeeththe teachings and sayings of Prophet Muhammadthe science of Naskh (which verses or
ahadeeth have been abrogated by others and how), which verses/ahadeeth are general and which are
specific to the context they were revealed in or one similar to it, and many other fundamental principles
which are inherently connected to the directives of the Quran and Sunnah15 (Kincheloe and Steinberg,
2004, p.165; Phillips, 2005). As Nasr notes, very few of these academics with advanced degrees are
actually able to read classical Arabic texts with full in-depth comprehension of their meaning (Nasr,
2009, p. 21). Accordingly such academics would not be considered Islamic scholars as is usually
understood when this term is translated into the language of many Muslim majority countriesusually
alim, someone who has been deeply immersed in Islamic scholarship over 20-50 years. This is pivotal to
keep in mind when discussing literature written on Islamic topics in the West and will be relevant to our
discussion of Modern perspectives of Islamic pedagogy.
13

The a priori suppositions of the Modernistic lens are at least acknowledged in some of the work of academics such as
Mohammad Akram Nadwi, Sherman Jackson, Talal Asad and Sabaa Mahmood. Mahmood praises how Asad for example
highlights how the power of Western forms of knowledge lies not only in their ability to re-present social reality but also to
intervene and remake non-Western traditions, practices, and institutions, [hoping to transform] what it means to live as a
Muslim subject in the modern world (Nyang, Ahmed, and Bukhari, 2009, p.11).
15
Nasr ironically notes, in many of the major centers of Middle Eastern studies, everything is taught seriously except Islam
itself. One sees often in such centers numerous courses on history, anthropology, languages, sociology, political science, and
similar subjects pertaining to the Islamic world, but little in-depth study of Islam as the religion There is no greater source
of distortion than applying the secularist perspective of the past few centuries in the West to a religion and civilization where
it does not apply. (Nasr, 2009, pgs.19, 23).

17

Contrary to Modernist claims, the ulamaa of the Islamic sciences in the Muslim world have
always taken the context of revelation into consideration when discussing scripture; hence, the emphasis
on the Sunnah and Seerah (essentially the biography of prophet Muhammad which gives the context that
he and his companions lived in while the Quran was being revealed) which are their own sciences (with
sub branches within them) (Nadwi, 2005, p.115). But since the Quran commands Muslims to take
prophet Muhammads interpretation of the Quran that he taught to his companions over anyone elses
(Phillips, 2005; Qadhi, 1999), there is no way to realistically force Islam to coincide with most current
Western cultural practices despite the wide diversity of arguments that may be made. The
aforementioned factors all contribute to the noteworthy disparity found between how lay Muslims in
Muslim countries practice Islam and how Islam is re-presented in much of Western literature.
One can see examples of this imposition of values explicitly in the bias representation of Middle
Eastern educational systems of the Middle Ages and how most non-religious education that occurred in
fields ranging from Medicine to Architecture is glossed over (in Western post-enlightenment literature);
the result has been the confection of a revisionist history where the religious sphere of society was
somehow divorced from the rest (Kincheloe and Steinberg, 2004, p.130), a re-written secular history
of the Muslim world16. What academia has been silent about has been just as telling as what has been
said. Such selective memory leads to an easily consumed myth for a progressive-minded audience: that
such people, who supposedly have nothing but theological knowledge, would either be particularly
unsuitable for the modern world, or an even more extreme presumption that maybe the Medieval
Muslim world was even secular all along. Even with Harvards international character, they teach
little about Islam as a religion aside from Sufi mysticism in India and Africa; Sufis are to Islam what
Quakers are to Christianity (Kavulla, 2007, p. 56). Nonetheless, Modernist, extreme Sufi(theres
nothing wrong with moderate asceticism in Islam that is not related to actions of polytheism, but then it
would not be considered Sufism as the term is used today) or Mutazilite (deviant philosophical sect
that rationalizes not believing in destiny and many other parts of Islam) versions of Islam are what the
American government promotes with added notions of no hijab, sharia, or any remotely social aspects
of Islam (see Rand Report on Civil Democratic Islam and the works of John Esposito , Hamza Yusef,
16

Such political initiatives are highly motivated by modern attempts to spread Western culture in the Muslim world through
various methods like increasing secularization of Muslim societies and advocating Western gender roles (Kincheloe and
Steinberg, , 2004, pgs.44-47, 161-163). One author went so far as to twist the words (relying on an average readers
ignorance of Arabic syntax and morphology) of 18th century Islamic revivalist Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab to re-present
some of his statements regarding the rights of women as supportive of current Western conceptions of female gender roles.
Many references link to page numbers that dont even exist in the original work (see Delong-bass Wahhabi Islam: From
Revival to Reform, 2004)!

18

Fazlur Rahman, and Khaled Abou Al-Fadl). Only groups with Modernist related precepts are regarded
as normal like the Murjii (who believe faith is only in the heart)17 (Wheeler, 2003, p.114). A wellread Muslim can differentiate between these Sunni sects, who are only about 5% of the world population
of Muslims, but the average reader in the West cannot, hence the long digress on this issue. The
deliberate disregard to much of mainstream Islamic scholarship in the theological sciences and blind eye
turned towards achievements in the empirical sciences have been integral factors of the Modernist
discourse and the main causes behind the very distorted image of Islamic education as a whole in the
West.
Why have certain orientalists wasted so many precious years of their lives trying to disprove the
Quran and Sunnah? Such programs of research are not merely an offense to the consciences of millions
of Muslims, but are also misleading and thus unworthy to be considered as scholarship as Martin
affirms (Martin, 1985, p.187). The politically charged attempts to forcefully re-write Islam into
conformity with Western ideals merely serves to alienate and dehumanize the vast majority of Muslims
on the planet18, while deliberately or not, selectively humanizing the elite authoritarian classes (with
Western cultural capital) that dominate most Muslim countries (thereby implicitly justifying violence
against the other as can be seen on the world stage). While such wishful thinking on the part of
Western academics may fool the majority of Americans in the U.S. who are rarely exposed to the
average experiences and perspectives of humans in the East, they dont even pragmatically effect any
17

A common myth, which depends on absolute ignorance of the existence of Arabic resources to refer back to, but
nonetheless is mind-numbingly recycled (either explicitly or implicitly by ignoring roughly 1400 years of Islamic scholarship
that entails otherwise) is that these aforementioned sects were the most important in Islamic history and then somehow
magically with the advent of Muslims like Abdul Wahhab in the 18th century and Sayyid Qutb in the 20th, Islam evolved
political/economic aspects. In reality, Islam has always been practiced as a social way of life in the Muslim world up until
colonization when most aspects were effectively secularized (see History of Islam by Akbar Shah Najeebabadi). The false
notion that such revivers or reformers were bringing something new is simply because they tried to reincorporate such
aspects during/after colonization, blasphemy to Western academia which believes that the world was created in the European
Enlightenment.
18
By no means do I intend here that Islam is now, or was ever in the past, something with absolutely no variables. Islam,
since the Qurans first verses were revealed had variables like the different forms of recitation revealed to prophet
Muhammad according to the different dialects spoken in Arabia at the time (Martin 34, 1985). Sharia, or Islamic Law
which is mostly a guideline for a set of objectivesonly has certain constants that dont change with time; Fiqh however, or
Islamic jurisprudence, can vary depending on the context (it gives very specific commands/prohibitions, etc.) . But, a macro
level analysis of Islamic theology will reveal about 70% of jurisprudence issues are agreed upon (and minor issues like where
to place ones hands during prayer or whether hijab should include the face and hands or not are not pillars of Islam in the
first place), because they are all due to slightly different understandings of the Quran and Sunnah based on proof, not mere
opinion (see The Evolution of Fiqh by Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips). On the other hand, the Modernist movements attempts
to reform Islam, attack fundamental principles and constants of the faith derived from the Quran and Sunnah that dont
change with time and are supported by about 1400 years of scholarship based on sciences which Modernists dont even
acknowledge. Without exaggeration, this latter point is equivalent to claiming one is going to create a new chemical or
species without any research in the field of science!

19

change in the cultures/practices of the majority in the Muslim world aside from increasing a
consciousness that their way of life is being attackedhardly a platform for dialogue. Empirical
evidence that the cultural invasion has had the opposite effect of its original intention is that recent
studies of Muslim majority countries confirm that the university experience actually engenders
religious attachment; [for example], the growth of secular education in Egypt has encouraged rather than
discouraged attachment to Islamic culture (Cook, 2001, p.382). As Noam Chomsky often musingly
argues, democracy, as its now practiced, only works if the people are persuaded to agree with what
the people in power had already decided (Chomsky, 2002). If we truly wish to see coexistence between
East and West, we must learn to be tolerant of others differences, even when they really are different.

20

PRESENTATION OF DATA
Knowledge in Islam
What is knowledge (ilm in Arabic) in Islam? The first words revealed of the Quran to Prophet
Muhammad in the seventh century C.E. were, what means19, Read/Recite! In the name of your Lord,
who has created all that exists (Quran, 96:1). The word ilm is mentioned 750 times in the Quran,
ranking it third behind Allah (2,800 references), and Rubb (which is usually translated as Lord, but
has wider pedagogical connotations as will be explained) at 950 references (Boyle, 2006, p.484).This is
the essence of Islam, knowledge; but what kind and for what purpose?
Knowledge has been defined by Arab linguists as the opposite of ignoranceanything that can
be conceived of or known... [and] more obvious than to need to be defined (Mutawalee, 2005, p.177).
There are two types of knowledge in Islam, that which is knownwhat humans have the ability to
comprehend in this worldly lifeand that which is hidden (Al-Ghayb). Regarding both types there are
also two subdivisions, that which benefits (helps one to worship God better) and that which does not
(Uthaymeen, 2004, p.33). Regarding knowledge that which is hidden but mentioned by name in
revelation, either in the Quran or Sunnah, (i.e.: the true nature of God, the angels, heaven, hellfire, etc.),
Muslims are still obligated to believe in itthe first characteristic mentioned of the characteristics of the
believers in the beginning of the Quran is that they believe in the hidden (Quran, 2:2). Some
knowledge might be unbeneficial or could even harm humans. For example, when some polytheists
from prophet Muhammads tribe came to ask him about when the Final Hour (Judgment day) would
be, Allah (Arabic for God) told him to say the knowledge thereof is with my Lord (alone). None but He
can reveal as to when it will occurAllah goes on to explain that humans knowing when judgment day
would be would be a huge burden on them (Quran, 7:187). Allah kept this knowledge hidden so that
humans would keep competing in righteousness till death, because in reality it is unbeneficial
knowledge since a persons opportunity to perform good deeds will end at death and they wont be
resurrected till judgment day. Similar in meaning is when prophet Muhammad was asked by a Bedouin
about the appointment of judgment day saying, When will The Hour be ?" The prophet replied to him,
"What have you prepared for it? The man said, "The love of Allah and His Messenger." The Prophet
19

The Quran is believed to be the literal speech of Allah which can not be literally translated due to its divine origin
(something will always be lost in translation); hence, any translation is a human attempt to convey the meaning as closely as
possible (Ibrahim, 1997, p. 54). This is why I, in agreement with mainstream Islamic scholarship, have referred to
translated verses as what means here, to highlight this issue, but will refrain from doing so the rest of the paper for
space.

21

replied, "You will be with those whom you love"" (Al-Qarnee, 2000, pgs.19-22). Well mention three
points of benefit from this hadeeth: one of prophet Muhammads teaching techniques when responding
to questions, was to direct the questioner to the more beneficial question they should be asking as seen
here (Al-Shareef, 2010). The second point that the ulamaa have commented on, is that knowing how to
ask the appropriate question at the appropriate time is half of all knowledge (not literally, but just to
emphasize the point) (Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010). The third benefit that the
ulamaa have highlighted is the importance of good company since one will be with those whom he loves
in the afterlife, for good or bad (Mekki, personal correspondence, April 10, 2010); this is of importance
for the discussion on peer influence to come. Nonetheless, the Islamic perspective of knowledge is that
Allah has made available the two types of knowledge that can be of benefit to us (if we use them to
improve society), revelation and the ability to use our senses to gain empirical knowledge. Ill elaborate
on the former, then the latter.
In Islam, acquisition of knowledge (ilm)the two types that can be known being that gained
through revelation and that gained through the sensesis justified and directed by the provision that all
knowledge gained be used in worship of the creator (Halstead, 2004, p.520) (worship being widely
defined as anything that pleases God as outlined in the Quran and Sunnah, from fasting to sexual
relations with ones wife (Muslim vol. 2A, p.187). As God commands in the Quran, Say (Oh
Muhammad) undoubtedly, my Salat (prayer), my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allah, the
Lord of the 'Alamin (mankind, jinns and all that exists) (Quran, 6:162). Accordingly, the most
important type of knowledge in Islam is theological, meaning understanding the will and nature of Allah
through the Quran and Sunnah so that one may live by it (Uthaymeen, 2004 ). Only after a theological
foundation would an individual know how to live their life Islamically (meaning proper moral conduct)
no matter what field or practice they went into professionally. Proper character ensures knowledge is
used for the benefit of society; a chemical scientist with the intention to build the most dangerous
weapons for the highest bidder (as has been often the case for some while)doesnt benefit us with
his/her academic knowledge. Hence, character education in Islam is analogous to the role played by
civic education in Western secular societies. Emphasizing the importance of moral education, prophet
Muhammad said I have only been sent to correct peoples manners (Al-Shareef, 2010). In fact, it is
through these proper manners (understood broadly from the original Arabic khuluq to mean proper
interaction with ones Lord, family, society, etc.), that God would teach humans that which would
benefit them (Quran, 2:282).

22

On the virtue of theological knowledge, Allah mentions in the Quran, Allah and the angels, and
those with knowledge bear witness that none has the right to be worshipped but He and that He always
sustains his creation in justice (Quran, 3:18). According to Arabic Balaagha (study of eloquent Arabic
speech, particularly in the Quran), the subjects mentioned in such a verse are listed in descending order
of importance (wa or and has different meanings depending on the context) (Umm Qataadah; personal
communication, April 3, 2010). Therefore, Allah has placed the testimony of faith of those that have
knowledge of Him, meaning his nature, will, and names and attributes, after that of the Testimony of
Allah Himself and the angels. So great is having true faith in Allah, meaning with ones heart, speech,
and actions, that Allah chose the best of his creation, the angels, and then the best of mankind, the most
knowledgeable of his worshippers, to testify to the most amazing thing possible, the whole reason that
Allah created the universeto be worshipped alone without any partners (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.142;
Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Al-Jawziyyaha 13th century Hadeeth/Exegesis alimcommented on this
verse saying, undoubtedly this is a testimony to the uprightness of those with true knowledge because
Allah will not use as a witness except those who are trustworthy (Mutawalee 2005, p.179). Allah even
commands his own prophet, considered the best of mankind, in the Qur'an, to ask Allah for even more
knowledge (Quran, 20:114). Ibn Abbas, the companion of prophet Muhammad who prophet
Muhammad named Turjamaan (the explainer) of the Quran for the entire ummah (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1,
1997, p.100-102), narrated that when theological knowledge is mentioned in the Qur'an, that it refers to
beneficial knowledge of Islam, meaning that which is lived by, and righteous deeds (Al-Jawziyyah,
2004, p. 58). In support of this, one will not find a verse in the Quran of those that start with those who
have true belief not immediately followed by the phrase and do righteous good deeds before
delving into descriptions about them (going to paradise, etc.). Subsequently, prophet Muhammad
described the circles of knowledge (this was the structure of the gatherings) as gardens of paradise
(Al-Bukhari, vol. 4B, pgs.233-235).
Regarding a hierarchy of importance for the individual, there are two broad categories of
theological knowledge. The first type is that which is obligatory on every individual (fard ayn), the bare
minimum of understanding ones obligations as a Muslim: basically the 6 articles of faith, rights of
Allah, then others rights over a person (like their family and community), and the 5 pillars of Islam so
that he or she can worship Allah properly. This knowledge is obligatory and a person would sin by not
learning it. The 2nd type of knowledge is that which is recommended but not obligatory as long as
someone in the community attains it (fard kifaaya), like inheritance and business laws, where if some do

23

it, then it is not required of the rest of the communityexcept if they specifically deal with the issue
(like a family lawyer knowing inheritance laws for example). In sum, whatever knowledge one has, they
should use it to please Allah by acting upon it, in which case it would be a proof that attests to their faith
on judgment day; and if they did not act by it, then it would be a proof against them. As some ulamaa
have commented, Knowledge is the roots [of the tree of truthfulness21], its branches are truthfulness,
and its fruits are righteous actions (Mutawalee 2005, p.181).
The references to the virtue of theological knowledge, due to its positive relationship with faith,
in the Quran are numerous (Al-Zumur: 9, Al-Rad:19, Al-Anam:114, Al-Israa:106-108, Al-Ankaboot:
49, Al-Room: 55-56, etc.); in the Sunnah, we also have numerous examples like the following:
Whoever treads a path to seek theological knowledge, Allah will make him22 tread one of the
paths towards Paradise. The angels lower their wings out of contentment for the seeker of theological
knowledge; the inhabitants of the heavens and the Earth, even the fish in the depths of the sea ask
forgiveness for the learned person. The superiority of the alim over the worshipper is like the virtue of
the moon on the night when it is full, over all of the stars. Indeed, the ulamaa are the inheritors of the
Prophets, and the prophets do not leave behind dinar nor dirham [currency that was used in the Arabian
peninsula], but rather, they leave behind knowledge. So whoever takes it, has acquired an abundant
portion" (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.103-104; Muslim, vol. 1B, 1990, pgs. 708-7110).
This hadeeth alone has the essence for teachers to promote a culture of knowledge in their
classrooms. The first benefit of seeking Islamic knowledge is that it has the highest reward, paradise.
The second is that the angels themselves acknowledge this human being and lower their wings in
approval of his/her actions. The third fruit of seeking knowledge is that everything between the heavens
and earth, even the fish in the sea, are asking forgiveness for this person seeking Islamic knowledge; and
if the reader has noticed, all of this has not been just specifically for major ulamaa of Islam. This is
simply a person trying their best with a sincere intention to please God by learning more about their
Lord and messenger and what they have commanded from him or her so that they can live by it. Only
the fifth and sixth characteristics mentioned in the hadeeth are in regard to the tremendously high status
of one who actually becomes a alim of Islam, their status over the average worshipper; the alim who has
gained this tremendous wisdom and God-consciousness in his actions due to his knowledge and teaches
21

What it means to be truthful (sideeq) to Allah is a wide topic, but it can most simply be explained as steadfastness in
being sincere to Allah in all ones actions by consistently doing the most pleasing thing to Allah particular to a time and
location (see Al-Afanis Al-Ikhlaas: Tateer Al-anfaas min hadeethil Ikhlaas).
22
Masculine pronouns such as him or he used in revelation are the default gender used but applies to both men and
women unless there is evidence to the contrary on the issue in the Quran or Sunnah.

24

it to others, is like the moon compared to the rest of the stars. This is an analogy that prophet
Muhammad uses (use of analogies will be elaborated on); we know how amazing the moon is because
PM has mentioned in another hadeeth (Muslim, vol.1B, 1990, p.708-710) that the people of paradise are
going to see Allah as clear as we see the moon in this life. He specifically highlighted the moon because
of its high status compared to the rest of the stars. Then he said that the ulamaa are the inheritors of the
prophets, and the prophets did not leave behind dirham nor dinar, but rather they left behind knowledge,
so whomever obtains it, has surely obtained a tremendous thing. This is a tremendous status as Abdullah
ibn Mas'ud, the companion of prophet Muhammad, explained whoever attains Islamic knowledge, it is
as if he has acquired prophethood between his shoulders, except that he was not directly revealed to (AlJawziyya, 2004, p.58). It should be noticed here also, that Ibn Mas'ud described the knowledge being
between the shoulders, referring to the heart, and not the mind like some would assume, because the
heart is the king of the body and soul (Al-Ghazali, 2009, p. 36).The focus on utilizing knowledge to
purify the heart is particularly because it is what motivates a person to be the best or worst of people
irrespective of what empirical knowledge one has. If students and teachers view seeking knowledge as
an act of worship, then this is a powerful motivation given the harsh socio-economic conditions in
Muslim countries. Once, teachers and students have this appropriate intention, then it becomes obvious
that once one has theological knowledge they will need other types of knowledge (like empirical
knowledge) to develop the institutions needed to develop their society. This is not anything particularly
innovative to state, since as will be shown this was how most of Islamic Higher Education functioned
historically.
In any case, it is suffice to mention that Allah declared that having true knowledge of the
testimony of faith is one of the seven conditions for its acceptance23 ; that is how extremely critical
theological knowledge is in Islam. As mentioned in chapter Muhammad, Allah commands know, have
true knowledge, that no one has the right to be worshipped except Allah and seek forgiveness for your
sins (Quran, 47:19). The ulamaa have highlighted here how true knowledge was presented as a
command before the command of doing actions (seeking forgiveness) (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.9697; Al-Qarnee, 2000, p.6)this affirms what was mentioned shortly regarding the importance of
knowledge for doing actions. In Modernist discourse, belief is an opinion or point of view, but in Islam,
23

Knowledge of the testimony of faith (or shahada) is 1 of the 7 conditions mentioned in the Qur'an needed for this shahada
to be accepted, like absolute certainty in it, sincerity to it in 1's actions, being truthful to it, love, meaning not loving any of
creation more than Allah and his messenger, full submission, and complete acceptance of every part of the religion as it was
revealed (Al-Jabiri, 1995).

25

Allah describes true belief as having certain knowledge of something, just as certain as one would be of
any other knowledge attained by the senses (if not more). Because if one knows there is a paradise and
hellfire for example, they will act correspondingly; as Allah commands the family of prophet David, He
says Do [not say] thanks/ praise (Quran, 34:13). If teachers can relay to students that knowledge is to
be lived by, then they will carry this belief on to the study of empirical knowledge as well and both
types of knowledge would engage students to participate in their education, creating transformative
learning experiences in the classroom.
The Quran has also praised knowledge that is attained through the senses, empirical knowledge.
Allah has made this type of knowledge even capable of raising the status of animals; Allah says,
Lawful for you is what is caught by those animals and birds which you have taught and trained as
Allah has commanded you, so eat from what they catch for you, but pronounce the name of Allah as you
command them, and be conscious of Allah. Most definitely, Allah is swift in holding accountable
(Quran, 5: 4.). Accordingly, Tafseer ulamaa24 have highlighted how this verse shows the valuable status
of knowledge. The prey that this trained and taught animal catches for a person is permissible to eat; but
if it were untaught and had just killed the prey on its own, this meat would be impermissible to eat. The
only difference between the two cases here was that the animal has been taught and trained to catch prey
in a specific way (Ibn Kathir, vol. 3, 2000, pgs.97-101). We can add here that this knowledge was
knowledge gained through the senses, since this animal was taught by a human to perform a certain task
in a specific manner. This knowledge is not directly related to paradise and hellfire for example, but this
knowledge has made a certain type of human activity more easily accessible, attaining food. As long as
this human utilizes this food for some beneficial reason, like to feed himself or someone else so that they
can fulfill their daily responsibilities, then this has been a positive use of empirical knowledge. On the
other hand, if this knowledge was used to simply hunt for sport, killing animals with no pragmatic need
to, then this knowledge would be blameworthy. Subsequently, Allah has made permissible the use of
empirical knowledgethe dog using its senses to learn from the humanto facilitate permissible
human needs.
However, the most obvious example on the importance of empirical knowledge in Islam is that
in the Quran, Allah describes things that are supposed to prove Gods existence to humans as ayaat.
24

Tafsir (exegesis) ulamaa are essentially the companions of prophet Muhammad (since they had the Quran directly taught
to them from prophet Muhammad), so all later Tafsir Ulamaa essentially did was to use their narrations as a basis and
expound upon them in regard to whatever aspect of Tafsir they were elaborating on in their work (ie: grammatical, historical,
derivation of laws, etc.).

26

These ayaat (lit: signs, proofs, verses [of the Quran], evidences) that are mentioned in the Quran and
are supposed to lead humans to acknowledge God are of two types: things that can be sensed (i.e.:
empirical science) and textual revelation itself. The Quran that exists today, and matches all known
manuscripts around the world dating as far back as the seventh century, describes with intricate detail:
human embryonic development (stage by stage), how the mountains serve as pegs in the earth so that it
doesnt shake, the origins of the universe, functions of the cerebrum, the zone of separation between
fresh and salt water in the pacific ocean, the internal waves of the ocean, and the precipitation
processdetails and processes that we did not discover or fully comprehend until the modern science of
the 20th century (Ibrahim, 1997, pgs. 5-27). This raises an important question; why would such things
be mentioned which no one would be able to prove till hundreds of years later? At the same time, there
are countless Quranic injunctions rhetorically questioning humans, after mentions of Allahs signs, do
they not listen/ ponder/see/reflect (yasmaoon, yatafakuroon, yubsiroon, yatadabbaroon) on these
signs? One cannot go more than five pages without coming across such verses. In one chapter, Allah
mentions that some of his signs are in Al-Afaaq (depths of space) (Quran, 41:53), which we havent
been able to even get a glimpse of till modern technology was developed. Without a doubt, if humans
were not to use their senses to discover the world around them, they would never have realized these
amazing miracles/signs all around them. Throughout most of history since the Qurans revelation, most
of the aforementioned scientific phenomena would have been taken at face value to be true as part of
believing in the Quran, but not empirically proven until the work of various Muslim scientists much
later. No one would have benefited from these particular signs of Gods existence (and for Muslims,
additional scientific evidence of the Qurans divine origin) without empirical research. Evidence that
Muslim ulamaa responded to the aforementioned exhortations to research, inquire, and examine the
universe is seen in the many scientific contributions in Muslim societies throughout history.
Empirical science was never a shunned endeavor in the Muslim world. One could cite numerous
cases in the fields of History like that of Ibn Athir and Ibn Kathir, in Ophthalmology like Ibn AlHaytham, in Sociology like Ibn Khaldun (who is considered the founder of modern Sociology), in
Medicine, like Al-Nafisi, or Al-Jabbar, who invented Algebra. In fact, ulamaa would rarely specialize in
just one field of the empirical sciences, but rather many, unlike the Renaissance Man of the
Renaissance. A perfect example is Abu Biruni who specialized in Chemistry, Physics, and Astronomy
(and was one of the leading ulamaa to invent the scientific method)Muslim ulamaa even constructed
the first public hospitals during the Baghdad caliphate (Berkey 1992; Najeebabadi, vol.1, 2000).

27

However, in general, the Quran and Sunnah are not particularly worried with ensuring humans
seek empirical knowledge because it is taken for granted that humans will not forget or neglect worldly
issues since they are all around them. As prophet Muhammad mentioned, I dont fear for you poverty,
but rather I fear for you that worldly issues would overwhelm you (Muslim, vol.4B, 1990, pgs. 738740). Hence, the Quran and Sunnah focus on teaching proper moral conduct as a universal constant, so
that humans will use any other types of knowledge they acquire throughout time for societal benefit.
As supportive evidence to the aforementioned perspective toward the empirical and scriptural
forms of knowledge is the principle in Islamic Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) known as maa laa ya tim Al
waajib illaa bihi fahuwa waajib (lit: whatever obligatory deed cannot be accomplished except through
a particular method, then that method also becomes obligatory25There is no way to establish rule of law
and the social services that Islam guarantees to people in Muslim societieslike for example free
education and healthcare, Zakah (an obligatory form of charity for the poor), etc.without Muslims
who care about these moral issues and then take the means to develop them. This would not contradict
the research previously cited on Higher Education today in the Muslim world which showed that
students become more Islamically oriented upon entering Higher education (which is almost universally
secular), the complete opposite pattern of what happens in the West (Cook, 2001, p. 382). One
hypothesizes that the deliberate and obvious removal of Islamic theology and any other related material
by most authoritarian regimes in the Muslim world, particularly over the last 20 years, forces students to
have to learn Islam on their own, while still pursuing the societal capital of a university education to
achieve their professional objectives and social reform efforts. It would seem cognizance of the inherent
complimentary nature between theological and empirical knowledge in Islam is already evident to many
youth in the Muslim world, and accordingly would not be difficult to employ in motivating students to
utilize both in working towards social reform in Muslim countries.
While we are on the point of motivations for seeking knowledge in Islam, it would be opportune
to highlight to teachers and students the importance that Islam puts on Commanding the Good and
Forbidding the Evilthe Islamic analogue to social activism. Allah says You Muslims are the best
of peoples ever raised up for mankind; you enjoin goodness and forbid evil, and you believe in Allah
(Quran, 3:110). Linguistically, according to the science of Balaagha mentioned earlier, by citing the
commanding of good and forbidding of evil as the first characteristics of such Muslims, these become

25

See Al Wajiz fi Sharh Al Qawaid Al Fiqhiyah by Abdul Karim Zaidan for a concise summary of the principles of Islamic
jurisprudence (Usool Al-Fiqh).

28

the defining characteristics of Muslims who can earn the title of best of peoples ever raised up for
mankind. God doesnt have a chosen people according to Islam by virtue of the mere name they ascribe
to themselves, color or ethnicity (Quran, 49:13). Muslims only earn the mercy of God, which allows
them to enter paradise, through their actions. For example, even Muslims can be punished through
billions of years in hellfire to be purified of their sins before eventually entering paradise, if they
sincerely believed in the testimony of faith (the belief that no one has the right to be worshipped except
Allah and Muhammad is His messenger). Proving ones sincerity to God requires action. Exegesis
ulamaa have highlighted how this characteristic is so important that Allah has mentioned it before faith
itself, not because it is more important, but because Allah structures some verses like this in the Quran
to stress a particular concept. In another verse, Allah specifically commands Let there arise out of you a
group of people inviting to all that is good, enjoining goodness, and forbidding all evil. And it is they
who are successful (Quran, 3:104). But as we have discussed, there is no beneficial action without
proper knowledge. It is not hard for some people to be saalihoon (righteous people; sg. saalih), but Allah
praises even more in the Quran the Muslihoon (those who call to righteousness in the society; sg.
Muslih). In many verses Allah enumerates accounts of evil and righteous people in the past and how
they received their due recompense; however, despite the existence of large amounts of evil people at a
particular time, Allah vows to not destroy an area as long as there are still some Muslihoon among them
(Quran, 11:117). Once we have established the importance of both types of knowledge and how they
must be used to meet Muslims societal objectives, who are the ones that will teach the power of
education to our youth? The Muslihoon in the field of education are the teachers. Through the
motivation that they are engaging in a tremendous act of worship such as commanding the good and
forbidding the evil as Muslihoon, teachers will be able to engage their students to participate in actively
working for social justice. Spiritual motivation is a powerful stimulus in causing social change,
particularly if it already exists as a visible force in the society. One last example of the active nature of
Islamic pedagogy can be brought to light in the story of Maryam.
Even Jesuss own mother, Maryam (Mary), who is considered one of the best four women in
Islam and has a chapter named after her in the Quran, was not merely provided relief and sustenance by
asking Allah for it. When Mary was forging through the pains of child birth (and was horrified of what
people might assume of her pregnancy, since she was not wed), she did not lose hope. After wearily
collapsing under a palm tree for shade, Mary supplicated to her Lord, but God did not help her
immediately. Rather, God told Mary, at the apex of her pain, to stand up and shake the palm tree for it to

29

bring down dates for her sustenance. Only then did God cause the fruits to fall down (Quran, 19:16-26).
This is a very powerful event, because even if one gathered a whole crowd of people they would not be
able to manually budge a palm tree. This event exemplifies the principle that God only helps those who
help themselves. Allah says, Allah will not change a peoples condition until they change that which is
within themselves (Quran, 13:11). Islamic pedagogy stresses an assiduous work ethic of doing ones
part and then relying on God for the results.
Who will teach our children proper moral conduct and how to effectively contribute to society?
Who can cultivate childrens critical thinking skills so that they can grow up to develop innovative local
solutions for local problems except teachers? Parents spend limited time with their children globally.
Egypt is an excellent case study for discussing educational issues of the Middle East since it provides a
motley of the North African and Gulf socio-economic/ cultural contexts. After school, most students in
Egypt for example, spend the rest of their day with private tutors. During school, children spend the
most time with teachers and peers at school. We are lacking role models and leaders all around the
world, and as is being argued here, teachers are one of the most direct opportunities to establish such
role models who will offer students practical examples of not only academic content and morals, but
how to utilize them to be an active participant in society. Muslim societies will not change by
themselves, and teachers are in a pivotal position to be Muslihoon and create others who will change
society through their education as well. Now that we have discussed the different types of knowledge in
Islam and their purpose, lets see how some scholars have proposed to teach that knowledge; what is
Islamic pedagogy?

Islamic Education: Content or Pedagogy?

I have actually discovered very different findings on Islamic pedagogy dependent on whether the
language of publication was English or Arabic, so Ill start with the English literature since this would
be more likely to be familiar to the reader. When Islamic pedagogy is mentioned in the West, the most
common research recalled is usually the work of The International Institute for Islamic Thought. The
International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) was established in 1981 as a private, non-profit,
academic and cultural institution dedicated to promoting research related to Islamic thought and
contemporary social sciences; it has branches all around the world. The International Institute for
Islamic Thought started the Islamization of Knowledge project during the 1980s with two main
objectives: to reconcile the Muslim identity through Islamization of the Social Sciences and thought
[and] rejuvenate the study of Islamic history as a legacy and foundation for developing Islamic thought
30

and methodology (IIIT, 1989, pg. xiv). The founders yearned a system that enlightens students with
practical knowledge in light of Islamic values (IIIT, 1989, pg. xiii), suggesting reconciliation of the
secular and Islamic branches of education in the Muslim world as one of the pivotal steps in
constructing such a system; they even made some suggestions on how to go about obtaining such
funding (IIIT, 1989, pg.14). But what does it mean to Islamize knowledge? Can all knowledge be
Islamized and if so, what would be the pragmatic benefits of doing so? And lastly, what concerns us the
most; does such a system include specific teaching methods derived from the Quran and Sunnah?
In attempting to answer these questions, Ishaq Farhan provides a typical IIIT response (Al-Attas,
1980; IIIT, 1989; IIIT, 2000) to these questions: secularization is responsible for the decline of Islamic
thought in the Muslim world since the fall of the Khilafa (caliphate) at WWI and the holistic (which
doesnt differentiate between revelation and empirical knowledge) Islamic perspective of life must be
revived by being superimposed on the content of all academic disciplines (particularly the social
sciences, which are highly based on Western philosophy) to tackle intellectual stagnation (in a culturally
relevant manner) (Farhan, 1989).
First of all we must address the incompleteness of the above presuppositions. If we analyze the
quality of scholarship in the Islamic as well as empirical sciences in the Muslim world, they have been
on the decline since at least the initial political decline of the Islamic empire, which we could roughly
date as starting way before colonization in the early 15th centurywith major setbacks occurring at
pivotal moments like the loss of the final part of Spain in 1492 and the colonization of most parts of the
Muslim world in the 18th and 19th centuries (particularly cultural/political centers like the subcontinent
and Egypt), by Western European powers. Although the Ottoman caliphate still preserved some
remnants of Muslim identity up until the formal collapse at WWI, the power and influence of the Islamic
world was waning much before this. With the loss of political and military power in the region (for
various reasons outside the scope of this paper), the Muslim empire had also long since begun to decline
in academic scholarship (Daly, 1998). However, Farhan is correct in asserting that the more official
secularization process that took hold after WWI severely intensified this process. Theres no concept of
secularism in Islam; the longest verse in the Quran for example (an entire page long), details the
conditions for conducting business transactions (Quran, 2:282). Secularism did add an identity crisis to
an already worsening situation. As Al-Ghazali notes, education starts at homewith the mother at its
foundationthe school, the mosque, the street, and the state (Al-Ghazali, 2010, p.44). Contemporary

31

ulamaa such as Shaykh Bin Baz have outlined similar visions of Islamic pedagogy (Al-Khattaabi, 2006,
p.229).
Regarding the notion of Islamizing the discipline of education Farhan understandably stresses
the importance of the Islamic belief that seeking knowledge is an act of worship and a responsibility
placed on intellectuals to use it for societal good as is mentioned in the Quran (Quran, 33:72), but he
does not specifically define what Islamic education is (Farhan, 1989, p.308). Farhans suggestion of
providing all students with a minimum basic working knowledge of the various branches of Islamic
theology (Farhan, 1989, p.312) is commendable and integral to the vision of Islamic pedagogy in this
paper as well. In fact, such has already been in practice throughout most of Islamic history, raising
practicing Muslims who can employ whatever knowledge they gain for the advancement of society no
matter what their field. Throughout Islamic history, once students mastered foundational texts in
theology, they would either specialize in a particular branch of the Islamic sciences or delve into the
empirical sciences and become full-fledged ulamaa so that they could contribute to the development of
entire sciences that pragmatically corresponded to their local needs (thereby fulfilling the communal
obligation, fard kifaaya, in knowledge production). There was never an artificial barrier constructed
between empirical sciences and revelation because Islam legislates that two Truths cannot contradict
each otherand that Tawheed (the belief that no one has the right to be worshipped but Allah) implies a
certain unity and intrinsic harmony in the universe due to the oneness of the creator (Halstead, 2004,
p.526). Subsequently, in this sense I would agree with Farhan on this aspect of his definition of Islamic
education.
However regarding Farhans suggestion of Islamizing disciplines, then for most fields, this has
no practical or theological justification. What would be Islamic biology, chemistry, or nuclear physics?
There is no such thing as a non-Islamic biological cell for there to be an Islamic one. True empirical
findings void of cultural bias/baggage are just as valid whether theyre developed in the East or West. If
we are not trying to copy and paste Western academic solutions to the East, then this is not an issue in
the first place. However, similar to much of the work from IIIT (Al-Attas, 1980; IIIT, 1989; IIIT, 2000),
all anxious laments and frustration at the condition of Education in the Muslim world end with general
recommendations about how the ultimate solution is to provide Islamic points of view, Islamic
curriculums, Islamic educational models etc.but like what specifically? A majority of IIIT
publications are so theoretical that even the analytic framework that is being suggested does not have
very clear components aside from being Islamic (Halstead, 2004, p. 522; Panjwani 2004).

32

Paradoxically, one could go through entire IIIT works and be hard pressed to find more than one
Quranic verse or Hadeeth.
Lack of socio-political order and rule of law are the main obstacles (among the others mentioned
in the Said quote above) in Muslim countries that hinder the development of successful research
institutions. The fundamentals of the empirical sciences for example can be learned anywhere, but will
always need to be supplemented by critical thinking skills, how to knowledge; the World Bank has
recently acknowledged this point suggesting more emphasis on procedural knowledge in the Middle
East (how to learn/research, evaluate, and ideas for improving pedagogy) as opposed to declarative
knowledge (facts and numbers) (Galal, 2008, pgs. 91-92,). The nostalgic emotional plea to Islamize
everything is emblematic of the early stage of the Islamic Awakening starting in the 1970s where many
people flocked to anything that might remotely embody Islamic identity. Unfortunately however, due to
the neo-colonized inferiority complex that was present in much of the Muslim world (and still somewhat
exists to an extent) toward anything Western, IIIT (similar to their Ahl-Al Kalaam counterparts
throughout history) tried to impose the Western philosophical framework of Modernism on the study of
Islam to prove to the world that Islam could be Modern. All specific examples of what an Islamic
curriculum might look like for example are identical to Western ones, just with the word Islamic
before them, with no perceived contradictions or dilemmas with titling something Islamic philosophy or
ideology (Farhan, 1989, pgs.313-314; Halstead, 2004). In order for empirical knowledge to be utilized
for Islamically sanctioned objectives, one merely needs intellectual practicing Muslims as
teachers/researchers in a socio-political context that appreciates/supports such efforts, not Islamized
empirical content.
Nonetheless, the IIIT objective mentioned above of reconciling the Muslim identity through
Islamization of the Social Sciences, then this does have some potential since the social sciences are
heavily based on Western philosophy, and as has been mentioned, Western philosophy on a very
fundamental level is usually an attempt to grapple with societal problems as they exist in the West.
There is plenty of historical precedence for producing Islamic perspectives in the social sciences that
have been derived from the Quran and Sunnah on Sociology or Medicine and History for example (see
Ibn Khaldun or Ibn Al-Jawziyyah respectively), but what I have stressed repeatedly here is that the
Quran and Sunnah acknowledge two forms of knowledge: revelation and an emphasis on using the
senses as a form of acquiring knowledge (i.e.: empirical knowledge). Ergo, it is no disservice to or
weakness of Islam that the Quran and Sunnah dont contain the cure to Cancer or Aids, etc. As has been

33

discussed, and as many activists have been struggling to understand for some time, although the Quran
and Sunnah do contain scientific miracles, the Quran is primarily a book of signs, not science
(Ibrahim, 1997). The Quran and Sunnah, for all practical purposes, are guidance on proper moral
behavior. While many other advanced concepts no doubt exist, it would be disingenuous to contradict
the obvious concepts therein for the sake of superimposing every new Western idea that comes up onto
the texts.
Yes; the Quran and Sunnah are the foundation for a Muslim, and moral character in general is
the foundation for any societys long term stability and development, but revelation encourages Adl (lit:
justice/fairness in judgment) in everything one pursues (Halstead, 2004, p.523). Accordingly, there is
nothing un-Islamic about unbiased methodological inquiry free of cultural baggage/assumptions (a task
much easier in the natural sciences than in the social ones as IIIT acknowledges), even if it is produced
in a non-Muslim context. What revelation does admonish is using philosophical sophistry to circumvent
Gods commands for the sake of personal interests/desires. Islam to Muslims is the parallel of
Modernism to the Western world, a way of life, but both can cooperate on empirical endeavors that
dont contradict each others belief systems and societal objectives. This is the appropriate non selfdefeatist way that Muslims can attain IIITs second goal to rejuvenate the study of Islamic history as a
legacy and foundation for developing Islamic thought and methodology without being stuck in the
past. IIIT has not given us a particular Islamic pedagogy with specific teaching methods for teachers, but
it has highlighted the pre-requisite of knowledgeable practicing Muslims (those with a working
knowledge of Islam) as teachers who can effectively utilize Islamic pedagogy. At the core of Islamic
pedagogy is Muslim character. As will be demonstrated, many of the characteristics of Islamic pedagogy
fall under the general moral code of Muslims. The centrality of the role-model in Islamic pedagogy
makes the character of the educator key; it is only through such moral character that caring relationships
between teacher and student can be developed and then utilized to construct pragmatic learning
experiences in the classroom.

Basis for Islamic Pedagogy in the English Sources?

Medieval Methods
Prophet Muhammad did not leave behind any particular academic institutions, but he left behind
his companions who had learned how to embody Quranic values and manners in their lives wherever
they went so that they would contribute to society for the pleasure of God (not fame, material wealth,
etc.) in whatever they undertook. The pedagogy used throughout most of Islamic civilization was that of

34

prophet Muhammad, one of a caring teacher leading by example and teaching a customized curriculum
in a dialectical manner. This curriculum emphasized a foundation of moral character and application
of knowledge in ones behavior for the benefit of society (Berkey, 1992, pgs. 1-38,). Similarly
throughout Islamic history, quality Islamic education was a communal activity that hinged less on books
or institutions than on who one actually learned and received an ijaza from (authorization to pass on
their knowledge); education was a very personal experience (Neill, 2006, pgs.484-485) (Berkey, 1992,
pgs. 16, 18). Students of Islamic knowledge used to spend their whole lives traveling to sit with the
greatest of ulamaa and learn from them how to live by what they learned and practically apply it to
become more God conscious (Berkey, 1992, pgs.22-38,). Such a pedagogy was necessary because
possessing true Islamic knowledge meant living by it; after all, what good is knowledge that doesnt
benefit? Allah says, Do you enjoin Al-birr (piety and righteousness) on people while you forget to
practice it yourselves, despite that you are of those who recite the scripture; have you then no sense?
(Quran, 2:44). Hence, when students received an ijaza from ulamaa, it was for how much they knew
and applied. This was only earned after years of this apprenticeship type relationship where ulamaa had
watched them grow and assessed their behavior in various communal settings (i.e.: with the general
public and fellow students) (Neill, 2006, pgs. 484-485). As Islamic ulamaa modeled the moral behavior
they wanted to develop in their students, education became an active reflective process. The ulamaa are
the inheritors of the prophets, meaning they acquired proper moral conduct through their knowledge
of the scriptures, but more importantly through daily practice with their mentors (Uthaymeen, 2004,
p.3). In the Quran, this is actually the reason that messengers were sent, to bring their respective books
of revelation, and set the example of how to apply them, thereby purifying people from lowly behavior
(in Arabic tazkiyah) (Quran, 2:151). Allah mentions in the Quran and We have sent down to you (O
Muhammad) The Remembrance, so that you may clearly explain to mankind what has been revealed to
them, and so that they may give thought (Quran, 16:44) and Indeed in the Messenger of Allah
(Muhammad) you have a good example to follow (Quran, 33:21). Those who learn Islamic knowledge
after them continue this legacy by acquiring proper morals from righteous people who model them.
Actions speak louder than books. This is the importance of modeling the values one aims to teach in
Islamic pedagogy and it applies whether this content is theological or empirical. Application allows for
deeper processing of content as is well known; therefore, Islamic pedagogy must consistently allow
application of knowledge in the classroom.

35

Given the importance of the alim in Islamic education historically, a student was often expected
to take up to two months in choosing a teacher, choosing on the basis of the alims own teachers
reputation, age, and character. The centrality of the teacher was evident in the fact that biographical
dictionaries of medieval ulamaa for example listed all the ulamaa an alim had learned from and usually
nothing about where the learning actually took place, except maybe just the region (which you could
often just tell from the alims last name) (Berkey, 1992, pgs. 22-24). Needless to say, simply learning
from a book was considered illegitimate knowledge, and books themselves were just used for reference.
Accordingly as we will notice, concepts like how to teach fell under the general content of Islamic
manners and behavior; if a person was well versed in Islam and they were living by it, then there was no
need to write books about the topic26. Students would learn how to teach and learn through practical
application on a daily basis as they learned Islamic theology, and this did not mean mere memorization
of virtuous qualities lest we be deceived by modern propaganda that could indicate otherwise.
As guardians of the spiritual well-being of the society, ulamaa constructed intricate measures to
preserve Islamic knowledge as seen for example in the details of the ijaza or degree system that was
developed. Al Tusi, a medieval alim, explained how, memorizing two words is better than hearing two
pages, but understanding two words is better than memorizing two pages, which highlights that ulamaa
differentiated between riwaya, the ability to memorize and transmit knowledge, and diraya, the ability
to critically analyze it and apply it contextually (a fact often overlooked in discussions of the role of
memorization in Islamic educationoften politically motivated to portray a zombie-like system with no
critical thoughtone more reason to modernize and progress from traditional methods). This
differentiation of types of cognitive processing was reflected in what type of authorization one had to
teach; ijazas ranged in degrees, from general transmission of knowledge (tadrees) to issuing legal fatwas
using that knowledge (iftaa), corresponding to the level of comprehension attained (Berkey, 1992, pgs.
30-31). This latter level was the highest because as has been highlighted, Islamic knowledge focused on
application to the extent that Allah punishes those who dont apply the theological knowledge they have
learned, saying have you seen he who has taken his own opinions/desires as his Lord, so Allah has let
him go astray despite his knowledge and has placed a seal over his ears and heart, and placed a seal over
his sight (Quran, 45: 23). Despite this persons knowledge of Allahs majesty and mercy, paradise and
hellfire, the person in this verse chose to submit to their own lowly desires/opinions instead of

26

Interestingly however, there were many books on how to seek knowledge in treatises often called something to the effect
of The Book of Knowledge(Zaid, p.75).

36

submitting to Allahs commands (Islam, lit: submission); therefore, their knowledge has not benefitted
them and has become the cause of them losing any beneficial use of their senses to comprehend Gods
signs. Allah also says, oh you who believe, why do you say that which you do not do; undoubtedly it is
a grave thing in the sight of Allah that you say that which you do not do (Quran, 61: 2-3). Once again
we see that applying theological and empirical knowledge for the right purposes are intimately
connected in Islamic pedagogy. The importance of teachers as role models that construct teaching
opportunities in the classroom will be further developed in the comparison between Ethical Care
pedagogy and Islamic pedagogy at the end of this paper.
Knowledge is believed to be a blessing that increases a person in faith if it is applied, but can
also be a proof against a person on judgment day if neglected. Aside from what one would assume to be
the pragmatic time consuming effort of writing long books by hand (without a printing press), such a
focus on applying knowledge as a lifestyle could also explain the relative lack of interest in writing
books about topics which were viewed as requiring experience (i.e.: teaching). The revelation contained
the universals, but how to apply some of these aspectsthat did not have specific commandments
could change from time and place; for example scaffolding will be shown to be a general theme of
Islamic pedagogy, but how to appropriately do that depending on the content, context, and audience
requires hands-on practical experience and practice. Despite all this, there have been some ulamaa who
did write works dedicated to specific teaching methods after attaining such experience and practice in
the field.
Often cited as the first Muslim alim to write a handbook for teachers is the ninth century Ahl
Al-Sunnah jurist (faqeeh) and judge (qaadi), Muhammad ibn Sahnun (Gunther, 2006, p.369). From the
intellectual center of Al-Qayrawaan in Tunisia he wrote Adab Al-muallimin (Rules of Conduct for
Teachers). The first four chapters focus on the merits of teaching and learning theological knowledge
and treating students fairly, and the remainder of the work is a collection of specific questions he asked
his father on curriculum, discipline, and organizational issues. This alims reliance on his fathers
expertise in writing about teaching and learning is significant considering one of the main stories about
teaching in the Quran is the story of an Ethiopian slave and how he raises his child (the chapter is
named after him, Lukman). Again, most of the manners of teaching mentioned in this work are based on
general Islamic manners, but Ibn Sahnun does advise teachers specifically to not only encourage
students to study individually and cooperatively, but also to create situations or cases in the classroom

37

that would challenge their minds and allow them to practically apply knowledge (Gunther, 2006, pgs.
370-371).
Shams Al-Din, a contemporary academic who focuses on Ibn Sinas (a Muslim27 philosopher)
educational theory highlights how using the study of Quran is an excellent way to holistically teach
various disciplines due to the many themes contained therein (Gunther, 2006, p.379). This is in
accordance with the historical custom of ulamaa focusing on one verse or hadeeth at a time and
explaining it from various angles (points of grammar, historically, the laws to be derived from it,
etc.).Such a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching is in dire need given the over-compartmentalization
of academia at the moment. Life is a multi-disciplinary venture that requires multi-disciplinary people to
grapple with it and offer pragmatic solutions to pragmatic problems. Well-balanced holistic teaching
creates well-balanced people who are not confined to the narrow interests of their department or
discipline.
Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali is undoubtedly one of the most quoted theologians in Western literature
due to his Ahl Al-Kalaam background; however, he suggests rules of conduct for teachers that are very
much in line with Ahl Al-Sunnah when it comes to pedagogy: teachers being particularly caring with
children, having a sincere intention to only please God, scaffolding students by building on their
previous knowledge gradually as to not damage their love for learning, advising them on their bad
behavior in private, and practicing what one preaches (Gunther 2006, pgs. 384-385). Aptly, Gunther has
titled his article Be Masters in that you teach and continue to learn referring to 3:79 in the Quran;
what he has translated as masters (lit: rabbaniyoon) also has the deeper connotation of someone who
practices what they learn (Al-Qarnee, 2000, p.46).
Aside from the aforementioned works there remains (from the literature available in English)
those who have identified Islamic education and pedagogy as memorizing the Quran. Helen Boyle has
done empirical research in modern day Quranic schools, mostly in Morocco (but some in Nigeria and
Yemen) which she defines as Islamic schools (Boyle 2002, 2006). The differences between Islamic
schools past and present needs a little bit of fleshing out.

27

Although excellent in medicine and other empirical sciences, his writings, which challenged the Quran and claimed it had
to be verified with reason (like some of his counterparts, Al-Farabi, Al-Arabi,etc.) have caused some ulamaa to declare such
philosophers outside the fold of Islam. It is ironic that many of the ulamaa acknowledged and celebrated in the West were not
technically considered Muslim in much of the Muslim world (Halstead, 2004, p. 518).

38

The Historical Context of Islamic Pedagogy

During the early Middle Ages, roughly the first 400 years of Islam (7th century-11th century),
education in the Muslim World revolved around the mosque, which is actually the center of most social
activity in Islam (Szyliowicz, 1973, p.53,). Not only a place for ritual worship, the mosque was where
Muslims irrespective of ethnicity, origin, age, or gender28 gathered to learn knowledge of various
typesproper recitation of Quran, Tafseer (exegesis of the Quran), Hadeeth (the narrations of the
Sunnah and their sub sciences), Fiqh (jurisprudence, meaning the various rulings derived from the
Quran and Sunnah), Arabic language and poetry, History, Medicine, and many others. It would not be
uncommon to find a student population of a very sundry composition, from students who were ulamaa
themselves to laymen, in the thousands in one gathering called a halaqah (a circle of people around a
alim giving a lecture)there were even teaching assistants such as musamlis, mufids, and muids who
were advanced students of the shaykh and would repeat in a loud voice the lecture to others far away in
the halaqah, explain various ideas, and highlight points of benefit to those they were responsible for.
Islamic education in a mosque was very informal with most decision-making regarding everything from
curriculum to schedules determined by the individual ulamaa offering the lectures (Berkey, 1992, pgs. 7,
20, 40, 42).
Specifically for children, a system of elementary education schools also existed (Kuttabs) which
varied according to the degree of emphasis on memorization of Quran. Kuttabs socialized students into
a Muslim identity by memorizing the Quran by the time they were 8-9 years old, and taught them
general skills like learning how to read and write, basic Geography, and Math. Teachers at these schools
were expected to maintain high moral character as role models, have memorized the Quran, and know
the basics of non-theological subjects (Szyliowicz, 1973, pgs. 54, 57). Discipline was a pivotal moral
principle taught in schools and teachers would not hesitate to beat their students for moral infractions, as
theological knowledge was learned to be applied; however, discipline would be relaxed as one matured,
advanced in their education, and fully comprehended the importance of their studies (Berkey, 1992, p.
37). Upon completing the kuttabs, students could either enter directly into various trades and professions
or continue onto madaaris for higher education which consisted of a foundation of theologically-based

28

Women had a tremendous role as ulamaa in Islamic history, but within the guidelines of Islamic gender roles and
appropriate conduct between the sexes (segregation, etc.) (Nadwi, 2007), contrary to the revisionist history of Modern
women imposed by some Western academics (Afsaruddin, 2005, pgs.164-165). Nadwis work is actually just the preface to
an Arabic 40 volume biographical dictionary of women ulamaa),

39

sciences. Thereafter, students could choose to either specialize within this general theological base or
build upon it and delve into other forms of positivistic natural or social sciences (Gesink, 2006, p. 327).
The Madrasa (pl.madaaris, lit: a place of study) was the central formal educational institution
throughout roughly the second half of the Medieval period (11th century to 16th century). Madaaris were
places of higher education usually attached to a mosque, and were funded by awqaaf (sg. Waqf)
religious endowments from charity contributions, usually in the form of a building or piece of land
preserved to be used for religious purposes. Awqaaf were protected from taxes and state seizure
(Gesink, 2006, p. 326). The term madrasa was used interchangeably with mosque since in reality a
formal location was irrelevant to the learning process as has been mentioned; hence, madaaris still
provided the same de-centralized structure as mosques. Decision-making regarding the structure and
components of Islamic Higher Education was still made locally by the (usually unpaid) ulamaa who
taught in the Madaaris. Accordingly, madaaris were only as good as their teachers, the ulamaa; ergo,
after students had memorized the Quran and a certain amount of ahadeeth they would start studying
various treatises/books with their Shaykh (more or less a synonym for alim). Preferably, texts were
memorized as they were learned in depthfor example a hadeeth might be explained in regard to its
place in seerah (the prophets history), jurisprudence rulings, grammar, points of benefit, etc.
As it has probably been noticed, there was no high school stage of education between
elementary school and higher education mentioned here; this is because there was no concept of
teenage hood in most pre-modern societies. Therefore, graduates of kuttabs and others around the age
of puberty either entered directly into madaaris/mosques or into the working world, but both would
experience live application either through their apprenticeship to an alim or to a tradesmen. Nowadays
however, only a handful of institutions exist where one can study Islamic higher education in the manner
that has been described above; most of what has been leftover post-colonization has been Quranic
schools. These are really kuttabs, but due to the wide dearth of places available to do in-depth Islamic
study in the Muslim world today, many Western academics refer to these as Islamic schooling
which is a tremendous disservice to the true Islamic scholarship that does still go on till this day. In sum
however, it can be seen that Islamic schooling or pedagogy, with the exception of the last 100-200
years, was far from revolving around memorization.

40

Modern Perspectives of Islamic Pedagogy

To return to Dr. Boyles research, she runs through the usual modernist discourse of attempting
to re-write reason onto scripture. Taking Al-Ghazalis classical differentiation of knowledge
(revealed and empirical) one step further, she attempts to redefine empirical knowledge as reason,
claiming it is the second form of knowledge after revelation. She continues, humans need knowledge
derived from human reason to understand and interpret revealed knowledge. The Quran emphasizes the
importance of reasoning in confirming and expanding existing knowledge (Boyle, 2006, p.485). This is
somewhat misleading. First of all, Al-Ghazalis differentiation of knowledge into empirical and revealed
knowledge is in fact also ASWJs differentiation of knowledge as well since it is based on numerous
proofs from Quran and Sunnah. Regarding interpretation and comprehension, most issues in the Quran
and Sunnah are very straightforward commands. As Allah says, these clear verses are the foundation of
the Book (Quran, 3:7) and that they are put forth in simple, plain Arabic (Quran, 41:3); He affirms
that it is upon Him to explain the entire revelation (Quran, 75: 19), and He does by detailing aspects
that are mentioned in passing in some places of the Quran, in other places of the Quran or through the
Sunnah (where prophet Muhammad specifically teaches what the verses mean). The prophets were sent
to explain their books as has been mentioned. Subsequently, rarely do Muslims need to reason out what
the revelation means. No doubt, the Quran praises the use of reason and the senses to acquire
knowledge, but always posits revelation as superior.
A classic example of the Qurans praise of revelation over human reasoning is that of the first
sin committed on earth. Allah commands Satan to bow to Adam, and Satan refuses, reasoning why
should I bow to a creature youve made from clay, when you have created me from fire (Quran,
17:61). Satans reasons with an a priori supposition based on his own opinion, that fire is superior to
clay in the first place, when in fact as the Ulamaa have highlighted (Arkahdaan, 1993, p. 287-288) clay
is a soft, supple element often associated with building and creating things, while fire is often initially
associated with destroying and burning things. Even if fire were superior to clay, Satans disobedience
to Allah is the reason that he is regarded as cursed and doomed to eternal hellfire throughout the Quran;
hence, any reasoning that directs someone to disobey Allah is viewed as flawed logic.
Another example is that of the son of Noah. Noah warns his son that Allah is going to flood the
whole earth, but his son disregards his fathers warning. He reasons that he will probably be safe atop a
gigantic mountain since in his limited human experience and knowledge, he has never seen a flood reach
that high. According to his limited mental capacity, hes wrong. Again, by placing his reasoning above

41

Allahs commands and underestimating Allahs ability to do as he pleases, Noahs son drowns in the
flood while Noah and the rest of his family who obeyed Allahs commandments, are protected in the
boat Allah commanded them to build (Quran, 11:25-49). Human reasoning will always differ from
person to person, so how do we know whose to follow? Do we wander aimlessly without any
foundation, jumping from theory to theory? This is where Islam differs from the Dewey-ish Western
foundation of doubt first and then ask questions. Muslims have a theological foundation whose
primary belief is to not doubt in it, but rather to follow it. Then within these guidelines that they hold as
divine, they utilize their faculties (the senses and personal reasoning that Allah has given them) to
ascertain how best to apply Allahs commandments (not whether or not to) and expand on existing
empirical knowledge.but not to put themselves ahead of Allah and His messenger, meaning obeying
oneself instead of God (Quran, 49:1). This is how Islam prioritizes revelation in comparison to personal
reasoning and the senses.
Getting past the politics of Boyles initial argument about knowledge in Islam, she proceeds to
strangely champion memorization as a learning method as it relates to the Quran, countering those who
claim memorizing the Quran indoctrinates children since most children dont understand what theyre
memorizing at such an age. She even cites how it acts as a moral compass later on for those who do
understand it (Boyle, 2006, p. 486-494). This first argument is quite correct; most Muslims are not
Arabs, and therefore wouldnt understand what theyre memorizing29. Subsequently, this makes Boyles
claim that Quranic memorization is conceived of as a manifestation of reason (Boyle, 2006, p. 489)
unlikely. While such an argument attempts to defend what Boyle perceives to be Islamic pedagogy, it
seems very antithetical to her argument to claim that memorizing unknown words and phrases is a
method for youth in the Muslim world to reason with the world.
This second argument however is suspect. Due to the political situation in the world, many
Western governments are trying to promote institutions where the Quran is memorized to satisfy
increasing local demand for Islamic knowledge-based services (as a concession to Islamic identity),
while simultaneously continuing to increase government control/closure of institutions that actually
discuss what the Quran and Sunnah means. Quite bluntly, rising demand for Sharia, the application of
the political and socio-economic aspects of Islam, has the potential to be very detrimental to Western
economic interests in the Muslim world (IIIT, 1989, ix). This is because the values that would be
29

Plus the Quran uses classical Arabic vocabulary, syntax, and morphology, different from those of Modern Standard
Arabic (MSA), which are needed to grasp the deeper meanings of Quranwhich are rarely taught outside of Arabic Studies
departments these days.

42

propagated would be very much in contention with those of modern day Western Capitalism like
boundary-less consumerism (which is disproportionately of Western services and products due to
structure adjustment policies which are pre-requisites for Western funding30). The Western cultural
invasion needs to have a very culturally pliable consumer population to adapt to the ever-changing
demands of Western products. When Muslims are Islamically conscious and are living Islam publically
and privately, there are limits to the cultural changes available due to the implementation of Sharia as a
way of life (IIIT, 1989, x)not to mention the natural resources that would be re-directed to the needs
of native populations instead of exported at drastic losses to their owners (Blum, 2000) (Chomsky,
2002).
Nonetheless, to not be too cynical and entertain the second argument, that Boyle is defending
memorization of the Quran for its moral virtues, then yesAllah says, and whosoever is Godconscious, then Allah will make for them a furqan (a criterion to judge/distinguish between things
(Quran, 8:29). And most certainly having over 6,000 verses of Gods words always with a person,
would act as a moral compass and divine guidance to refer back to (if they understand them), as if it is
engraved on the heart; when one considers the Muslim belief that the Quran is the literal word of God,
then this is not surprising. Also, according to the story of creation in the Quran, there could be
precedence for memorizing as a preliminary method of teaching. Allah says to the angels,
Undoubtedly, I am going to place (mankind) generations after generations on earth. They said, Will
you place therein those who will make mischief therein and shed blood, while we glorify You with
praises and thanks and sanctify You. He (Allah) said, I know that which you do not know. Exegesis
commentators commented on these verses explaining that despite the fact that there would be such
people who would cause mischief, Allah would also create the prophets, Muslihoon (whose importance
has been highlighted), righteous, etc. and that they would both keep each other in check as is explained
in other verses (Quran, 2:251 and 4:69). 31 Allah continues And He taught Adam all the names (of
everything), then He showed them to the angels and said, Tell me the names of these if you are truthful.
The angels reply, Glory is to You, we have no knowledge except what You have taught us.

30

For the effects of this in Egypt see Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt (Abdelrahman, 2004, pgs. 17, 85,
102-107).
31
Allah explains many times in the Quran, that from His wisdom is that He created everything in pairsmale/female,
day/night, good/bad, etc. For example as will be seen in chapter Iqraa, if humans, even the pious, begin to feel selfsufficient, then they will transgress the bounds, oppressing themselves and others.

43

Undoubtedly, you are the All-Knower, All-Wise (Quran, 2: 30-32). To be brief, humans and jinn32 are
the only creatures that have free will and reason and are thus held accountable for their actions. Allah
specifically commands them in the Quran saying I have not created the jinn and human beings except
to worship me (Quran, 51:56) (the wider definition of living according to the Quran and Sunnah as
we have explicated). Everything else in the universe worships God in its own way. Angels have a certain
amount of knowledge that cannot increase or decrease, but they have no free will for that to affect
anything; they must worship God. Animals and other creatures have free will, but no real intelligence
and analytical skills which are required for discipline. Humans have free will to follow their random
desires or be disciplined; in accordance with this ability, they have the unique ability to acquire higher
forms of analytical knowledge and make conscious decisions. If humans use their intelligence to obey
God and discipline themselves through proper moral conduct, then they can reach a status above that of
the angels, but if they cause evil and harm in society without any regard for moral bindings, (despite the
reason and knowledge that God has blessed them with), then they become worse than the animals who
dont know any better. Critical conscience morality is not developed through memorizing anything alone
without comprehending and applying it. Accordingly, we realize that memorization alone would not be
enough to be the ultimate end of Islamic pedagogy. Even if one were teaching non-theological
knowledge, memorizing the components of a car would not teach someone how to build one.
Here Adam is taught the names of everything; one cannot identify something without names
which entail certain attributes/ characteristics that describe them. One might learn more about these
attributes later on, but the first step is to be able to differentiate things from one another. Memorization
is the first step in seeking Islamic knowledge and even more pragmatically, children can handle little
more than this at the pre-school to elementary stage (which is the primary time this method is used) as
Ibn Khaldun notes (Boyle, 2006, p.488). Boyle cites Al-Ghazali as explaining, First is the committing
to memory; then understanding; then belief and certainty and acceptance (Boyle, 2006, p.488). The
importance of immediate application of knowledge when teaching can be seen in how prophet
Muhammad would sometimes not even specifically say how to do something, but merely delve into
application; for example he told his companions, pray as you see me pray and got up and showed
them (Al-Qarnee, 2000, p. 51).

32

creatures made from a gaseous substance, from the Ghayb; the species that Satan comes from, but they can choose
obedience or disobedience like humans.

44

Memorizing the Quran teaches children to differentiate Gods speech from human speech; the
former is taken as a foundation of absolute Truth to build upon, and the latter human knowledge is to be
employed for the objectives of the former. One of the benefits of Quran is that it teaches Muslims the
nature of God and His creation, and the general laws of the universe that they can learn more about on
their own. However, after memorizationwhich is mostly an individual endeavor to begin with, aside
from periodically checking ones recitation with their Shaykh for accuracycomes the real beginning of
true Islamic pedagogyapplication as weve discussed here. Similarly, at any level of education of
empirical sciences, but even more so at younger ages, students must always be able to identify and
classify things before analyzing and discussing them. We cant discuss reading till we know what letters
look and sound like, math till we know what numbers are and their properties, history till we know what
countries and continents there are and so forth. Particularly for younger children, when everything is still
fairly new to them in the world, they must be taught the names of things before they can begin to
comprehend them. Scaffolding starts with the basics and builds upon them, but educators will have to
learn how to accurately assess their childrens capabilities and knowledge so that they are given enough
to challenge them, without overwhelming them (Kohlberg and Selman, 1972, p.29). Memorization is a
start, but an education that transforms requires more than that. Islamic pedagogy requires being a
witness to education being applied and then taking part in it.
So far, I have interwoven the primary characteristic of Islamic pedagogy: the emphasis on the
apprentice-ship relationship between teacher and student and the importance of the former as a rolemodel throughout this paper, as well as the importance of holistic education. The world is multidisciplinary by nature. Humanity cannot hope to enjoy and maintain a stable way of life if we
consistently sacrifice the environment and animals for humans, human interaction for the sake of
technology, humans needs for other humans luxuries, and heartless politics for human compassion.
Our knowledge age is really just an age of information, little of which actually enriches the soul or
offers human solutions for human problems. We can no longer sustain producing robot-like graduates
who will only bring the solutions that are specifically relevant to their academic department and are
covered by their grant. Holistic education that teaches children the power of education in causing social
change can create active citizens who will contribute to their society for the societal good and not just
their own.
I have also discussed the importance of providing students with in-depth knowledge and
cultivating their critical thinking skills as part and parcel of Islamic pedagogy, because without

45

comprehension there can be no application. As we have seen however, Islamic pedagogys stance
towards social change is not necessarily asking participants to question all their presuppositions to work
for social justice, so it does differ from a Freirean Critical Pedagogy in this respect. The problem in
Muslim countries is not so much the material being taught as it is the fact that it is not being taught;
rather Islamic pedagogy takes advantage of the Islamic inclinations that already exist in a Muslim
society and transforms them into tools of motivation for social change. Plainly, Islamic pedagogy seeks
to highlight the beliefs that are already believed in on at least a sentimental level and utilize them to act
out pragmatic social change.
As we have noticed however, the little bit of English literature that exists on Islamic pedagogy
addresses how Muslims taught throughout history, but doesnt directly engage an even more
fundamental approach to determining what Islamic pedagogy is; how does Allah himself rubbi, or raise,
humankind in the Quran? Weve already illustrated that He did not give humans a book to just
memorize. According to Islamic belief the Quran is the word of God meant to teach people how to live
until the Day of Judgment, so how are these moral lessons taught by the ultimate Murubbi (educator),
Allah.

Islamic Pedagogy Directly from the Quran, Sunnah, and Contemporary Arabic
Works on the Topic
Tarbiyya, the closest parallel to education in Arabic comes from the root rubbaa which means
to educate, discipline, cultivate, and raise caringly to maturity in stages (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.226). The
difference between Tarbiyya and Taleem (learning) in Islam is that Tarbiyya is a planned, organized
holistic cultivation (theological, psychological, intellectual, physical), while Taleem is simply learning
some sort of new information; it could happen in a structured fashion with certain objectives, or by mere
coincidence (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, pgs.227-229). Interestingly, the term rubbaaniyoon mentioned
previously (translated as masters)that described people with knowledge who applied it for societal
benefitin Gunthers research, also comes from the word rubbaan. Rubban were people, among the
few sea-faring Arabs there were, that used to not only take care of the ships and prepare them for
seafaring, but also ride onboard as maintenance-type people (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.227). The
symbolism here is striking as it implies a humble sort of educator who not only takes responsibility for
the welfare of a large group of people, but one who also is not merely on the seashore waiting to see if
things work out. The educator is a leader, but also one of the normal approachable people that others
feel comfortable with. This theme is multiplied by the fact that the Arabs were not traditionally sea-

46

faring people to begin with; hence, someone involved in such a position is participating in an endeavour
that is known to be challenging, but they know that it is a job that must be done. Teachers are pivotal to
the safety of the ship carrying the next generation of youth and without them onboard, the ship will not
complete its journey.
Rubbaa is also the same root used to describe bringing a plant to fruition, hence the many
metaphors in the Quran about revelation being like the life found in water that rains from the sky to
bring the dead earth to life with plants (Quran, 6:99, 13:17, 22:5). This is the ethic of care that is needed
in the relationship between educator and student. This metaphor combined with the fact that Tarbiyya
also comes from the same root as rub (which is usually translated as Lord or master) highlights that
despite having the connotation of authority (Neil 483-485, 2006), Allah caringly cultivates humans in a
state of dignity teaching them that which they did not know (Quran, 96:6). This is the type of
relationship between teacher and student promoted in Islamic pedagogy. This theme can be highlighted
in several ways; first of which is the way Allah describes Himself.
Whenever Allah mentions punishing anyone in some way, He usually describes it as an action
that He is capable of, but not an attribute directly ascribed to Himself. Allah describes Himself with
about 99 names/ attributes in the Quran and Sunnah and only two to three names have a connotation
related to punishment or some similar theme. Positive aspects are directly ascribed to Himself: Al Hayy
(2:255), Al Qayoom (2:255), Al Khaaliq (6:102), Al Raheem (2:163), Al Rahmaan (1:3), Al Kareem
(27:40), Al Wahhab, Al Ghaffar (20:82), etc. (The Ever-Living, The One who sustains and protects all
that exists, The Creator, The Most Merciful, The Most Gracious, The Most Generous, The Bestower).
Whenever Allah mentions an act involving pain, punishment, hellfire, etc., He describes them as actions
He is capable of doing as recompense for those who deserve it (Quran, 4:10, 4:37, 10:8, 10:13, 10: 27,
25:13, 25:19, 89:13). This is significant because in the Arabic language actions that are directly
described as characteristics have a much more powerful meaning. If we contemplate this, a lesson we
can derive is that by default, an educator is compassionate and forgiving; but he or she can discipline
when necessary. This concept will be seen in prophet Muhammads teaching methods as well. In fact,
every single chapter in the Quran except one starts with the words In the name of the Most Beneficent,
Most Merciful. Another perspective on this issue is the nature of how the Quran was revealed.

47

Scaffolding in Islam
One of the main reasons that the Quran was revealed piecemeal over 23 years is specifically
because changing human behavior is a gradual process; Allah was very compassionate in His wisdom of
gradually scaffolding the Arabs at the time, not placing a burden on them larger than they could handle
as Allah promises humankind (Quran, 2:286). The Arabs in pre-Islamic Arabia were living in complete
savagery; they would bury their children and sell women as property, have random sexual relations,
drink extremely heavily, and other crude behavior (Al-Fawzaan, 2005). They were not spiritual people
and people do not generally dramatically change overnight. Therefore, Islamic legislation took them step
by step scaffolding them through moral refinement. Verses revealed in Mecca when Muslims were still
oppressed and persecuted focused on attaching peoples hearts to the fundamental beliefs of Islam and
contained little legislation of specific duties and laws. Verses discussed Tawheedthat since there is
only one God, only He has the right to be worshipped and Gods attributesand the Day of Judgment,
when humans would be held accountable for their deeds and accordingly granted paradise or hellfire. As
Muslims developed deeper knowledge of the faith and corresponding conviction, they increased in
numbers and emigrated to Medina, establishing a society there. During this process, verses were
revealed which increased acts of worship to their final amounts and outlined the laws for the finer details
of day to day societal interaction (like political, social, and economic legislation). A comparative
analysis of the Meccan and Medinan verses will highlight this gradual pattern to the reader. The order of
revelation was best described by Aisha, the wife of prophet Muhammad, who said If the first verses to
be revealed were regarding prohibition of zinaa (adultery/fornication) and alcohol, they would have
swore By Allah, we will never stop committing zinaa and drinking alcohol; but the first verses that
were revealed were about Tawheed, paradise, and hellfire. It was not until the hearts were firmly
attached to and loving their Lord that came down the verses with the commandments about the
permissible and prohibited (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.45-50). The issue of scaffolding has been
touched on repeatedly throughout this paper so well transition to how we do that.

Case-based learning, but what do we mean by cases?

Regarding the structure of the Quran; the Quran is not compiled in the order it was revealed in
since different verses were revealed at different times throughout prophet Muhammads life; rarely were
entire chapters revealed all at once. This concept is expressed in the way the Quran is described as
being revealed: nazzalnaa or nazzala (meaning piece by piece) as opposed to the other divine books of
the past which are described as being anzalnaa or anzala (all at once) (Quran, 3:3-4). Each time a

48

verse or set of verses were revealed, this was a real live case scenario opportunity for prophet
Muhammad to explain these verses; this is why the entire Quran can be thought of as an entire
collection of case scenarios where practical application of verses was taught live, on the spot. The details
of these cases are found in the Sunnah or Seerah (biography of prophet Muhammad). Each time a
concept would be revealed, the context and teachings/sayings of prophet Muhammad in response to it
would explain it, An example of this teaching method in practice can be seen in the first chapter in the
Quran, Al-Fatiha (the opening).
Abu Said bin Al-Mualla, a companion of prophet Muhammad, was once praying in the
mosque, and Allahs messenger called him to come, but he didnt respond (Muslims are not suppose to
turn away from or interrupt their prayer once they enter into a mode of prayer, except for an emergency).
Later Abu Said told prophet Muhammad why he had not responded, since he was praying. Prophet
Muhammad responded Didnt Allah say, Answer Allah (by obeying Him) and His messenger when
one of them calls you to that which will give you life (Quran, 8:24)? Prophet Muhammad then told
him, I will teach you a chapter, which is the greatest chapter in the Quran before you leave the mosque.
Prophet Muhammad later on took hold of his hand, and headed to leave the mosque, so Abu Said asked
him, didnt you say to me, I will teach you a chapter which is the greatest chapter in the Quran? So,
prophet Muhammad taught him the beginning of the first chapter starting with All praises and thanks
be to Allah, the Rub (Lord) of the Alameen (lit: anything that is possible to be known, the universe)
(Ibn Kathir, vol. 1, 2000, pgs. 41-58).
There are a couple of points of benefit here. First is that prophet Muhammad, by purposely
calling Abu Said during his prayer, a time when normally one would not respond, has used the
opportunity to teach him the meaning of another verse (8:24), which has an even wider concept behind it
mentioned in verse 150 of chapter four, do not differentiate between Allah and His messengers when it
comes to obedience.The one you are praying to right now, is the same one that has commanded you to
obey the messenger. Allah says in another verse, Say oh Muhammad to mankind, if you really love
Allah, then follow me (follow the Quran and Sunnah) and Allah will love you and forgive you your
sins (Quran, 3: 31). Then prophet Muhammad proceeds to caringly take him by the hand and teach
him a new chapter of the Quran. Prophet Muhammad has accordingly, not only re-emphasized and
explained to Abu Said the extent to which a person responds to the messenger, but that the
implementation of the knowledge he had of a previous verse would lead him to more beneficial
knowledge, the new chapter he learned. On a more macro level, prophet Muhammad has taught Abu

49

Said that acting upon what one knows will honor a person with more knowledge. Also, prophet
Muhammad has reiterated the analogy of revelation to something that gives life to creation. This is just
one case from the numerous ones in the Quran of a concept being presented in a verse or set of verses,
and subsequently being applied and demonstrated or explained. Prophet Muhammad has captured the
interest of Abu Said with his initial promise to teach him something amazing at a later time, and then
taught him several subsequent intimately tied concepts (those mentioned above) using one main case
scenario as a vehicle (the creation of a scenario that would teach the companion the extent of obedience
to the messenger). Such multi-layered learning allows deeper processing as various concepts are brought
together in one situation that defines their relationship to one another. Furthermore, cases like this not
only serve to teach the person directly experiencing them, but also the bystanders who witness these
events as other companions at the mosque at the time would have learned from this incident as well. The
stories in the Quran which usually take up significant portions of every chapter also serve as case
scenarios by which to learn a lesson and give a person live examples of a particular concept as it is being
applied.
Pertaining to the Content of the Quran, Allah has a specific preference of how He teaches
concepts in the Quran. Roughly half of the verses in the Quran are related to the past: stories about
(mostly) prophets, but also righteous and evil people/nations that existed and the lessons that can be
derived from their stories for people who contemplate/ponder them. These stories can be thought of as
case studies, as well as the specific snapshots of events that happen within these stories. These stories
provide role models, especially in the stories of the prophets, for people to emulate, and describe the
various thought processes, reasoning, and behavior that cause people to do actions that lead them to
either paradise or hell. Many chapters for example describe the various conversations and dialogues that
will occur between the people of paradise and the people of hellfire. I have tried to implement the use of
stories myself as much as possible throughout this paper (i.e.; Adam, Satan, Noah, etc.) as examples of
the concepts being presented.
Stories in the Qur'an are drawn from actual historical events and are sometimes presented in a
summarized version in one part and then in intricate detail in others. An example of this can be seen in
the stories of the prophets in chapter Hud which are repeated again in chapter Al-Qamar, but with a
different style and manner as if one is reading them from anew. With the stories of the prophets for
example, a theme in chapter Hud is that the mission of all the prophets was one; all of them called their
people towards Tawheed, singling out Allah in all their acts of worship without associating any partners

50

with Him. There are numerous examples of this in the Qur'an like chapters Al-Anbiya', Maryam, and AlA'raf. Allah says for example, "Before your time We never sent any Messenger without having revealed
to him that none has the right to be worshipped but I, so worship Me alone," (Quran, 21:25). "And to
the people of 'Ad, We sent their brother Hud. He said, O my people, worship Allah Alone, you have no
deity other than Him. Will you not, then, fear Him?'" (Quran, 7:65). This is not only a comfort to
prophet Muhamamad as God is essentially telling him that hes merely one in a long chain of prophets,
whose people also put them through trials and sometimes never believed in them: "Therefore, be patient
oh Muhammad as did the Messengers endowed with firmness of heart before you bore themselves with
patience. And be in no haste about the disbelievers" (Qur'an, 46:35); but these stories are also recalling
the memory of these widely known tribes of the past in the minds of the Arabs prophet Muhammad was
speaking to. The verses are igniting the previous knowledge that the Arabs had of these peoples that
came before them and using the fact that they all called to the same thing that prophet Muhammad is
calling to as rapport to scaffold them into following him. Allah says, undoubtedly, in the stories of the
prophets there are lessons for those with sound intelligence and comprehension and He commands
prophet Muhammad and everyone who reads the Quran after him, tell these stories so that perhaps
they would ponder and reflect (Quran, 12:111, 11:176).The lesson is not just for those present during
these events, but also to those witnessing them by reading/hearing about them in the chapter. This is
even more obvious in the story of Moses and Pharaoh when the pronoun changes from addressing
Moses and Pharaoh specifically to a general one that addresses all of humanity (Quran, 7:103-156). As
Shaykh Bin Baz notes, the use of stories is one of the most effective methods for teaching because it
causes the listener to commit until its resolution and maintains their attentionbecause phrases (or
pieces of information) are forgotten, but powerful events that have happened are rarely forgotten (AlKhattaabi, 2006, p.292). Shaykh Bin Baz even explicitly recommends using stories of current events as
opportunities by which concepts can be taught (Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.302). Again, conceiving of stories
as cases and opportunities for learning, are an excellent way that the Quran utilizes real life experiences
to teach certain concepts. Such case studies and examples in the classroom will flesh out the concepts
being taught. This has been in regard to the method of stories as a teaching technique in Islamic
pedagogy.
The other half of the Quran is about the futuredescriptions of the Day of Judgment and the
events that happen on it, paradise and hellfire, etc. In both the stories and descriptions about the events
of the future, there is countless use of debate and dialogue between God, angels, humans, and others.

51

Rarely are things merely summarized; rather the various actors are actively expressing their thoughts to
the reader so that one can envision the scene of events that are taking place clearly. Dr. Afsaruddin has
highlighted how debate and dialogue (munaazara) was a core teaching method used among
Jurisprudence ulamaa for sharpening students analytical skills (Afsaruddin, 2005, pgs. 148, 151). This
competitive aspect of Islamic pedagogy will be highlighted in a later hadeeth. Allah commands prophet
Muhammad many times to use questioning while calling people to Islam, saying say to them [the
polytheists] oh Muhammad, who is the Rub of the heavens and the earth? Say it is Allah. Say Have you
then taken for worship Auliyaa(protectors/guardians) other than Him that have no power either to
benefit or harm themselves (Quran, 13:16)? Such questions were meant to make the idol worshippers
ponder and question the logic of worshipping their statues. Challenging students to participate in their
education ensures that teachers and students are on the same page. Questions get students involved and
engaged in the learning process.
Other than these two broad strands of content regarding the past and future (about 6,000 verses
total), there are also about 500 or so verses of direct laws in the Quran.
There are also some pedagogical methods to be derived from the order that the Quran was
compiled into. Accordingly one finds that the first chapter in the Quran, Al-Fatiha, is called the
opening chapter and essentially summarizes Tawheed (that no one has the right to be worshipped
except Allahthe central belief in Islam) and the relationship between God and humankind as an
introduction of sorts (Ibn Kathir, 2000, vol.1, pgs. 41-58). The second chapter, which we could consider
the first main chapter, is considered by Tafseer (exegesis) ulamaa as the summary of the Quran; for
example it is the only chapter to contain all five pillars of Islam in one chapter, the best verse, and the
longest verse in the Quran (Ibn Kathir, 2000, vols.1 and 2). The last three chapters of the Quran (AlIkhlaas, Al-Falaq, and Al-Naas) all also deal specifically with Tawheed in a very simple fashion (they
are three of the shortest chapters in the Quran). Usually when we listen to a lecture or read a book, we
might doze off throughout the middle, but we usually remember the main points that were mentioned in
the beginning and the end; this is not necessarily due to lack of interest on the part of the reader, but
could just be a natural human reaction to absorbing large amounts of information at one time. On the
next level down, at the level of the chapter, the structure of individual Quranic chapters also reveals that
they usually begin and end with pivotal moral lessons related to the chapter. This is seen in the end of
chapter Al-Furqaan which describes the ideal Muslim, or in the fact that the vast majority of chapters
start with a specific statement about the veracity, authenticity or greatness of the Quran, Tawheed, and

52

occasionally paradise/hellfireessentially the main aspects of Islam. The details of what belief entails
will be explained throughout the chapter, but the reader is given an overall abstract of what is to come
or how it should affect them. Similarly, when teachers are giving lectures or talks, they should make
sure that they do not dwell too long on explanations or examples without recalling the audiences
attention to the main topic and purpose of the study. While on the theme of the ordering of the Quran,
we will present a case study of the first verses revealed of the Quran.
As was mentioned, the first words revealed of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad in the seventh
century C.E. were, what means, Read/Recite! In the name of your Lord, who has created all that
exists (Quran, 96:1). Out of all the different words that Allah chose to begin his last revelation for
mankind, (and Arabic is a vast language) Allah chose the word Iqra, which can be translated as
read or recite in English and actually comes from the same root as Quran (lit: something which is
recited, which highlights the importance of oral transmission of knowledge and not just books in Islamic
pedagogy). This first chapter is titled Iqra or Al-'Alaq (many chapters have more than one name
depending on the content). The first word as we have mentioned means to read or recite, while the
second the 'alaq (lit: blood clot) actually refers to the external appearance of the embryo and its sacs
during embryonic development when the presence of large amounts of blood in the embryo prevent
blood flow33 (Ibrahim, 1997, p.8). The context for this first revelation is that prophet Muhammad (in
Mecca), prior to receiving revelation at the age of 40, would have many dreams that would come true so
he would travel to the Hira cave and spend many days at a time in seclusion to worship God34 In these
first verses of the Qur'an, Allah sends angel Gabriel to command prophet Muhammad to read, but
prophet Muhammad was illiterate35 so he replies that he is not of those who read. Also significant, is that
there is no tablet or anything for him to read, so how can he read? The exegesis ulamaa said regarding
this, that it is as if he is telling him to read in the ayaat of Allahs creation since the word ayah has
multiple meanings of proofs, evidences, signs, and verses (Al-Qarnee, 2000, pgs. 114-115). Allah is

33

The Quran describes the stages of the embryonic process in certain places (like 23:12-14) which describes how the
embryo matures from a nutfa (drop of semen) to the described alaqah stage above to the mudghah (chewed substance
appearance referring to the somites at the back of the embryo (when it becomes like a small piece of meat) which resemble
teeth marks in a chewed substance etc.) (Ibrahim, 1997, pgs. 6-8).
34
Before revelation there was no formal form of prayer revealed yet for the Muslim ummah so prophet Muhammad would
seclude himself in the cave to meditate about the greatness of Allah (Al-Ashqar, 1985, pgs.814-815).
35
The Quran mentions that one of the wisdoms behind choosing an unlettered prophet for the revelation was so no one could
accuse him of writing it himself (Qarnee, 2000, p. 115). In fact if he were to write it himself, it wouldnt be in his interest to
write a verse saying that God teaches with the pen since it was common knowledge among prophet Muhammads tribe that
he was illiterate (Al-Ashqar, 1985, pgs.814-815).

53

determined to show prophet Muhammad that the One who created him is capable of anything, so three
times Gabriel commands him to read, and squeezes him tightly; every time prophet Muhammad says he
cant. The fourth time, Gabriel says to him to read in the name of your Rub who created you. If your Rub
can create you, then if you say In the name of God, believing in Gods ability to help you do what
seems impossible, and try your best out of obedience to Him, He will make you able to read. Allah
emphasizes this point about His power, commanding prophet Muhammad to read in the name of the
One who created humankind from a mere 'alaq. Read/recite and your Rub is the most generous. He is
the one who has taught with the pen, has taught mankind that which they did not know (Quran, 97:15).
Unquestionably, the one who created man and his speech can make them compatible at His will.
This is an excellent example of how teachers should similarly teach their students to do their best, and
then rely on God for the results. Furthermore, Allah specifically mentions teaching mankind with the
pen here; as the exegesis ulamaa have mentioned, this is the main way knowledge has been passed down
throughout history, even though it was not so much during prophet Muhammads time. Writing traps
knowledge onto a material substance so that it can be built upon and developed over the ages (AlBukhari, vol.1, 1997, pgs. 118-122). Allah is teaching prophet Muhammad that any knowledge we have
is ultimately from Allah and proof of his majesty. Allah says and of all things He hath perfect
knowledge (Quran, 2:29). This helps one maintain humility since as is mentioned a couple verses later,
humankind gets arrogant and transgresses the bounds when they feel self-sufficient (Quran, 97:6-7).
The importance of being humble as an educator is seen even in the example of the prophets, who were
all shepherds without any royal or kinglike status in society; even after their prophethood, they still
maintained these simple lifestyles. This aspect of humbleness was highlighted in the linguistic analysis
of a murubbi; one cannot hope to change society without living amongst the people dealing and
cooperating with them. If teachers are far removed from the field of their expertise and merely
swimming in theories and not the practical problems of their societies, then education becomes a mere
intellectual exercise and not a transformative experience for the teacher or student. Within case-based
learning we have discussed the use of stories and debate to stimulate scaffolding, and the next most
common pedagogical technique utilized in the Quran and Sunnah is the mathal.
Again, as has become obvious, there is nothing outrageous or necessarily peculiar about Islamic
pedagogy, merely practical methods for simple instruction. The mathal (analogy/example) according
to Arab linguists is something that has some things in common with another and some things

54

notused to draw a similitude of a similar image36 by building on previous knowledge to bring the
comprehension of something more apparentusually using a structure/format that is common among
people (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.79-81). Drawing analogies is literally translated hitting analogies in
Arabic (darb Al-amthaal) because they are popularly known for being spread very easily in Arab culture
due to its oral nature; something that travels wide through the land is known to have received the action
of darb or being hit. Many linguists considered amthaal the highest eloquence of speech because they
are concise in achieving the intended meaning and comparison, commenting that the person is made
comfortable by familiar concepts and objects and generally veers away from the strange and new (AlMajeed, 1992, p.79-81). In other words, analogies are widely recognized/used verbal expressions that
facilitate quickly scaffolding listeners/readers to a particular idea or understanding.
As analogies are utilized in Islamic pedagogy, then the Quran and Sunnah are profuse with
analogies. Allah even describes that one of the signs of the believers is that they comprehend Allahs
examples/analogies because He has guided their hearts and senses to understand them (Quran, 2: 26).
In the Sunnah, prophet Muhammad uses them noticeably, particularly while questioning his
companions. For example, to explain the purification that the 5 daily prayers offer from sins, he asked
his companions, If one of you had a river in front of their house that they bathed in five times per day,
would they ever be dirty? The companions replied no. Prophet Muhammad said, this is the analogy of
sins to the five daily prayers; each prayer wipes away all the minor sins since the prayer before it (AlQarnee, 2000, p.51). This is an example of the use of analogies combined with the method of interactive
dialogue in teaching.
Another analogy is when prophet Muhammad said:
"the example of the guidance and knowledge with which Allah has sent me is like the abundant
rain which strikes the earth. Some of it is fertile and accepts the water and brings forth plants and grass
in abundance. Some of it is hard and holds the water so Allah people to use it. They drink from it, water
their animals and irrigate. Some of the land it strikes is level and barren and does not retain the water nor
produce plants. The first is the example of someone who understands the deen (way of life37) of Allah
and benefits from that with which Allah has sent me and learns and teaches it to others. The last is the

36

Many ulamaa have also discussed how to properly use modern technology such as projectors and computers to use images
(Al-Khattaabi, 2006, p.161) as prophet Muhammad use to use drawings and and diagrams to explain concepts to his
companions (Al-Shareef, 2010)
37
Deen is the closet word to religion in the Quran. With secularism in the Arab world, the word has also taken on the
meaning of religion in Modern Standard Arabic.

55

example of the person who pays no attention to it and does not accept the guidance with which I have
been sent" (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.124).
Here the prophet has drawn a similitude between peoples hearts and their response to Allahs
revelation and different types of ground, with the revelation being like the water that rains down from
the sky to bring the earth to life. The first type of person is one who comprehended the revelation, lived
by it, and taught it to others. They dont only hold the knowledge but teach others and help them to
benefit from it and grow as well (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.126). The second type of person is one who
merely memorizes the knowledge, but maybe doesnt quite understand it; nonetheless, they are able to
pass on this knowledge to someone who will benefit from it. Prophet Muhammad has still commended
such people as well in another hadeeth saying, May Allah illuminate the person who hears a hadeeth
from me and memorizes it until he conveys it. Perhaps a person who has memorized a hadeeth (lit:
fiqh) conveys it to someone with more Fiqh than themselves [so that the latter would comprehend it
and benefit from it], even though the [original] carrier of this hadeeth was not a Faqeeh [someone who
understood it] (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.127). Imam Al-Nawawi, a Hadeeth/Exegesis alim, comments on
this hadeeth saying this first type of soil does not benefit from the rain directly, but holds it and its
benefits for someone else (human or creature). This is similar to the second type of human who
memorizes the hadeeth in their heart even though they dont fully comprehend it themselves and dont
have the critical thinking skills to derive the various rulings and full meanings from it. Nonetheless,
when this person comes across a thirsty searcher [sic], they will benefit the latter with this knowledge
(Al-Majeed, 1992, p.128). The third type of person is one who does not respond to the revelation at all
nor do they relay the message to others and this type is portrayed as barren land which does not benefit
themselves or others. Such a person might even theoretically believe in the revelation through their lips,
but not actually live by it (Al-Majeed, 1992, p.128-129).
Interestingly, the first two types of people are presented as those with some type of
understanding, be that as it may at different levels; even the one who merely memorized at least
comprehended that the material was important enough to concern oneself with to begin with. There was
some benefit to memorization since here it was something considered an unquestionable Truth of life:
revelation. However, the third type of person is the one that is presented as blameworthy since they had
none of these qualities. An analogy could be drawn between this and some empirical knowledge as well;
some empirical knowledge is necessary to know within and of itself. As was discussed earlier, there are
some types of basic knowledge that simply must be memorized as they are fundamental to being a

56

productive part of society like memorizing the continents of the planet, numbers, an alphabet of some
sort, the elements of nature, essentially main concepts that a person cannot do without. The names of the
continents or even countries could change, but in the meantime, they are basic terms that need to be
known so that one may learn more about them. What concerns us here is that the analogy above is
providing deeper, more specific explanation for concepts being taught (the purpose of amthaal) like
those in verses such as 13:17and 22:5; for example Allah says:
Allah says:He sends down water (rain) from the sky, and the valleys flow according to their measure,
but the flood bears away the foam that mounts up to the surface;thus does Allah (through parables)
distinguish Truth from falsehood . Then, as for the foam it passes away as scum upon the banks, while
that which is for the good of humankind remains in the earth. Thus Allah sets forth parables (for the
Truth and falsehood, i.e. Belief and disbelief) (Quran, 13:17 ). Essentially, Allah is saying that other
ideologies associated with disbelief will eventually fade away because they are not sustainable ways of
life like the one He has chosen for humankind (Al-Majeed, 1992, pgs.126-127). In this case, prophet
Muhammad has used one analogy to describe others that are similar in theme, but maybe more difficult
to grasp. This is the primary use of analogies, to clarify the concept at hand. There are numerous
analogies mentioned in the Quran and Sunnah, and the ones mentioned in the Sunnah tend to generally
be a little more direct and of a explanatory nature, fitting for the Sunnahs role in regard to the Quran.
In sum, analogies play a role similar to stories of elaborating on a concept that is being taught by
scaffolding a student from their current level of comprehension to a higher one. Consequently, we have
now outlined how Islamic pedagogy utilizes the vitally significant caring relationship between teacher
and student to stimulate motivation between the former and latter to utilize education to work towards
social change and reform. Metaphysical motivation is employed as an impetus to spark active learning in
the classroom which transforms individuals. Through such an apprenticeship relationship between
teacher and student, case-based learning is utilized in the classroom to construct live learning
experiences using analogies, debate, and stories as vehicles with which to scaffold students. This is
Islamic pedagogy.

57

ANALYSIS OF DATA
Islamic Pedagogy as it Relates to the Western Analogue of Ethical Caring
Correcting Mistakes and Offering Advice on the Path to Acquiring Wisdom
It should be mentioned upfront that the following comparison between elements of Islamic
pedagogy and elements of Ethical Care are not presented with the intention to demonstrate that the use
of one teaching method in the former or latter justifies or proves the effectiveness of the other. Rarely,
the following analysis is meant to merely highlight parallels between the two pedagogical approaches
particularly regarding the nature of the caring student/teacher relationshipfor the sake of drawing
connections between ideas that have been perceived as pedagogically effective in the East and West.
As has been discussed, the nature of Quranic revelation was conducive to scaffolding a people
from practically non-existent moral standards to very high ones. Similarly, children are like blank slates;
we cannot assume that they should know better, because for many things they do not and have not been
taught, so one must take their time and caringly show them appropriate behavior. When done at a young
age, such caring instruction is like etching these values into the childs memory as an old Arab proverb
goes. A young boy, Anas, was once eating with prophet Muhammad, but he was not doing so according
to Islamic etiquette; he was not eating from his side of the plate, but rather sticking his hand all over it.
The prophet said to him Oh, young boy (a term of endearment in the Arabic yaa bunay!)! Say
Bismillah (in the name of God), eat with your right hand, and eat from what is directly in front of you.
The boy commented later, This remained my way of eating from that time on (Bukhari, 5376 in USC).
Prophet Muhammad did not scold him for what he was doing wrong, but rather immediately proceeded
to simply instruct him what the correct way was, an approach to correcting mistakes that has also been
promoted by Bailey. The effect of how Anas was taught is what made the new knowledge stick with
him and change his future behavior.
Bailey also suggests not focusing on what children are doing wrong as to damage their selfesteem, but to rather simply tell them how they can do it correctly. This is a much more positive
approach to correcting mistakes. Dont just say dont do this or that, but rather educate children on the
important part, what they should be doing (Bailey, 2000, pgs.55-73). Ethical Care and the Islamic
pedagogy being outlined here have promoted a forgiving, optimistic approach to teaching children.
Prophet Muhammad is quoted as saying he is not of us who does not show mercy to our younger ones
(Abu Dawud 764 in USC). Children are very sensitive in their early years and need sympathetic
guidance that corresponds to their mental and emotional capabilities.

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The expression yaa bunay! used above is actually the same expression that Lukman (an
Abyssinian slave) uses with his son in the chapter of the Quran named after him. Lukmans classic
advice to his son combines scaffolding/prioritizing knowledge and presenting it in a caring manner as
part of Islamic pedagogy. Lukman is praised in the Quran as having been given great wisdom and
religious understanding because he gives thanks to God. And from the fruits of this wisdom is how he
teaches his son how to prioritize in order, Tawheed, righteousness to the parents, keeping good
company, ihsaan, prayers, commanding the good and forbidding the evil, and then being patient if that
brings him suffering. Also if one notices, Allah mentions peoples rights over his son right after
Tawheed, the bare minimum acknowledgement of Allah needed for his actions to be accepted, and right
before even mentioning prayers and commanding good/forbidding evil, which are two of the best acts of
worship a person could practice. This organization is beneficial in teaching students the importance of
their communitys rights over them as Allah mentioned them early in the list of actions to highlight their
significance. After performing such virtues, then there is the fear of becoming haughty so there is the
advice on how to maintain humilitygood character in sum. Allah begins the story with Lukman telling
his son :
"O my son! Join not in worship others with Allah. Verily! Joining others in worship with Allah is
a great dhulm (wrong) indeed. And We have enjoined on humankind to be dutiful and good to their
parents. His mother bore him in weakness and hardship upon weakness and hardship, and his weaning is
in two years; give thanks to Me and then to your parents, unto Me is the final destination. But if they
(the parents) strive against you to make you associate partners with Me in worship (which you have no
knowledge of), then do not obey them, but treat them in this world kindly, and follow the path of he who
turns to Me in repentance and in obedience. Then to Me will be your return, and I shall inform you of
what you used to do. O my son! If there be (anything) equal to the weight of a grain of mustard seed, and
though it be in a rock, or in the heavens or in the earth, Allah will bring it forth. Verily, Allah is Subtle
(in bringing out that grain), Well-Aware (of its place).O my son! Aqim-is-Salat (perform the prayers on
time and correctly), call people to Al-Ma'ruf (Islamic Monotheism and all that is good), and warn people
from Al-Munkar (polytheism of all kinds and all that is evil and bad), and bear with patience whatever
befalls you. Verily! These are some of the important commandments ordered by Allah with no
exemption. And turn not your face away from men with pride, nor walk in insolence through the earth.
Verily, Allah likes not each arrogant boaster. And be moderate (or show no insolence) in your walking,

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and lower your voice. Verily, the harshest of all voices is the voice (braying) of the donkey" (Quran,
31:13-19).
To return to our topic of caring Tarbiyya, maintaining a positive environment for a child serves
to not damage their self esteem and maintain the loving relationship between teacher and student. Also,
the importance of keeping children motivated through a caring environment seems to be timeless
because even nowadays academics such as Deborah Stipek and Allan Wigfield have highlighted how
important the classroom environment is for maintaining motivation38 (2010, February).
On correcting mistakes in general, there are numerous cases where prophet Muhammad stressed
on explaining to people the reason why what they were doing is wrong, and not hastening to condemn
them (Bukhari, 717, 4992 & Al-Nisaai, 4999 in USC), many times offering them more appropriate
alternatives (Al-Nisaai, 1119 in USC). One bedouin man had once urinated in a mosque, because he
had not realized that it was a sacred place and the companions of prophet Muhammad were outraged and
were going to grab him, but prophet Muhammad amazingly commanded his companions to not even
interrupt him, nor yell at him, but to simply let him finish. Acknowledging the bedouins unrefined
habits compared to the city folk at the time, prophet Muhammad explained to him that it was
inappropriate to urinate in a mosque and had the area cleaned. After this the Bedouin was so impressed
by the prophets caring attitude to a complete stranger that he supplicated oh God, forgive me and
Muhammad and no one elsethe Bedouin made such a exclusionary prayer as a slight jab at the
companions for how they were about to react to his behavior (Zino, 1995, p.75). Prophet Muhammad
customized his response in dealing with someone who would have been at a much lower level of moral
refinement (as was Bedouins reputation) then someone from the average population in the city. Similar
to Lickona (1991, pgs.55-67), prophet Muhammad has taught that admonishment by itself is not a true
learning experience; how proper moral conduct is taught is the essence of the message. The companions
would be seen later throughout their lives imitating these methods from their role-model, the prophet,
with their own students.
Once when some young girls were eulogizing the deaths of their fathers in a recent battle, they
started praising prophet Muhammad in a way that was not befitting of him by saying that he knew the
future. Prophet Muhammad did not prohibit them from mourning their dead fathers, but told them to
simply remove the part which exaggerated his position. In this way, he removed the mistake they were
38

They cite how children are overconfident about themselves from the ages of 4-7, when key characteristics of classroom
environment are flexible grouping, evaluation through skill mastery on report cards not grades, work is displayed, small
group instruction, differentiated tasks, and mistakes are valued. All of this disappears as they grow, and so does motivation.

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making, but allowed them to continue with their eulogy (Umm Qatadah, personal correspondence, April,
2, 2010). Accordingly, teachers should not focus on the faults of students, but be balanced in celebrating
their good behavior. Educating students on how to do things correctly instead of complaining about what
they are doing incorrectly is an approach Bailey has suggested as well (Bailey, 2000, pgs.5573).Compassion is key.
One of the primary goals of case based learning as it relates to moral education, as discussed by
Lickona above (Lickona, 1991, p.47), is for students to realize when a situation requires moral action,
reflect on it, and then act upon it. By revealing the doctrines of Islam piece by piece, there was live
explanation/application of the verses by prophet Muhammad in front of his companions so that they
could see what it actually looked like to uphold ones covenants, maintain ties of kinship, help the poor,
be humble, etc in practice. Morals as general themes always sound wonderful, but the true task is
developing the wisdom to know how to prioritize values and contextualize them to ones situation. Most
would agree that lying is wrong for example, but would also agree that it could be commendable if it
was going to save someones life.
In Islam, developing such a discerning nature is called having (deep understanding) of the
faith, not simply knowing the dos and donts, but truly comprehending the principles and value system
of Islam to the extent that one is able to do the best most beloved act to God contextual to the time and
place. Prophet Muhammad described this when he stated that whoever Allah desires good for, he gives
him deep understanding of Islam and the insight of how to apply it properly (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1,
pgs.98-100). Another hadeeth states that One faqih (one with fiqh) is more powerful against the devil
than a thousand worshippers (Berkey, 1992, p.4). The word hikma (wisdom) could also be used as a
synonym for fiqh, since prophet Muhammad said do not envy anyone, except in two cases: a person
whom Allah has given wealth and he spends it righteously and a person whom Allah has given hikma
(deep comprehension of the Quran and Sunnah), acts according to it, and teaches it to others (AlBukhari, vol. 1 pgs.98-100). Interestingly, the word hikma when combined with reference to the Quran
in a verse, is used to refer to the Sunnah in the Quran. This is an importance of case based learning that
modernist and Islamic approaches to moral education would agree ondeveloping critically conscience
morality. This theme applies to all knowledge, many Muslim students in Muslim countries memorize
basic content material, but knowing when and how to apply it is the only way such information has any
benefit. Students merely memorizing the names of virtues or how many elements are in water will not
benefit them in this life or the hereafter.

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Reciprocity and Maintaining a Sincere Intention

As has been mentioned, the term Tarbiyya literally has this agricultural connotation of caring as
if one is caring for a tender plant. Herein lies the motivation for an educator to care about their students
in Islam; it is their spiritual Islamic obligation. This motivation for caring is different from Noddings
concept of reciprocity (1984, p.74) which expects some form of human motivation or reward for caring.
In Islam, all good deeds must be done for the pleasure of God. Prophet Muhammad said, the reward of
deeds depends upon the intentions (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs. 85-86). Accordingly, the attitude
towards Noddings reciprocity (1984, p.74,) in Islamic pedagogy would depend on the form it takes. If
it was initiated on the part of the student in the sense of applying the knowledge (and the educator
happens to witness this happy growth), then this might be praiseworthy as this could be indicative of
the students sincerity (one of the two conditions for good deeds to be accepted in Islam) in learning to
become more God-conscious (assuming theres no worldly pretentiousness about desiring to be looked
up to by others or fame involved). In this sense, the educator sees the fruits of his/her labor, which is a
possible sign of Gods acceptance of his/her deeds in Islam. The educator can then take satisfaction in
the fact that the child has not merely memorized the content, but has rather processed it deeply and been
affected by it in some way. If this content was moral in nature, then the child has learned to identify
when moral action is needed, purified their intention to do it, and then proceeded to consciously make a
moral decision. To a teacher that views teaching as an act of worship, this offers tremendous intrinsic
reward that they have participated in social reform as a Muslih. On the other hand, if their reciprocity
takes the form of gifts or praise for the teacher, then this could cause possible harm to the teacher by
inflating his/hers ego if he/she attributes the outcome to themselves (and not to the mercy of God for
allowing them to achieve the good they did), possibly nullifying their deeds. Furthermore, if the
educator expects such reciprocity from the student, then this makes their sincerity questionable from the
beginning, because a Muslim expects his reward solely from God.
In Islam, God has created humankind to worship Him and blessed them with innumerable
blessings, foremost of which is creating them; therefore, they are obligated to reciprocate this bounty
with obedience, and though He is not required to, He has chosen to reciprocate to them paradise for their
obedience. This issue of maintaining sincerity is so crucial in Islam that one is expected to choose their
company on the basis of those who they believe to be sincere (Quran, 18:28). If one ponders this, what
would happen if classes and schools in the Muslim world were constructed with the explicit intention of
providing environments conducive to good moral character and not merely sorting the population into

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schools by their various socio-economic brackets? This would have a profound effect on inequality if
teachers can group students together on this basis of being sincerely committed to social change and yet
everyone in the classroom comes from all degrees of SES. This is why the teachers function as a role
model is so important. As Ibn Khaldun affirms students will often emulate their teacher as part of
learning (Halstead, 2004, p.525); hence, students can also serve as peer role models in cooperative group
tasks with other students. Creating good company and a moral environment in the classroom minimizes
the need for repetition of the teachers efforts. An assertion Vygotsky would wholeheartedly agree with
since he acknowledges the contagious nature of behavior between people (Goldstein, 1999, pgs.648654). Education is a broad endeavour, and as is being realized, it cannot be narrowly viewed from a
psychological lens. Humans are social creatures.
The aforementioned modeling of moral behavior in Islamic pedagogy is what Lickona focused
on as the first step to teachers teaching morals, embodying them first, ridding themselves of their
personal vices. Seeing moral behavior, students can visualize what proper behavior looks like, intend
to live by it, and then actually start trying their best to do so. The apprenticeship relationship that
illustrates to students how to go through this process is analogous to the case based learning methods
that might be utilized by Lickona-inspired educators in the classroom as mentioned aboveusing daily
incidents of life as teaching/learning opportunities.

Prioritizing Values Through Ones Demeanor and Composure

In regards to values, Islam legislates very similar moral values to the Modernist framework of
Ethical Care, like honesty, cooperation, responsibility, forgiveness, courage, self sacrifice, and discipline
(Quran, 2:177). Prophet Muhammad was described by his wife Aisha as a walking Quran (AlAshqar, 1985, pgs.814-815). when she was asked about his character. He embodied a caring approach
to dealing with people since Allah had advised him about how to go about teaching people about Islam,
saying Had you been harsh and hard of heart, they would have dispersed from around you, so pardon
them for their faults, and ask Allahs forgiveness for them, and consult with them in affairs. Then when
you have reached a decision, place your trust in Allah; surely, Allah loves those who put their trust in
Him (Quran, 3:159). Prophet Muhammad would advise his students, the companions, similarly,
saying, Allah will not show compassion to those who do not show compassion to people (Al-Bukhari,
1997, p.59). If one understands this, then they will see why the caring student-teacher relationship is so
important to productive educational experiences in the classroom from an Islamic perspective.

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Concerning the demeanor of an educator, the aspects most repeated even in modern day Islamic
encyclopedias on raising children, are exactly the manners and character the teacher is supposed to be
teaching. Good character is the cornerstone of Islamic pedagogy. For example in Ahmed Mustafa
Mutawalees Maosooat Al Umm fee Tarbiyyat Al Awlaad fil Islam (Encyclopedia of Raising Children
in Islam), meticulous care is taken to highlight all the specific references in Quran and Sunnah that
refer to the ideal character of a Muslim in general for the parent/educator and child/student: social
competence (brotherhood, righteousness to the parents, maintaining ties of kinship, righteousness to
neighbors, visiting the sick, compassion, mercy, fairness, forgiveness, generosity, and leniency) (2005,
pgs.65-168), etiquettes of seeking in-depth Islamic theological knowledge (2005, pgs. 217-231)
(interestingly shorter since pragmatic basic khuluq are what is required, while in-depth knowledge is
recommended), psychological well-being (courage, chastity, discipline, accountability, and love) (pgs.
315-375), emotional well-being (love, compassion, general tips for how to deal with children (pgs. 376387), health/sexual well-being/relationships (marriage, chastity, patience, God-consciousness, good
companionship, etiquettes for maintaining love between spouses) (pgs. 393-442), and healthy living
(exercise, nutritious diets, medical issues, etc.) (pgs. 449-591).
A crucial disposition that Bailey also highlights for educators (2000, pgs.26-30,) is the
importance of maintaining composure throughout the daily opportunities for modeling morals; this is the
backbone of Islamic pedagogy. Numerous ahadeeth (pl. of hadeeth) of Prophet Muhammad mention the
importance of maintaining ones wakaar (composure) (not to mention being from the most often
repeated characteristics of the ideal believer at the end of chapters Lukman and Al-Furqan in the
Quran). One of the most famous examples of wakaar is when a man had come to prophet Muhammad
and kept asking him to give him an invaluable piece of advice (expecting some long complicated
response) and prophet Muhammad kept simply telling him to not get angry in two words (Muslim, 1077
in USC ). The man had traveled a far distance to obtain some profound wisdom from this prophet he had
heard about, and the prophet told him to not get angry. Virtue should not necessarily be judged/valued
for its complexity. Truly, how many learning opportunities are lost when educators cannot calmly
morally reflect on a situation before acting?
In order to practically maintain ones composure, one needs to always maintain an upbeat
optimistic disposition and not be flustered easily, thereby being able to be lenient with minor
occurrences of misconduct, but able to clamp down with major infractions. Modeling prioritization of
values was seen in prophet Muhammads interaction with children like Anas. Anas stated "I served the

64

Prophet Mohammad (and his family) for ten years. (During these 10 years) he never got angry with me
nor asked why I did this or didn't do that (Bukhari 418 in USC). This was the tolerance and compassion
prophet Muhammad displayed towards children since they are still developing and learning. On many
occasions prophet Muhammad would joke caringly with Anas for example, saying you with the two
ears (Zino, 1995, p. 98). However, this was all regarding issues that were offenses to ones person, but
when it came to important matters, like insults to the faith or religious infractions he would say things
like teach your kids to perform their prayers by the age of 7, and beat them for it (Muslims are not
allowed to hit other humans in the face or hard enough to leave a mark unless in combat or a
government official administering punishment for a crime, etc. as explained in other ahadeeth) if they
are not performing them by the age of ten39 (Bukhari 677 in USC). Hence, the teacher is expected to be
naturally caring as part of his/her Islamic personality by default, but has the ability to be discipline
when needed.
The aforementioned is the parallel in Islam to differentiating between moral and management
demands as was expressed by Kohlberg and Selman above (Kohlberg & Selman, 1972, p.20). One must
be very lenient while trying to help their students learn proper moral behaviorbecause if they pounce
on every mistake a child makes throughout the day, theyll never get through a lessonbut they can
save their emphasis for the fundamental values they are trying to instill. Even with regular academic
content, as present day ulamaa have argued, overwhelming students with any type of knowledge will
bore them and diminish their desire to learn (Al-Shareef).
The last example I will present is regarding Lickonas use of cooperative work to teach children
how to teach and learn from each other (Lickona, 1991, p.74). Prophet Muhammad would often put up a
question for discussion when intending to teach something (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, p. 90). There
would normally be a group of companions with prophet Muhammad throughout the day (Arabs were/are
very social historically).Once prophet Muhammad was with some companions and asked Indeed there
is a tree that does not shed its leaves, and resembles a Muslim. So tell me, which is it?So people started
discussing the trees of the country side. Abdullah ibn Umar said I thought to myself that it was the
date palm tree, but I was shy and did not speak up (this is because he was very young and did not want
to interrupt the elders). So they asked the messenger, tell us what it is Oh messenger of Allah. He said
it is the date palm tree. Ibn Umar mentioned to his father how he had known the answer, who replied
39

Not praying the 5 daily prayers is disbelief in Islam, hence the more severe tone; there is some difference of opinion
among theologians if one is considered a disbeliever by abandoning them in general or out of laziness while still believing in
their obligatory nature (Ibn Rajab, 2007).

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It would have been more beloved to me than such and such had you said it was the date palm tree
(Al-Bukhari, vol.4B, 1997, pgs.299-301).
To not go into too much detail on why the Muslim was most like the palm tree , the general
reason the ideal Muslim should resemble a date palm tree is because all parts of it are beneficial for
some use, compared to most trees that would have been found in the Middle East at the time. What
concerns us in this comparison is that prophet Muhammad questioned them to test their general
understanding of how a Muslim should be (to get them thinking), gave them time to discuss the issue
among themselves collectively40, and then come up with answers. He also used an illustrative analogy to
convey his point. By having different ages of people within a group, the experience was one that
highlighted the importance of developing assertiveness in children so that they feel comfortable voicing
their opinions and feel intellectually safe to make mistakes. Independent critical thinking followed by
cooperative discussion is an excellent strategy in the cooperative aspects of Islamic pedagogy that
allows students to practice with peers similar to them in ability and then have an educator highlight the
points of benefit that they understood or maybe missed at the end.

40

Ibn Sina has highly stressed the importance of students having good company in their learning experiences as well
(Gunther, 2006, p.380).

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CONCLUSION
I will end this discussion on Islamic pedagogy with an ideal case study that represents the
concept of Ihsaan in Islam. If teachers and the students they teach can begin to live life according to the
acknowledgement that whatever social contributions they are putting forth are an act of worship, and
they live with the sincere intention that their efforts are solely for Allahs pleasure, they can begin to
develop Ihsaanworshipping Allah as if they see Him, and even though they dont see Him, they live
according to the acknowledgement that He sees them. The following is known as hadeeth Jibreel (the
hadeeth of angel Gabriel); Umar ibn Al-Khattab, the companion, narrates:
While we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah one day, a man [Jibreel in human form]
came to our gathering whose clothes were extremely white, whose hair was extremely black, upon
whom traces of travelling could not be seen, and whom none of us knew, until he sat down close to the
Prophet, may Allah bless with him and grant him peace, so that he rested his knees upon his knees and
placed his two hands upon his thighs and said, 'Muhammad, tell me about Islam?' The Messenger of
Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, 'Islam is that you witness that there is no god but
Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, and you establish the prayer, and you give the
Zakat [obligatory charity on assets], and you fast Ramadan [a month of the Islamic lunar calendar], and
you perform the hajj [pilgrimage] of the House if you are physically and financially able to.' He said,
'You have told the truth,' and we were amazed at him asking the prophet and [then] telling him that he
told the truth. The man said, 'Tell me about iman.' He said, 'That you affirm Allah, His angels, His
books, His messengers, and the Last Day, and that you affirm the Decree, the good of it and the bad of
it.' He said, 'You have told the truth.' He said, 'Tell me about ihsaan.' He said, 'That you worship Allah as
if you see Him, for if you don't see Him then truly He sees you.' the prophet asked, 'Umar, do you
know who the questioner was?' I said, 'Allah and His Messenger know best.' He said, 'He was Jibreel
who came to you to teach you your deen42'." (Al-Bukhari, vol. 1, 1997, pgs.80-81)).
There are entire books dedicated to this hadeeth, so we will focus specifically on the concepts
dedicated to Ihsaan and the demeanor/appearance of an educator. Ibn Rajab Al-Hanbalee, a Medieval
alim, highlighted how, by stating that angel Jibreel had just taught them their deen, then this hadeeth is
essentially inclusive of all the individual obligatory acts a Muslim must do, citing that Islam is more
42

As a side note, the ulamaa have commented how this hadeeth shows the desirability of creating opportunities for students
to experience live dialogues (through for example guest speakers), the importance of an educator maintaining a pleasing
appearance,(similar to how Jibreel came in this hadeeth), the close proximity in which the learning took place between Jibreel
and the prophet, and how a group of students (the companions) should be as a family who miss each other upon each others
absence and stay abreast of each others affairs (Ibn Rajab, 2007, p. 41-69).

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directly defined as the physical submission of a person, Iman (faith/belief) is more directly defined as
the articles of faith with the 7 conditions mentioned previously, and Ihsaan is the highest level of
worship of a person consistently always behaving under the acknowledgement that Allah sees them,
even though they dont see Himthis last level is impossible for regular humans to maintain
indefinitely, but they are supposed to try their best to reach this high standard (Ibn Rajab, 2007, p. 4169). Ihsaan is actually mentioned even as the first chapter in raising children encyclopedias like the
one mentioned above (Mutawalee, 2005, p.11) and it is one of the behaviors that needs to be modeled
the most. Ihsaan linguistically means to make something better; one way it is used in the Quran for
example is to return bad behavior from someone with a better response (Quran, 13:22) or to even
make someone better by for example feeding them or doing some other beneficial service for them
(Mutawalee, 2005, p.11). These points recall the image of the humble educator that was highlighted
before in the Rubbaan. In short, the ulamaa described Ihsaan as sublime manners, increasing in
importance as one goes from a broad social network that goes all the way from the likes of plants and
animals to the poor, wayfarers, orphans, visitors, and neighbors, to ones most inner circle of spouses,
children, parents, and then of course ones relationship to Allah43 (Mutawalee 2005, pgs. 13-20). If we
can raise students to live according to such a set of priorities, then we will certainly as educators have
taught them a practical application of how to manage ones life, which is essentially the key to success:
time management. How humans use their time and prioritize is what differentiates between the leaders
and the followers, the active and the passive, those who transform their society or are transformed by it.
Moral education is a timeless, necessary aspect of any educational system that values social
justice and coherence. By living our values, not only do we change society individually, but as teachers
we also prove to our students that we believe in what we are teaching. In regards to how we do that from
an Islamic perspective, as has been shown here, the vehicle for Islamic pedagogy (whether one is
teaching morals or positivistic sciences) has been the caring apprenticeship relationship between teacher
and student which presupposes the former as a role-model figure. Islamic character, or moral education,
is the focus of Islamic pedagogy upon which the student-teacher relationship is built. Moral character
and the caring relationships that stem from it are pivotal in teaching any type of knowledge. Teachers
are who they are inside and outside of school, because experiences change people and they do not shed
43

For an interesting glimpse at how the concept of Ihsaan would work in developing grassroots educational initiatives
through what Iqbal Quadir would describe as a network effect (of the people, by the people and for the people) (Quadir,
2005), see the story of Dhul Qarnain in the Quran, a powerful righteous ruler who historically ruled most of the earth and
his assistance of the weak in giving them greater than what they needed, but making them assist in the effort themselves
(Quran, 18:83-98; Ibn Kathir, vol. 6, 2000, pgs. 203-209). People maintain what they work and sweat to accomplish.

68

these experiences, for good or bad, when they come to school. Only from these understandings can any
specific teaching methods be productive.
Through case-based learningcases being defined as stories, analogies, or any other clips of
materialstudents are scaffolded through the construction of live application opportunities (for example
through group debate/dialogue) in the classroom. But as has been highlighted, for holistic education, the
teacher as a role model is pivotal. If we dont live by what we say, then who will care? Through such an
interactive pedagogy, any form of content knowledge being taught, theological or otherwise, can be a
transformative experience. Such a pedagogy is in dire need in the Muslim world given the passive rote
memorization methods left over from colonization. For the Muslim world, looking far back enough in
the past, past oppressive colonial systems of education, can reveal dynamic teaching methods that
change people.
In conclusion, we have highlighted the importance of empirical and theological knowledge in
Islam and their potential for motivating educators and students to work towards social justice. In order
for teachers in Muslim countries (like Egypt) to scaffold their students to such concepts as they teach
them a curriculum, they should teach through a culturally relevant pedagogy. The one outlined above
hopes to not only use existing analytical frameworks to improve the quality of education, but to also
employ Islamic frames of reference to motivate an active approach to education. In this exemplar of
Islamic pedagogy, Islamic pedagogy has been shown to stress the importance of an apprenticeship style
relationship between teacher and student. Through such a relationship, teachers can utilize Case-Based
learning to scaffold their students to higher concepts using methods such as stories, analogies, and live
application in the classroom to construct transformative learning experiences. This concept of Islamic
pedagogy has also been found to have analogues in Western literature as well known as Ethical Caring.
By using socio-culturally relevant frameworks in the field to apply this concept, some form of Ethical
Caring pedagogy could be promoted globally to teach teachers how to develop pragmatic caring
relationships with their students that help both parties to grow--morally and intellectually. Opportunities
for further research within Islamic pedagogy might include a comparison between prophet Muhammads
teaching techniques with men as opposed to women or delving more into detail in any of the concepts
that have been discussed in this paper.
The way students learn affects how they view their position in effecting change in the world. If
education becomes a mere intellectual exercise with no pragmatic connection to real world problems,

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then such is a fruitless venture. Education all over the world has massive potential to create raw social
change in society, but first we must realize it is not just what we teach, but how it is taught.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Mohammed Sabrin is 25 years old at the age of this work. He was born in Cairo, Egypt to
Egyptian parents and has lived in the U.S since about the age of six. He completed his undergraduate
education at The University of Delaware majoring in English with a concentration in Ethnic and
Cultural Studies. It is during this time that he developed his deeper interest in education and how it
relates to social change due to his experience with postcolonial literature. He is now completing his
Masters in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies with a focus of Socio-cultural International
Development Education Studies (SIDES) at Florida State University. He hopes to continue his graduate
studies during his PhD focusing on the empirical side of pedagogy with an intent to be an Education
professor in Egypt. He also aims to develop Early Childhood Education institutions corresponding with
his immediate interest of improving the quality of ECE in Egypt. His professional teaching experience
includes working with various underprivileged Latin American and African-American communities
academic enrichment programs in the U.S. and being a Graduate Assistant for the SIDES program at
Florida State University. He is a stern believer in holistic education that transforms individuals and
offers pragmatic solutions to societal dilemmas.

And Allah Is The Most High And Knows Best

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