AIM OF PROJECT

About Transformer
To investigate the working of transformer
and the number of primary and secondary
coils in a transformer
Can Transformers be step Up or Step
Down A DC Voltage or Current?
Losses in Transformer

Index
Introduction
Theory
Working

Limitation of the Transformer

Electromagnetism
Field Flux
Electromagnetic Induction
Faradays Laws Of Electromagnetic
Induction

Why Transformers cant step Up or

Step Down A DC Voltage or Current?
Uses of transformer
Losses in Transformer

Introduction
A Transformer based on the Principle of mutual induction
according to this principle, the amount of magnetic flux linked
with a coil changing, an e.m.f is induced in the neighboring coil.
A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of
laminated sheets, well insulated from one another. Two coils p 1 &
p2 and s1 & s2 are wound on the same core, but are well insulated
with each other. Note that the both the coils are insulated from
the core, the source of alternating e.m.f is connected to p 1p2, the
primary coil and a load resistance R is connected to s 1 s2, the
secondary coil through an open switch S. thus there can be no
current through the sec. coil so long as the switch is open.
For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistance of the
primary & secondary winding is negligible. Further, the energy
loses due to magnetic the iron core is also negligible.
A transformer is an electrical device which is used for changing
the A.C. voltages. A transformer is most widely used device in
both low and high current circuit. As such transformers are built in
an amazing strength of sizes. In electronic, measurement and
control circuits, transformer size may be so small that it weight
only a few tens of grams where as in high voltage power circuits,
it may weight hundred of tones.
In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from one circuit to
another circuit takes place without the use of moving parts.
A transformer which increases the voltages is called a step-up
transformer. A transformer which decreases the A.C. voltages is
called a step-down transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus both for
high and low current circuits.

Theory
When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil p 1p2, an
alternating current starts falling in it. The altering current in the
primary produces a changing magnetic flux, which induces
altering voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary. In a
good-transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with primary
is also linked with the secondary, then the induced e.m.f. induced
in each turn of the secondary is equal to that induced in each turn
of the primary. Thus if E p and Es be the instantaneous values of
the e.m.f.s induced in the primary and the secondary and N p and
Ns are the no. of turns of the primary secondary coils of the
transformer and
D / dt = rate of change of flux in each
turnoff the coil at this instant, we have

(1)

Ep = -Np d/dt

-----------------

Es = -Ns d/dt

-----------------

And

(2)
Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing
2 by 1, we get
Es / Ep = - Ns / Np
(3)

----------------

As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the

primary coil p1, so the instantaneous current in primary coil is due
to the difference (E Ep ) in the instantaneous values of the
applied and back e.m.f. further if R p is the resistance o, p1p2 coil,
then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by
Ip

= E Ep / Rp

E E p = Ip R p
When the resistance of the primary is small, R p Ip can be
neglected so therefore
E Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f
Hence equation 3 can be written as
Es / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f / input e.m.f = N s /
Np = K
Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.

Step up and Step down Transformer

In a step up transformer
Es > E so K > 1, hence Ns > Np
In a step down transformer

Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np

If

Ip =

value of primary current at the same instant

t
And

Is

value of sec. current at this instant, then

Input power at the instant t

Ep Ip and

Output power at the same instant

Es Is

If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then

Input power = output power
Ep Ip =
Es / Ep

Or

Es Is
I p / Is

Or
=

In a step up transformer
As k > 1, so Ip > Is or Is < Ip
i.e. current in sec. is weaker when secondary voltage is higher.
Hence, whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the
same ratio.
Similarly it can be shown, that in a step down transformer,
whatever we lose in voltage, we gain in current in the same ratio.
Thus a step up transformer in reality steps down the current & a
step down transformer steps up the current.
Efficiency:-

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power

to the input power. i.e.
=

output power / input power =

Es Is / Ep Ip

Thus in an ideal transformer, where there is no power losses,

= 1. But in actual practice, there are many power losses,
therefore the efficiency of transformer is less than one.

Working
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of
two coils or Faraday Laws Of Electromagnetic induction. When
current in the primary coil is changed the flux linked to the
secondary coil also changes. Consequently an EMF is induced in
the secondary coil due to Faraday laws of electromagnetic
induction.
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric
current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and,
second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire
induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the
magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux

induces

voltage

in

the

secondary

coil.

A simple transformer has a soft iron or silicon steel core and

windings placed on it(iron core). Both the core and the windings
are insulated from each other. The winding connected to the main
supply is called the primary and the winding connected to the
load circuit is called the secondary.
Winding (coil) connected to higher voltage is known as high
voltage winding while the winding connected to low voltage is
known as low voltage winding. In case of a step up transformer,
the primary coil (winding) is the low voltage winding, the number
of turns of the windings of the secondary is more than that of the
primary. Vice versa for step down transformer.
As explained earlier, EMF is induced only by variation of the
magnitude of the flux.
When the primary winding is connected to ac mains supply, a
current flows through it. Since the winding links with the core,
current flowing through the winding will produce an alternating
flux in the core. EMF is induced in the secondary coil since the
alternating flux links the two windings. The frequency of the
induced EMF is the same as that of the flux or the supplied
voltage.

By so doing (variation of flux) energy is transferred from the

primary coil to the secondary coil by means of electromagnetic
induction without the change in the frequency of the voltage
supplied to the transformer. During the process, a self induced
EMF is produced in the primary coil which opposes the applied
voltage. The self induced EMF is known as back EMF.

Limitation of the Transformer

To understand the main points, we have to discuss some basic
terms related to transformer operation. So lets back to basic for a
while.
A transformer is an AC machine that steps up or steps down an
alternating voltage or current. A transformer being an AC machine
however cannot step up or down a DC voltage or DC current. It
sounds a bit weird though. You might be thinking so are there not
DC transformers?
To answer the two questions whether there are or there are not
DC transformers and know why transformer cannot step up or
step down a DC voltage its necessary we know how electric
current and magnetic field interact with each other in transformer
operation.

Electromagnetism

The interaction between magnetic field and electric current is

termed electromagnetism. Current carrying conductors produces
magnetic field when current passes through it. Movement of
electrons in a conductor will result to electric current (drifted
electrons) which occurs as a result of the EMF set up across the
conductor.
The EMF set up across the conductor can be in form of that stored
in chemical energy or magnetic field. Current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic fields will experience mechanical force while
a conductor placed in a magnetic field will have its electrons
drifted which will results to electric current.

Field Flux
Two magnets of unlike poles will attract each other while
magnets of like poles will repel each other (so it is with electric
charges). Every magnet is surrounded by a force field and is
represented by imaginary lines emanating from the north pole of
a magnet going into the south pole of the same magnet.

Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon that explains how
EMF and current is or can be induced in a coil when a coil and a
magnetic field interact. This phenomenonelectromagnetic
inductionis explained by Faradays laws of electromagnetic
induction. The direction of induced EMF in a coil is explained by
Lenzs law and Flemings right hand rule.

Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

After Ampere and others investigated the magnetic effect of
current, Michael Faraday tried the opposite. In the course of his
work he discovered that when there was change in a magnetic
field in which a coil was placed, EMF was induced in the coil.
This happened only whenever he moved either the coil or the
magnet he used in the experiment. EMF was induced in the coil
only when there was change in the field flux (if the coil is fixed,
moving the magnet towards or away from the coil causes EMF to

be induced). Thus Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction

states as follows;
Faradays First Law
Faradays first law of electromagnetic induction states that EMF
is induced in a coil when there is a change in the flux linking the
coil.
Faradays Second Law
Faradays second law of electromagnetic induction states that
the magnitude of induced EMF in a coil is directly proportional to
the rate of change of flux linking the coil.

e = N d/dt
Where
e = Induced EMF
N = the number of turns
d = Change in flux
dt = Change in time

Lenzs Law
Lenzs law entails how the direction of an induced EMF in a coil
can be determined. It thus states that the direction of induced
EMF is such that it opposes the change causing it.
In other words, When an E.M.F is induced in a circuit , the current
setup always opposes the motion, or change in current, which
produces it. OR
An induced EMF will cause a current to flow in a close circuit in
such a direction what its magnetic effect will oppose the change
that produced it.

According to this law (which introduced by Lens in 1835), the

direction of current can be found. when the current through a coil
changes magnetic field, the voltage is created as a result of
changing magnetic field, the direction of the induced voltage is
such that it always opposes the change in current.
In very simple words, Lenzs law stating that the induced effect is
always such as to oppose the cause that produced it.

Flemings Right Hand Rule

It states that if the thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger
are held in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular to
each other (makes 90 of Angles), then the forefinger points the
direction of the field, the thumb points the direction of motion of
the conductor and the middle finger points the direction of the
induced Current (from EMF).

Why Transformers cant step Up or Step Down A DC

Voltage or Current?
A transformer cannot step up or step down a DC voltage. It is
not recommendable to connect a DC supply to a
transformer because if a DC rated voltage is applied to the coil
(primary) of a transformer, the flux produced in the transformer
will not change in its magnitude but rather remain the same and
as a result EMF will not be induced in the secondary coil except at
the moment of switching on, So the transformer may start to
smock and burn because;
In case of DC supply, Frequency is zero. When you apply
voltage across a pure inductive circuit, then according to
X l= 2 f L
If we put frequency = 0, then the overall Xl (inductive reactance)
would be zero as well.
Now come to the current, I = V / R
(And in case of inductive circuit, I = V / X l ) . Basic Ohms

Law

If we put Inductive reactance as 0, then the current would be

infinite (Short circuit)
So, If we apply DC voltage to a pure inductive circuit, The circuit
may start to smoke and burn.
Thus transformers are not capable of stepping up or stepping
down a DC voltage. Also there will be no self induced EMF in such
cases in the primary coil which is only possible with a varying flux
linkage to oppose the applied voltage. The resistance of the
primary coil is low and as such a heavy current flowing through it

will result to the primary coil burning out due to excessive heat
produced by the current.

USES OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is used in almost all a.c. operations

In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator, computer, air

conditioner etc.
In the induction furnaces.

A step down transformer is used for welding purposes.

A step down transformer is used for obtaining large

current.

A step up transformer is used for the production of XRays and NEON advertisement.

Transformers are used in voltage regulators and

stabilized power supplies.

Transformers are used in the transmissions of a.c. over

long distances.

Small transformers are used in Radio sets, telephones,

loud speakers and electric bells etc.

Losses in Transformer
The different losses in the transformer are as follows,

Copper losses (Winding Resistance)

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of
the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity
effect create additional winding resistance and losses.
Total copper losses. = I12. R1+ I22R2 = I12. R

+ I22R

01

02

Core or Iron losses

There are two types of core or iron losses in a Transformer

1. Hysteresis losses
Hysteretic loss is the loss of energy due to repeated
magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core when A.C. is
fed to it. Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount
of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core
material, the transformer losses are proportional to the frequency,
and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
We can find Hysteresis losses by this formula.
Wh = B1.6maxf.v watt

2. Eddy Current losses

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core
made from such a material also constitutes a single shortcircuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents
therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux,
and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The
eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply
frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. Eddy
current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of
plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid
block; all transformers operating at low frequencies using
laminated or similar cores.
We can find Eddy currents losses by this formula.
We = PB2max.f2t2 Watt

Magnetostriction

(humming noise of a transformer)

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core,

causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each
cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction.
This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating.

Mechanical Losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field
causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary
windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding
to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

Stray losses (Leakage Flux)

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy
supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the

next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby

conductive materials such as the transformers support structure
will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are
also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but
these are usually small.