Linking Words

(FCE- Grammar)

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.
Positive Addition

and (, )

And is used to connect words or phrases.

And may be used to connect two independent clauses.

both... and

We use both , neither, either when we are talking

about two things.

either.....or
both/either/
neither +of
Affirmative
Agreement
either
too
Negative
Agreement
neither
either
both

Two subjects connected by both.....and take a plural

verb. Both + noun + and + noun.
Do not use both /both...and... in negative sentences.
Use neither / neither...nor...
Either/neither of are singular if they are not used with
or or nor.
either + noun + or + plural noun + plural verb
either + noun + or + singular noun + singular verb
both
either
neither

+ of

the/these/ my/your...+noun

When we use both/ either

/neither with of you always need the, these, those,
my, our, his....You cannot say both of restaurants;
you have to say both of the restaurants / both of these
restaurants.
Also, as well, too are used with a similar meaning.

too
also
as well
as well as
either

besides

subject + negative verb + either (instead of too / also)

As well and too come at the end of the clause when
you are adding something to a list of things that you
gave in the previous sentence. But also comes in the
middle of a clause: before the verb , after an auxiliary,
modal or to be.
Also /Too / As well are not used with two negative
statements ( use either)

These expressions are used to add information to

what has already been said.

anyway
moreover
what is more
in addition
(to)
furthermore

Anyway / Besides are used at the beginning of a

sentence when you have given one reason for doing
smth and you want to add another.
Besides = in addition to
Moreover / furthermore / in addition = also. They
are used at the beginning of a sentence to add a more
important fact than the one that you gave in the
previous sentence.
In addition to / besides are used as prepositions.

Steve and his friends are coming to dinner.

He is waving his arms and shouting at us.
It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.

Both my mother and my sister are here.

Both restaurants are very good.
Neither restaurant is expensive.
We can go to either restaurant.
The research project will take both time and
money.
Either John or his friends are going to the beach
today.
Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.
Both of these restaurants are very good.
Neither of the restaurants we went to was (wereAm.E.) expensive.
Neither of them came to the meeting.
We can go to either of those restaurants.
Neither of the books is exactly what I want.
If either of you takes a vocation now , we will not
be able to finish the work.
We accepted neither offer.
There were chairs on either side of the table.

Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf too.

Bill would enjoy a game and Tom would too.
I havent seen him either.
He didnt like the book; I didnt either.

She doesnt smoke. She doesnt drink either.

Frank speaks French. He also speaks German.
I can also play the piano.
We have also decided to get a new car.
Im going to get bread, cheese, tea, and sugar.
Can you get some milk as well?
Shes got a car as well as a motorbike.

I hate asking for a pay rise. Anyway, theres no

point.
I dont really need a new car. Besides, I cant afford
one.
The city provides many cultural opportunities. It
has an excellent art museum. Moreover /
Furthermore/ In addition , it has a fine symphony
orchestra.
The city provides many cultural opportunities. In
addition to / Besides an excellent art museum, it
has a fine symphony orchestra.
Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden.

They are followed by an object, not a clause.

Negative Addition
neither... nor

Nether...nor / not only...but also... + singular

noun + singular verb

nor
not only...but also....

Nether...nor / not only...but also... + plural

noun + plural verb

neither

Neither takes an affirmative verb.

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach

today.
Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.
Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
Not only my sister but also my parents are here.

Contrast
while
whereas

While and whereas are used to show clear contrast

between two subjects within one sentence. They are
followed by a clause

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach

today.
Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today.
Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
Not only my sister but also my parents are here.

but
yet
still
but...anyway

But is used to join two words or phrases when the

second one has the opposite meaning.
They show contrast (unexpected result)

but... still

It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.

It was cold , but I still went swimming .
It was cold, yet I still went swimming.
Mary is rich, but John is poor.

yet... still

Although
even
though
though
because

because is used to express expected results; even

though is used to express unexpected results.
Although is followed by a clause and a comma. After
Although we use a subject + verb.
Even though is stronger than although.
Although cant be at the end of a sentence; thoughcan.
We use though to mean however at the end of a
sentence. Think of although as before the fact and
however as after the fact.

Even though / Although / Though it was cold, I

went swimming.
Because I wasnt tired, I didnt go to bed.
We went out although it was raining.
Even though I wasnt tired, I went to bed.
Although he studied very hard, he didnt pass the
exam.
He didnt finish the job, even though he worked all
night.
The room is very small. Its quite comfortable
though.

in spite of
despite
despite the
fact that....
in spite of
the fact
that....
on the other
hand

in spite of / despite + Ving

in spite of / despite + noun
in spite of / despite + pronoun
in spite of = despite

Use this at the beginning of a sentence when you have

just mentioned one side of an argument And you are
going to mention the opposite side.

I went swimming despite / in spite of the cold

weather.
I went swimming despite the fact that / in spite of
the fact that the weather was cold.
Despite / In spite of her excellent qualifications,
Carol didnt get the job.
Despite / In spite of having excellent qualifications,
Carol didnt get the job.

Mary is rich. John, on the other hand, is poor.

Nuclear power is relatively cheap. On the other

hand, you could argue that its not safe.

however
nevertheles
s

However and nevertheless link contrasting ideas in

two different sentences.

nonetheless

It was cold. Nevertheless , I went swimming.

I like him very much. However / Nevertheless, we
are very different.

Giving Examples
for example = for instance
These expressions introduce particular examples to
illustrate what has been said.
for example
for instance

e.g. = for example

e.g. = exempli gratia (Latin)
e.g. -AmE
eg - BrE

There are many interesting places to visit in the

city. For example, the botanical garden has
numerous displays of plants from all over the
world.
There are many interesting places to visit in the
city. The art museum, for instance, has an excellent
collection of modern paintings.

such as

I prefer to wear casual clothes, such as jeans and a

sweatshirt.

like
especially

such as = for example

in particular

Some countries, such as Brazil and Canada, are

big.

Cause/ Reason

since

As / since = because, and they can begin a sentence;

they are followed by a clause.

Since Monday is a holiday, we dont have to go to

work.
Since you are a good cook and Im not, you should
cook the dinner.
As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut.
As they live near us, we see them quite often.

because (of)

Because introduces an adverb clause; it is followed

by a subject and verb.

as

due to

now that

Because of / due to are phrasal prepositions ; they

are followed by a noun object.

now that = because now

Now that is used for present causes of present or
future situations.

as a result of smth. = because of smth

for this reason
Use as a result of to say what made something

Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.

Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.
Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we
stayed home.
We stayed home because of / due to the cold
weather.

Now that the semester is over ( =because the

semester is now over) , Im going to rest a few days
and then take a trip.
Jack lost his job. Now that hes unemployed, he
cant pay his bills.
Hundreds of people lost their homes as a result of
the war.
Con died as the result of a heart attack.

happen.
as a result (of)
Use the simple/good/obvious reason (that) to
explain why something happened.

We cant take you all, for the simple reason that

there isnt enough room in the car.

Condition
if /whether
whether or not
even if = even
though

in case
in case of
in the event that

Whether or not expresses the idea that neither this

condition nor that condition matters; the result will
be the same.
Even if gives the idea that a particular condition
does not matter. The result will not change.

In case / in the event that express the idea that

something probably wont happen , but it might.
It means if by chance this should happen.
In case is followed by a present /past tense or
should.
(do not use will after in case)
In case of... = if there is...

only if
unless

otherwise
or (else)

provided (that) /
providing (that)
as /so long as
on condition
(that)

unless = if...not = except if

unless + affirmative verb =
if + negative
We often use unless in warnings: (Well be late unless we
hurry.)

Otherwise expresses the idea if the opposite is true,

then there will be a certain result.
Or else and Otherwise have the same meaning.

Provided that can replace if when there is a

strong idea of limitation or restriction (mainly
used with permission)
Provided / Providing - only if a particular thing
happens or is done.
As / so long as is used before saying the
conditions that will make something else
happen or be true.
Like is followed by a noun object or a clause.

as if / as though

As if /as though are followed by a clause.

Usually the idea following as if/ as though is
untrue. In this case, verb usage is similar to
that in conditional sentence.

Im going to go swimming tomorrow whether or

not it is cold. (or : whether it is cold or not)
Ive decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the
weather is cold. Im going to go swimming.
You must go tomorrow if you are ready.
You must go tomorrow even if you arent ready.
Ill be at my uncles house in case you (should)
need to reach me.
In the event that you (should) need to reach me,
Ill be at my uncles house.
I always slept by the phone in case he rang during
the night. = I always slept by the phone because (I
knew) he might ring during the night.
We bought some food in case Tom came.
In case of fire, please leave the building as quickly
as possible. =if there is a fire.
Ill go swimming tomorrow unless its cold.
Dont tell Sue what I said unless she asks you.
(= except if she asks you)
Ill go swimming tomorrow if it isnt cold.
Youll get wet unless you take your umbrella.
Unless you start at once youll be late = If you
dont start at once youll be late.
I always eat breakfast. Otherwise , I get hungry
during class.
Youd better hurry. Otherwise, youll be late.
Take your umbrella. Otherwise, youll get wet.
I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during
class.
Take your umbrella, or (else) youll get wet.
You can camp here provided you leave no mess.
Provided you pay me back by Friday, Ill lend you
the money.
Its a lot easier to get good marks on a short
-answer question, providing you do it well.
My parents dont care what job I do as long as Im
happy.
They spoke on condition that their names would
not be used in the article.

It looks like rain.

It looks as if it is going to rain.
It looks as though it is going to rain.
It looks like it is going to rain (informal)
She talked to him as if he were a child.
He acted as though he had never met her.

Purpose

in order to
in order that
so that
in case

In order to is used to express purpose, it answers the

question Why?. It is followed by a verb.
So that also expresses purpose. It has the same
meaning as in order to. So that is often used instead
of in order to when the idea of ability is being
expressed. Can is used in the adverb clause for a
present/future meaning. So that I can buy = in order
to be able to buy. Could is used after so that in past
sentences.
In order that = so that
in case + present tense = because this may happen/
because this will happen
in case + past tense = because this might happen
/because this would happen

He came here in order to study English.

I turned off the TV in order to enable my roommate
to study in peace and quiet.
I turned off the TV so (that) my roommate could
study in peace and quiet.
Im going to cash a check so that I can buy my
textbooks.
I cashed a check so that I could buy my textbooks.
I turned off the TV in order that my roommate
could study in peace and quiet.
I dont let him climb trees in case he tears his
trousers.
I carry a spare wheel in case I have a puncture.
I always kept candles in the house in case there
was a power cut.

Effect / Result

such ....that = so.... that

such/so...
that

such + adjective + noun + that

so + adjective/adverb + that
so...that is used with many, few, much, and little.

It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.

The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.
It was such good coffee that I had another cup.
It was such a foggy day that we couldnt see the
road.
The coffee was so hot that I cant drink it.
Im so hungry that I could eat a horse.
She speaks so fast that I cant understand her.
She made so many mistakes that she failed the
exam.

Time

when

When = at that time

When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.

When was in Chicago, I visited the museums.
When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him.

While / as = during that time

We use as when two things happen at the same time.

While I was studying, the phone rang.

While I was walking home, it began to rain.
As I was walking home, it began to rain.
George arrived as Sue left.

After she graduates, she will get a job.

After she (had) graduated, she got a job.
I will leave before he comes.
I (had) left before he came.

while
as

A present tense, not a future tense is used in timeclause.

after
before

After and before are commonly used in the following

expressions:
shortly after/ before;
a short time after/ before;
a little while after / before;
not long after / before;
soon after

as soon as
once
by the time
since
until/till
As long as /
so long as

whenever
every time

as soon as / once = when one event happens, another

event happens soon afterward.

As soon as it stops raining, we will leave.

Once it stops raining, we will leave.

by the time = one event is completed before another

event ( usually Past Perfect or Future Perfect)
since = from that time to the present. Ever since
adds emphasis. The Present Perfect is used in the
main clause.
until / till = to that time and then no longer. Till is
used more in speaking than in writing; it is generally
not used in formal English.

By the time he arrived, we had already left.

By the time he comes, we will have already left.

as long as / so long as =
during all that time , from beginning to end

I will never speak to him again as long as I live.

I will never speak to him again so long as I live.

whenever = every time that something happens.

Whenever is used:
as a conjunction (connecting two clauses);
as an adverb
every time = whenever something happens ; when
one thing happens, something else always happens.

the first time

the last time

The first time / the last time / the next time refer to a
particular occasion.

the next time

I havent seen him since he left this morning.

Ive known her ever since I was a child.
We stayed there until we finished our work.
We stayed there till we finished our work.

Whenever I see her, I say hello.

Every time I see her, I say hello.
Whenever I smiled, he smiled back.
Whenever have I been cruel to you?
Whenever I hear that song , I think of you.
We cant keep calling the doctor every time you get
a headache.
My neck hurts every time I move.
The first time I went to New York, I went to an
opera.
I saw two plays the last time I went to New York.
The last time we met you promised to join me on a
trip to Beijing.
The next time I go to New York, Im going to see a
ballet.

Place

where
wherever

Where can be used:

as a relative adverb (introducing a relative
clause);
as a conjunction (connecting two clauses)
Wherever can be used as a conjunction (connecting
two clauses)

I know a place where you can hide.

Ive hidden the money where no one will find it.
She was followed by press photographers wherever
she went.

Exception
except (for)
apart from

Except is used for introducing the only thing ,

person, or fact that is not included in your main
sentence; it is like saying without, or minus.
Apart from is used:
except for someone or something.
in addition to someone/something

We havent told anyone except Leslies dad.

I like all musical instruments except the violin.
I dont know much about the man, except that hes
a fool.
Everything was perfect except for the weather.
I hardly know anyone in the village apart from
William and you.
Apart from the violin, he plays the piano and the
flute. (=besides the violin......)

 I like all musical instruments apart from the violin.

(=.........except the violin)

Relatives
who
whom
whose
which
that

who/whom/whose/which/
that are used to introduce relative clauses. They are
called relative pronouns or relatives.
for people: who/that/whom/whose
for animals/things:
which/that/whose

Shes the woman (who/ whom /that) I saw on TV

last night.
Thats the dog whose owner was arrested.
Thats the shop whose windows were smashed.
This is the house (which/that) we live in.
His wife, who is French, speaks three languages.

Listing points/Events
to begin with
/ to start with
first / firstly /
first of all

to begin with - is used for introducing the first thing

in a list of things you are going to say.
first / firstly / first of all introduce the first item in a
list or sequence.

to continue
then

The next item is normally introduced by then or

secondly.

Why were you annoyed? - Well, to begin with, I

hadnt even invited her.
First, open all the windows. Then turn off the gas
and, if necessary , call an ambulance.
First(ly) , we need somewhere to live. Second(ly),
we need to find work. And third(ly)

Summarising
in conclusion
to conclude

To introduce a concluding statement, use in

conclusion, by way of conclusion, or to conclude.

finally/ lastly

Finally/lastly are used at the beginning of a sentence

to introduce the last point in a speech, reply, essay,
etc.

in summary

In summary is used at the end of a talk or piece of

writing for introducing a short statement that gives
only basic information.

to sum up

Sum up = to give a summary of something

on the whole

On the whole is used for talking about the general

situation.

all in all

All in all is used for showing that you are

considering every aspect of something.

altogether
in short

Altogether / in short are used for introducing a

summary of what you have just said.

In conclusion, Id like to say that everybody should

be able to work if they want to.
To conclude, Id like to say that everybody should
read the book.
Finally, Id like to consider the economic
arguments.
Lastly, Id like to thank you all for coming and
wish you a safe journey home.
In summary, nobody knows where the disease
originated.
Ill sum up briefly and then well take questions.
It was a pretty good conference on the whole.
All in all, I think it has been a very successful
conference.
The weather was great and the people were
friendly- altogether a perfect trip.
Inflation is down, spending is up. In short, the
economy is in good shape.