Table of Contents

PRELIMINARY SITE WORKS ..............................................................................................1

Factors Affecting the Choice of a Site .....................................................................................1
Reasons for Stripping and Clearing a site ................................................................................4
Purpose of Hoarding................................................................................................................5
Laying Out of a Small Building ...............................................................................................7
Purposes of Temporary Shelter .............................................................................................. 11
The Building Site .............................................................................................................. 11
Reasons for Temporary Services ........................................................................................... 14
THE MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT ...................................................... 16
Portland Cement .................................................................................................................... 16
Characteristics of different Types of Cement ......................................................................... 16
The five common types of cement ..................................................................................... 16
Notable Behaviour of Concrete ............................................................................................. 17
Characteristics of Aggregates ................................................................................................ 18
Requirements of Aggregates .............................................................................................. 18
Types of Aggregates .......................................................................................................... 18
Importance of Proportioning or Batching ............................................................................... 19
The total weight of water in the concrete ............................................................................... 20
Some common mixes ............................................................................................................ 20
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS .............................................................................................. 21
TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS .................................................................................. 23
Softwood and Hardwood Trees ............................................................................................. 24
Softwoods ............................................................................................................................. 24
Hardwoods ............................................................................................................................ 25
Conversion of Timber ........................................................................................................... 26
Seasoning of Timber ............................................................................................................. 27
Moisture content ................................................................................................................... 28
Timber Defects...................................................................................................................... 29
Wood Preservation ................................................................................................................ 32
Production of Manufactured Boards ...................................................................................... 33
Lumber Classification ........................................................................................................... 35
FOUNDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 37
Types of Foundations ............................................................................................................ 37
Excavation and Timbering ..................................................................................................... 44
Types of excavations ......................................................................................................... 44
Reduced Level Excavation ...................................................................................................... 44
Trench and Pit Excavations .................................................................................................... 44
Types of Excavation Machines .......................................................................................... 45
Timbering to Excavation ........................................................................................................ 47
Precautions .............................................................................................................................. 51
WALLS.................................................................................................................................... 52
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 52
Categories of Walls ............................................................................................................... 52
Functional Requirements for Walls ....................................................................................... 52

Types of Walls: ................................................................................................................. 52

Definition of a Scaffold ......................................................................................................... 59
Two Main Systems of Shoring .............................................................................................. 63
Functional Requirements ....................................................................................................... 65
Categories of Floors .............................................................................................................. 65
Floor members ...................................................................................................................... 68
Important Steps in Constructing a Timber Floor .................................................................... 73
ROOFS .................................................................................................................................... 74
Definition: ............................................................................................................................. 74
Functional Requirements ....................................................................................................... 74
Factors Determining Roof Shape & Design ........................................................................... 74
Roof Classifications .............................................................................................................. 74
Types of Roofs ...................................................................................................................... 74
Advantages of using Roof Trusses ......................................................................................... 78
Parts of a Roof ...................................................................................................................... 79
Technical Words for Parts of a Roof...................................................................................... 79
Truss Types ............................................................................................................................. 80
DOORS .................................................................................................................................... 80
Types of Doors...................................................................................................................... 81
Door Ironmongery ................................................................................................................. 84
Door Dimensions .................................................................................................................. 85
WINDOWS.............................................................................................................................. 86
Functions of Windows........................................................................................................... 86
Building Regulations for Windows ........................................................................................ 86
Technical Terms for parts of a window and frame: ................................................................ 86
Types of Windows ................................................................................................................ 87
Some common terms associated with Stairs ........................................................................... 90
Building Regulations regarding Stairs ................................................................................... 90
FINISHES................................................................................................................................ 92
Rendering .............................................................................................................................. 92
Plastering .............................................................................................................................. 92
Types of paints ...................................................................................................................... 93
Properties of Paints and Varnishes ......................................................................................... 94
Methods of Application ......................................................................................................... 94
The Purpose of Solvents ........................................................................................................ 94
RELATED SERVICES ........................................................................................................... 97
The Principles of Plumbing Pipes .......................................................................................... 97
Methods of Jointing and Fittings ........................................................................................... 97
The Combine System of Drainage ......................................................................................... 99
The Separate System of Drainage .......................................................................................... 99
The Principles of Drain Runs............................................................................................... 100
THE BUILDING TEAM AND BUILDING TRADES ........................................................ 103
The Building Team ............................................................................................................. 103
Various Building Trades...................................................................................................... 104
HISTORY OF BUILDINGS ................................................................................................. 105
Factors Influencing Building Designs .................................................................................. 105
Influence of Other Culture on Local Building Styles ........................................................... 105

PRELIMINARY SITE WORKS

Factors Affecting the Choice of a Site
Zoning
Zoning is the legal identification of land for a specific use. The general categories of
zoning are:
1. Residential
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Agricultural
Zoning helps to assist land developers or owners in recognizing land for use as well as
provide information about the character of the neighbourhood. Lands within a zone may carry
different unit cost.
Land use
The owner or client must be sure that the land can be used for the intended purpose.
Although an area might be appropriately zoned, specific plots of lands may have certain
restrictions placed on them as a result of buried services or proposed development, e.g. roads,
gas lines etc.
Ownership
This is certified by a deed (legal document) which must be established before any final
decision is taken regarding any purchasing of land. Ownership transfer can only be made
between the rightful owner and the purchaser.
Boundaries
Boundaries must be established and supported by a survey drawing before the actual size
of the property can be ascertained. This task is usually carried out by a legal chartered surveyor.
Boundaries are normally marked in such a way that they can be easily identified or reestablished. References for markers are called Datum- Points.
Topography
Topography is the shape of the surface of the land. This shape is sometimes referred to
as contour and can be classified as follows:
- flat
- undulating
- gently sloped
- steeply sloped
Access
All lands not immediately adjoining a street or public pathway requires some means of
access. This access influences movement on and off site during the construction stages as well
as during normal occupancy. Where the possibility of trespass exists, access should be legally
established and be adequate.
1

Shape
When purchasing a piece of land, the shape of the land should reflect the proposed shape
of the structure within the framework of the legal restrictions. Examples of problems commonly
encountered with lands are:
1. Too narrow
2. Corners may be too acute or there may be too many corners.
reinforcing steel
street
limiting
position

possible building

(a) Narrow Lot

legal limits

(b) High unusable Land Space owing to a

number of and sharpness of corners
Size
-

Minimum sizes of building lots are usually specified in order that:

Legal requirements of setback and off set distances are satisfied
The building should occupy the maximum percentage of the total land area as specified
by the authorities for the prescribed zone.
A reasonable sized building is produced.

History
History is the study of past events associated with the use of the site. Historical issues
that should be of concern to the purchaser are:
1. Water- whether a natural water course, springs or flooding are associated with the site.
2. Dump- whether the site was ever used as a dump.
3. Original topography- whether the land was ever filled.
4. Other problems e.g.
o Whether trees were recently removed to accommodate development or
o Underground lines such as electric, gas or telephone.
5. Development- This is a measure of clearing and preparation activities associated with a
site. It may also indicate the availability of services to the site.

Unit Cost
Unit cost is the price per metre or foot of the land. Unit cost is normally associated with:
1. Level of development
2. Available amenities
3. Available Services
2

4.
5.
6.
7.

Location
Zone
Demand
Topography

Amenities refer to the degree of comfort associated with the location, and are related to the
available utilities, health and educational facilities as well as other features such as public
transport, shopping centres and recreation facilities.
Location may influence the unit cost by providing certain advantages such as prevailing winds,
scenic views and general neighbourhood.

Sloping sites

Reasons for Stripping and Clearing a site

Stripping
This is the removal of the topsoil from the construction area. This area is usually stripped
to a depth of 150 mm, using a bulldozer.
Stripping helps to provide a sound level platform as well as the removal of vegetable
matter as well as the removal of termites nests.
Soils containing high levels of vegetable matter tend to:
1. Support plant life
2. Be very unstable
3. Affects some building materials
Clearing
Clearing is not necessarily part of stripping but for undeveloped sites, clearing is
essential. Trees which sometimes obstruct the building process, those found to be in the way and
at a time obstruct the flow of traffic and must also be removed. The roots that would pose a
problem to the building process or even affect the foundation must be removed as well.
Other obstacles like derelict buildings should be removed, because they too hinder the
building process and can cause problems with the foundation.

Purpose of Hoarding
Hoarding is a part of the temporary facility installed on a construction site. Its primary
function is the enclosure of the construction area to serve as a form of protection to passers by.
This enclosure has other purposes and is developed accordingly.
Public Protection
The local authority has the responsibility for the protection of the public against injury
during any construction work. As such, there are laws requiring the installation of hoarding,
particularly where pedestrian traffic is common. Hoarding should provide protection from the
vertical side and overhead as well as permit or provide adequate lighting and ventilation if
required.
Security
The construction site must be secured, especially during evenings, on weekends and
public holidays.
Material Protection
Hoarding is an ideal way of ensuring some degree of protection against theft and
vandalism of materials and installations.
Control
The control of the movement of workers and avoidance of unwanted interruptions and
distractions assist in increasing productivity. All activities should be carried out with
minimum inconvenience. The movement of supply vehicles and receipt of goods should
be planned and controlled at all times.
To keep out stray animals
It is important that stray animals be kept off of the construction site since they can cause
disruptions to the building works as well as harm to the workers.

Laying Out of a Small Building

Building Layout
The Setting out of a building can be divided into two specific operations:
Establishing a datum peg and transferring required levels to various positions
Establishing the position of the building and setting up profiles (batter boards)
Establishing the position of the building and setting up profiles
The basic requirements for establishing the position of a building are linear measurement
(length), the setting out of right angles and the setting out of curves.
Linear Measurement
A 30m steel tape is most often used for setting out; linen or plastic tape should be
avoided as they are likely to stretch, and this could result in serious errors. If steel tapes are not
fully stretched out they can give inaccurate readings. Wherever linear measurements are made
the tape should be held horizontal. For sloping sites the possibility of error is far greater. For
slightly sloping grounds pegs of different lengths may be used. For steeper slopes the tape is held
horizontally and the measurement is plumbed down to the peg.
Setting out Angles
Right angles can be set out using any one of the following methods:
1. Using a builders Square
2. Using Pythagorass 3:4:5 rule
3. Using Site square
Setting out Curves
The methods used to set out a curve will depend on its size and whether its centre point is
accessible or not.
The four main methods are:
1. Timber template
2. The radius Rod
3. Triangular frame
4. Calculated ordinates

Layout Procedures for a Small Building

It is essential to obtain a working drawing of the proposed building before any work is
started. After careful study of this, the builder can then proceed with the layout of the building.
The procedures for setting out a small building are as follows:
1. The building line is established with reference to the setback distance from the centre line
of the road. The line is established by driving in 50mm x 50mm softwood pegs A and B
on or near the side boundaries. Position a nail in the top of the pegs to represent the exact
position of the building line. Strain a line between these two nails.
2. Drive two pegs C and D along the building line to indicate the front corners of the
building and with reference to the side setbacks as indicated on the Working drawing.
Drive nails into the top of the pegs to indicate the exact position of the corners on the
building line.
3. Set out lines at right angles to pegs C and D and establish pegs E and F. Drive nails into
the tops of pegs E and F to indicate the exact positions and strain lines between the four
pegs.
4. Measure along lines CE and DF to establish pegs G and H, the remaining corners of the
building.
Check lines should be used at this point to determine the accuracy of the layout and adjustments
made where required.
Profile boards can now be set up just clear of the trench runs at all corners and wall intersections
of the building. Ensure that there is adequate clearance space between the position of the trench
and profiles to prevent obstruction to profiles due to excavation procedures. Transfer positions
from the setting-out lines on the pegs to the profile boards. Step-off all trenches and block wall
widths and drive nails in these positions. Saw cuts can be used as an alternative to nailing.
Lines can be strained on the nails to indicate trench width and block wall width when
excavation and blocks are to be layed.

10

Purposes of Temporary Shelter

The Building Site
Site Preparations
Before any preparation work can commence the Building regulation/code should be
checked. This is necessary to ensure that the building (commercial or residential) to be erected
complies with the standards laid out in the code. There are zoning laws to be adhered to as they
relate to:
1. The building line
2. Distance Separation
3. Lot line
4. Premise
5. Property Line
6. Setback
7. Do a check on the Site Deed
8. Obtain a Building Permit
11

The Building Line-This is a legally determined boundary that no part of the building can cross.
Distance Separation- This describes the amount of open space between buildings. Open space
helps to keep fire from spreading from one structure to another and enable good ventilation.
Lot/Property Line- A surveyed and recorded boundary (or monument) that separates one piece
of property from another. In essence, it is the legal boundary that marks a lot or parcel of
property.
Premise- A term used to describe collectively a piece of property as well as any buildings or
structure on it.
Setback-This is the open space required between a building line and the street centre line. It
could also be used to describe the distance between the sides of a building the lot or rear
boundary lines of a property.
Site Investigation
The purpose of a Site Investigation is to determine beforehand:
Existing trees and buildings on the property or adjacent property
Details such as full data of existing services or the lack of it
Contour lines- natural grade elevations
Details of above ground obstruction such as transmission lines
Topography of the site and existing fording (water running underground)
Sewer system availability or the lack of it
The geographic location (with respect to the orientation)
Required Security and Staffing
Layout
(General site conditions such as soil nature, height of water table, flooding risks, and
neighbouring properties, among others).
These factors will to a large extent help the builder in the design and construction processes
of the proposed work.
Soil Investigations
Determines the suitability of the site for the proposed project
Determine an adequate and economical foundation design.
Determine the difficulties that may arise during the construction process and period.
Determine the occurrence and /or causes of all changes in subsoil conditions
Site Preparation Principles
In Site Preparation the builder will require operatives, materials and plant, which must be
carefully controlled so that the operatives have the right machines in the most advantageous
positions, the materials stored in such a way that will allow for easy access and little or no
interference with site circulation, and adequate storage space and site accommodation.
When Planning the Site Layout the following must be taken into consideration:
12

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Site activities;
Efficiency;
Movement;
Control ;
Facilities for health, safety and welfare provision, and
Accommodation for staff and storage of materials.

Usually before the proposed site is planned and drawn the prevailing conditions should
be considered these are; the condition and positions of existing roads and the setting out of any
temporary roads considered necessary should be noted and planned. Information regarding the
soil conditions, height of water table and local weather patterns should be obtained preferably
from the meteorological office or from the local authority.
Temporary Shelters
These are required on a building site for the housing of personnel, services, processes and
materials for the expediting and control of building works, and to cater for illness and accidents
among workers. Consideration should be given to the following:
Statutory Requirements
The construction site is under the control of the factory inspectorate and as such should
carry provisions for amenities to workers. Amenities usually include a change room, a lunch
room and sanitary facilities.
Activity Areas
Offices: Normally for large projects site offices and briefing rooms are provided to assist in the
daily administration of the project.
Workshops: Carpenters, steel benders and some other tradesmen require workshop facilities to
assist in their work. Workshops should be so located as to ensure good control and effective
handling of materials.
Storage
Warehousing: Warehouses are normally required for storage of delicate components and
fittings. Items normally stored in a warehouse include doors, windows, ceramic receptacles,
light fittings, electrical and plumbing appliances etc.
Tools and Equipments Stores: Tradesmen are usually required to carry and secure their own
tools. The main contractor, for special processes may find it necessary to carry a supply of
special tools and equipment which would be available to workmen. The store may also carry
other items that can only be had on special issue. Some of these items are paints, locks and small
tools. Such stores are controlled by a storekeeper or a timekeeper.
Material Stores: Material stores may be provided to protect materials from theft or damage. The
material stores are usually close to the appropriate workshop or activity area. Such stores would
carry materials such as reinforcing steel, rough lumber and cement. Special provisions must be
made to ensure that materials are not spoiled or damaged during storage and handling. In
addition, brittle materials such as tiles require provisions.
13

Reasons for Temporary Services

Temporary services relate to the provision of utilities for the purpose of facilitating
construction activities as well as providing conveniences for workers. The supplies normally
include gas, water, compressed air, electricity and telephone.
Conveniences
These include conveniences for personnel and work process.
Personnel: Provision under the factories act allows for provision of certain conveniences for
workers. Temporary services assist in the provision of drinking water, adequate lighting and
toilet facilities. Drinking water and toilet facilities should be positioned for quick access thus
reducing idle time.
Work processes: Utilities supplied to the site can be used to drive (power) plant and equipment
or provide ingredients for preparing certain materials.
Examples of supplies used for driving plant and equipment are:
A. Air- Pneumatic tools and equipment
B. Oil and Gas- Turbine and hydraulic tools and equipment
C. Electricity- electric tools and equipment
Heat, water and air are used in the following processes:
1. Heat- asphaltic processes
14

2. Water- making concrete

3. Air- Spray painting, excavating, compacting
Communication
Communication includes physical and verbal contact between the agencies and processes
during the life of the project. Factors to be considered in communication are temporary roads for
access to the site and storage areas, as well as possible telephone or two way radio contacts for
placing orders and dealing with routing administration and contingencies which are important.

15

THE MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Cement is a substance that binds aggregates together into a very dense material that possesses
great compressive strength.
Portland Cement
Portland cement is used in the manufacturing of concrete and mortar. It may also be used
as a bed for clay and cement tiles. Ordinary Portland Cement is made by mixing ground chalk or
limestone and clay with water to form a semi-liquid mixture, or slurry. Local materials such as
shale may be used instead of clay in the manufacturing of Portland Cement. The slurry is
screened and is passed into a storage tank where it is kept agitated in preparation for passage into
a kiln, which is a rotating cylinder, approx. 90 meters long, inclined at an angle and fired by
pulverized coal or oil.
The slurry is fed into the upper end of the kiln and flows down to the direction of the
heat. As the kiln revolves, it dries the slurry. Water evaporates under this intense temperature
heat (raised to about 1500 Celsius) fusing the materials into a clinker or cement noodles. The
clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder. A small amount of gypsum is added to retard the
setting time of the cement.
Characteristics of different Types of Cement
Portland Cement is the most commonly used cement since it hardens rapidly. There are
several other cements that can be used for special purposes.
The ratio of Portland Cement to aggregates varies with the strength requirements for the
concrete. Additives may be put into the mixture or cement to enhance the strength or provides
additional qualities such as quicker drying, waterproofing, resistance to sulphate corrosion etc.
During the manufacturing of cement, various chemical components are produced. This
compound which influences the properties and behaviour of the cement includes:
(1) Strength Development:
(2) Setting Time and Heat Production
By varying the components, the properties can be modified. These properties can
influence the ability of the cement to resist sulphate attack, which is the rate at which cements
sets and heat is produced.
Some types of cements are low heat (used for concreting large masses) and some high heat (for
cold weather conditions).
The five common types of cement used in construction are Types 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Type 1- Normal
This type is ordinary Portland Cement. It has normal qualities, a reasonable setting time
and is used for general concrete work, when conditions are normal. Such example include:
masonry work, filling of pockets, and ordinary strip foundation.
Type 2 Moderate
This type of cement gives off less heat than type 1, and has a moderate resistance to
sulphate. It is suitable for use in foundations where there are low levels of sulphate but
16

offers good resistance to soils with high sulphate level such as those adjacent to chemical
plants.
Type 3 - Low Heat
This type is ideal for use in mass concrete work, such as large foundations or dam
retaining walls. It develops strength slowly and generates less heat, thus reducing
cracking.
Type 4 - High Early Strength/Rapid Hardening
This type is used when the weather is bad (rainy season), or when formwork has to be
removed early. It develops strength earlier than types 1 and 2.
Type 5 Aluminium
This type contains aluminium ore. It is darker in colour than Normal Portland Cement. It
hardens very rapidly and has great strength.
Notable Behaviour of Concrete
Climatic conditions can influence the setting time of concrete and its used. For
maximum strength development, concrete should be wetted down for 28 days.

17

Characteristics of Aggregates
Aggregates generally make up the bulk of the concrete. These are available in fine and
coarse grades. For mortar the size of aggregates is very small ranging from 0-4mm, and for
general concrete work the size varies from 5-20mm.
Requirements of Aggregates
All aggregates should be:
clean
free from sediments
sound
strong not easily crushed
well graded
well shaped
Types of Aggregates
Coarse Aggregate
Gravel This consist of small pieces of stone which are somewhat rounded in shape. It makes
good coarse aggregate because it is hard and closed textured. When using gravel as a coarse
aggregate the pebbles should be graded in size. (Source= gravel banks, river beds).
Crushed Stones Trap rock is the hardest and most durable stone that can be crushed and used
for making concrete. This stone is dark, heavy and close-grained, and is of igneous origin.
Granite makes good crushed stone and is less expensive than trap rock. The stone should be
graded in sizes 6mm-20mm.
Fine Aggregates
For concrete work these are sand, crushed stones or gravel screening. The most important
of these is sand. Sand is a fine divided material of rock which will pass through a standard 5mm
sieve. Sand is not subjected to disintegration, decay or expansion.

18

Importance of Proportioning or Batching

Proportioning aids in determining the strength, durability, permeability, workability and
economy of the concrete. Proportioning is essential to ensure a good mix.
Batching is the determination of the exact amount of each ingredient that is placed into a
specific concrete mix.
The following are some results of Batching.
Strength In order to obtain maximum strength, the aggregates must produce little or no
voids in the concrete. This increases the density of the concrete thus increase its strength.
Economy Cost is a major factor in concrete work. Cost is influenced by careless use of
ingredients. The most costly ingredient is cement. A poor mix often increases the cost of the
job or reduces the strength of the concrete.
Workability This is the ability of the wet concrete to be placed and worked with ease. This
property is enhanced by the correct proportioning of the cement and aggregates and watercement ratio.
Volume Batching
This is generally used but it is a less accurate method of mixing concrete. A measuring
box is used to determine the amount of cement and aggregates. A change in the moisture
content will impact upon the volume of the materials and affect the quality of the concrete.

Figure 2 showing a diagram of a Gauge or Measuring Box

Batching by Weight
In this method the materials are measured by weight. This is a more reliable system of
batching than that of volume. Variation in volumes owing to compacting is eliminated when
using this method.

19

Water

The water used in the making of concrete must be clean and free from impurities which
could affect the quality of the concrete. A proportion of water will set up a chemical reaction that
will harden the cement. The rest is required to give the mix workability and will evaporate from
the mix while it is curing. An excess amount of water will give a porous concrete or reduced
durability and strength.
The water/cement ratio is the amount of water used in the mix and is expressed as:
The total weight of water in the concrete
Weight of cement
For most mixes, the ratio is between 0.4 and 0.7. Concrete mixes can be expressed as volume
ratios, thus:
1:2:4 = 1 part cement 2 parts fine aggregates and 4 parts coarse aggregates
1:5 = 1 part cement and 5 parts all in aggregates
Some common mixes
1: 10 = not a strong mix but it is suitable for filling weak pockets in excavation and for binding
layers
1:8 = slightly better suitable for paths and paving
1:6 = a strong mix suitable for mass concrete
1:3:6 = the weakest mix
1:2:4 = the strongest mix suitable for reinforced concrete
Concrete is a mixture of fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, cement and water that possesses
great compressive strength.
Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water in definite proportion.

Slump test
20

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
Plastic is one of the new building Materials being widely used in the Building Industry
and for Domestic Purposes. Such purposes include: - plumbing, electrical fittings and sanitary
appliances. Plastics are usually by products of Petro-Chemicals.
Plastics are usually: light weight
easily handled
durable
strong for their weight
readily adapted to various situations
Properties of Plastics which make them suitable for usage in Construction Work are:
1. strong
2. light weight
3. durable
4. pliable/flexible
5. easily joined
6. glazable
7. elastic
8. water proof
9. rust proof
10. cheap/economical
11. soft
Some disadvantages of plastics and precautions to be observed in their use are they:
Can be easily damaged if not properly protected
Have a low melting point
Are easy to crushed under weight
Must be supported when suspended
Have poor chemical resistance to thinners and solvents
Becomes brittle under continuous exposure to variations of weather
Types of Plastics

Application

1. Thermo-Plastics

Conduits, pressure and non-pressure pipes

2. Polyvinyl

Tiles, mouldings

3. Polythene

Sheeting, bags

4. Nylon

Ropes, coverings, garments

5. Thermo-setting

Resins
21

Uses of Plastics in the Building Construction Industry are:

1. Electrical Installation; Conduits, fittings
2. Plumbing
3. Guttering
4. Tiles/Floor Finishes
5. Waterproofing; Damp Proof Membrane, drains
6. Roofing

22

TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS

Bark Every species of tree has its own bark which is a means of identification. The
bark is the outer layer of a tree that protects it. Without it the tree cannot survive.
Cambium layer - This is the growing part of the trunk.
developing. Some becoming bark while others become wood.

Here new cells are constantly

Medullar Rays - Food is distributed to all parts of the tree by means of these small cells. These
wood cells grow in length radially and can be easily seen in oak, beech, and mahogany.
Annual Rings - The age of the tree can be determined by the counting of these rings, as each
ring represents one year of growth.
Pith or Medulla - This is the core of the tree. It may be sound or solid, but in many cases it is
filled with a cork like substance. It has a dark, brown colour.
Sapwood - Light coloured outer concentric rings of woody tissue that is found next to the
cambium. It contains only a few living cells and functions mainly in the storage of plant food.
Its thickness varies from 13mm to as much 150mm in some species.
Heart wood - The inner concentric rings of woody tissue which consists of inactive cells.
These cells of heartwood may contain many minerals which contribute to its darker colour, great
beauty and resistance.
Bast - The channel that is found between the cambium layer and bark which transport food from
the root to the leaf.
23

The tree can be regarded as one of natures gift to man. It provides food, shelter and fuel.
The tree is a living organism, the components parts performing specific life functions.
Timber is the oldest building material. The growth process of certain species encourages
the production of various by-products.
To those studying botany a tree is just another plant. To the carpenter and the joiner it is
the plant which produces the material with which he is mainly concerned namely wood or
(timber). The growth of a tree is affected by the soil and by the climate in which it grows.
Softwood and Hardwood Trees
Commercial timbers are classified into soft woods and hard woods. The most common
method of identifying them is by their leaf. Soft woods have narrow needle like leaves where as
hard woods have a broad leaf.
Softwoods
Soft woods (gymnosperms) are not all soft; some soft woods are very hard e.g. Yew,
pitch pine strong and durable. Soft woods are all for practical purposes, derived from a group of
trees called conifers. Coniferous trees are mainly evergreen and grow chiefly in the northern
cold to temperate zone. Soft woods comprise about 75% of the timber used in the U.K.
Soft woods are non- flowering and have needle shaped leaves and naked seeds contained in
cones, their branches normally arises in whorls with more than two at the same level. Even after
the tree is converted, most lumber can be easily identified as hard wood or soft wood. Conifers
are simpler and more uniformed in structure than broad leaved trees. They have mainly one type
of cell, the tracheid. These cells appear as regular rows of holes, with the cells formed during
spring and summer (wet seasons) having thin walls and those formed during autumn and winter
(dry seasons) have thick walls. It is this difference in the formation of cells that indicates a
years growth or annual rings.
Soft woods main features include:
1. They have an open grain texture, which is easier to work on than hard wood.
2. They have a lighter colour than hard wood.
3. They do not shed their leaves seasonally.
4. Their leaves are usually needle or cone shaped.
5. They grow quite quickly.
6. The timber produced needs to be protected from the weather by applying paint, varnish or
preservatives.
7. They need to be protected from insect attack.
Examples of soft woods are:
Douglas fir
Western red cedar
Pitch pine
White pine
Red wood
Red pine

Sugar pine
Southern pine
Yellow pine
Caribbean Pine
Alaska cedar
Honduras cedar
24

Hardwoods
Hard woods (angiosperms) are not all hard, some hard woods are very soft e.g. balsa.
Most hardwoods are deciduous or broad-leaved trees. Hard woods include densest, strongest,
and most durable timbers. Some hard woods contain resins and oil which interfere with the
hardening of paint such as teak. The cheapest hard woods approximate in cost to the more costly
soft woods.
Hard woods can be recognized by their broad leaves on their branches which usually
grow out at different levels, at the most two at the same level. These trees produce flowers from
which their seeds come enclosed in a fruit. These trees grow in cool to tropical climates and may
be deciduous or evergreen.
Hard woods unlike soft woods have a more complex structure with mainly two distinct
cells. One type is fibrous and similar to the tracheid and the other type is known as vessel or
pore cells. The latter appears as pores or holes in the end grain, and as vessel lines on
longitudinal surfaces.
Cell structure in both soft woods and hard woods affect the grain, texture, density and
figure in these woods. The grain in soft wood is generally straight, the texture is fine and the
figure is plain to pleasing. In hard woods, the grain may be straight, sloping or interlocked. The
texture is fine to coarse because of the size and arrangement of the pores and the figure plain to
highly figured. These are dense hard boards and more difficult to work with tools.
Hard woods main features include:
1. They are harder to work with hand tools than soft wood trees.
2. They are darker in colour or have distinctive colours.
3. They shed their leaves seasonally.
4. They are slow growing and cannot be cultivated.
5. They are more expensive to use for timber.
6. They are selected for decorative appearance.
Examples of hard woods are:
Mahogany
Tamarind
Teak
Mora
Green heart
Bullet wood
Satin wood
Mahoe
Crab wood
Wallaba
Cedar
Oak
Birch
Beech
Balsa

25

Conversion of Timber
Conversion is the process of cutting up timber in marketable sizes. It is a common
feature that decorative cuts are made during conversion. The two general methods of selling
lumber are plain sawing, (flat or slash sawing) and quarter sawing.
Plain Sawing
The log is slabbed on either two or four sides to form a cant from which other plain
sawed lumber is cut. Plain sawed lumber has several advantages over quarter sawed:
1. More lumber is produced when grain figures are not considered.
2. It dries more rapidly.
3. It is cheaper to cut.
4. It has lower unit cost.

Plain sawing (1,2,3,4) and quarter sawing (5,6)

26

Quarter Sawing
Quarter sawing can be done any of four methods: radial, tangential, combined radial
tangential and quarter tangential.
Quarter sawing has the following advantages:
1. Fewer tendencies to warp or twist.
2. Fewer tendencies to cut or twist.
3. Less shrinkage.
4. More durability strength.
5. More attractive grain pattern.
6. More rapid kiln drying.
It is used in the manufacture of high class joinery, furniture and quality work. It wears more
evenly when used as flooring.
Disadvantage
The method of conversion is time consuming and produces much waste.
Seasoning of Timber
Timber cannot be used for carpentry and joinery immediately after it is converted, since
there is a lot of moisture present in the wood. A large portion of this sap must be removed, if
distortion resulting from shrinkage is to be avoided. The process of moisture removal from the
wood is called seasoning. This can be done in either one of two ways: natural or artificial terms
known also as curing or conditioning. It is realized that, the lower the moisture content in the
wood the greater its strength.
Natural Seasoning
After conversion, the wet timber is stacked with strips of wood, usually of the same kind,
or stickers separating each layer. This allows proper circulation of air which removes the
moisture. A suitable roof is needed to protect the timber from sun and rain. Air seasoning
reduced the moisture content to about 17% under ideal conditions and even takes up to two
years. The moisture content must be in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere. The weather
and thickness of the material will vary the length of time required for seasoning. End splits may
be controlled by tacking on straps or metal or wood, or by putting paint wax or oil on the ends of
the boards.

Advantages
- High quality of lumber.
27

Disadvantages
- Length of time, limited availability of large quantities.
- May be more costly
- Needs more space for drying
- No control over drying process.
Artificial Seasoning
Artificial seasoning has improved greatly and the kiln which is the storage house for it
can now be completely computerized to control the drying process even without attendance or
human inspection. Accurate moisture content readings are readily available at any time. The
materials are stacked in a similar manner of that of the natural.

Advantages
- Relatively short time
- Early use of material
- May result in greater availability and reduced cost.
- Some wood worms are destroyed by the heat
- Moisture content can be controlled to as low as 12%
Disadvantages
- Case Hardening
- Rapid drying can cause it to check or become honey combed.
Moisture content
When a tree is felled it contains a great deal of moisture. The timber will need to have
some moisture content, whatever its commercial use is to be. The purpose of drying the timber
is to minimize the subsequent movement when it is used; which means, different uses demands
different moisture content levels. The timber for internal use should have lower moisture content
than timber which is used externally. This is because internal timber would be reduced by the
warmth of the atmosphere. This can cause excessive shrinkage and possibly other more serious
defects.
Moisture content is always expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the timber.
The formula used to calculate this formula is:
28

Wet weight- Dry weight x 100

Dry weight
= moisture content (%)

A sample of timber is cut and weighed. This is the wet weight. It is placed in a kiln 100C and
taken out at intervals until no further weight is loss. This is the dry weight. A piece of timber
weighs 132.5g
Its dry weight is 108.7g
Moisture content weighs 23.8g
% of moisture (23.8/108.7) x 100= 21.9%
Example:
132.5- 108.7
23.8 x100
108.7
= 21.9%

Timber Defects

A defect is a fault in the timber that will result in some reduction in strength, appearance
which is usually cause by natural elements during growth or during conversion and seasoning
which could and should be avoided.
Natural defects
Knots are caused by branches growing out of the tree in which case the grain in the tree
trunk becomes twisted. Forest grown tree usually have less knot because of lack of sunlight.
The branches always start at the centre of the tree at the pith.
Sound Knots
They will not fall out of the position they occupy but they tend to crack. This allows the
inlet of fungus to attack the wood. Provided that they are not too large or close to the edge they
dont posed a problem.

Dead Knots
These are a source of real weakness, whatever is the size. They are produced when a
branch is broken off before the tree is finish growing. The tree starved this broken off part of the
trunk causing it to die. It is identified by a very dark colour around the decayed knot, making it
liable to fall out eventually leaving a knot hole. Such a timber is classified as low grade and is
unsuitable for structural use.
29

Shakes- Take the form of splits in the wood and detracts from its strength quite considerably.

Heart Shake- These occur in the heart wood of a tree when it is left too long after it has matured
before being felled for use. It is due to lack of food.

Checks- These are separation of the wood fibres along the grain. They usually occur along the
ends of lumber. In artificial seasoning checks are caused by rapid drying.

Ring Shake- These follow the contour of the growth ring. They usually result from excessive
swaying of the tree in high winds bringing about separation of the fibres.

30

Cup Shake- These are brought about by similar conditions as ring shakes, but without results.
They also position themselves in the growth rings.

Star Shake- These are fine cracks in the appearance of a star as a result of the sun drying up the
cellular tissue, when the bark has been damaged or when the timber has been season too quickly.

Dry Rot- This is caused by a fungus (merious lacrymans) a growth which lives in the wood and
destroys it. It thrives on wood in dark, damp unventilated conditions causing it to dry up and
disintegrate into dust.
Wet Rot- Wet rot (cellar) fungus attacks only wet timber, and is found in damp, poorly
ventilated cellars. The disintegration of timber is due to exposure to alternate wet and dry
weather which is favourable conditions for growth of fungus.
Up Sets- This is a form of shake, the cause of which is uncertain. The effect of it is in a zigzag
crack across the grain, where the affected boards are likely to snap very easily under little
pressure. Probable causes are:
1. The tree being struck by lightning during growth.
2. The tree falling awkwardly when felled causing a fracture to run through the log.

Bowing- This often results when the boards are stacked with too much distance between the
sticks.

31

Warp- This is any distortion from the true form and may include any one or a combination of the
following: cup, bow, twist. This is caused by the exposure to the elements and poor stacking in
the process of seasoning and usage.

Cupping
Spring

Twist

Wood Preservation
Timber for construction work should be treated in order to increase its ability to resist
fungal and insect attack. Insects break down the cellular structure of the wood and destroy its
strength and appearance. Timber being exposed needs to be protected.
Timber preservation is costly, extending to the life of the timber. Preservation is cheaper in long
term.
Some preservatives, such as creosote are used exclusively underground or in roofs where
the material will not be visible. Other types have pleasing effects, example: Cuprinol, Atlas A
which change the colour of the wood to a light green.
Application requires some care since preservatives are highly toxic and others may attack the
skin.
There are three groups of preservatives:
1. Tar- oil type
2. Water solution type
3. Organic solvent type
Tar-oil
These preservatives are distilled from coal tar. Creosote is probably the best know. They
are very efficient but have a strong odour. This can be done by steeping or can be brushed on,
where the lumber becomes saturated after a period of time. It becomes resistant to insect attack
and moisture penetration.
Water Solution
Water is used as a vehicle to take the chemical into the timber and afterwards it evaporate
leaving the chemical to fight off attack from sodium fluoride, zinc chloride and copper sulphate
solutions which are commonly used as preservatives but are odourless and can be painted over
quite easily.
Organic Solvents
This can be done as non-pressure and pressure impregnation.
Pressure Treatment
32

This is done by forcing liquid Wolman Salt under pressure into the timber- this ensures
better penetration.
Non-Pressure
Brushing- A suitable material is brushed on the lumber. This is a simple process but slow to
allow the liquid to soak in.
Spraying- This is used in areas difficult to get into, such as roof spaces. It is much quicker and
effective than brushing while using a spray gun.
Dipping- The timbers are submerged in a bath of preserving liquid for 5-15 minutes. Excess
preservatives are allowed to drain into the bath which can produce fairly good results.
Steeping- Similar to dipping, however, the timbers are left submerged for at least (2) weeks
especially with solution types of preservatives.

Production of Manufactured Boards

Ranges of sheet material are widely used in woodworking and building industries. Some
are made from solid timber while others are made from low-grade timber. Standard size for
building boards is 1220 x 2440 mm. Thickness varies according to use.
1 laminboard
2 core
3 blockboard
4 battenboard
5 cellular board, cellular plywood
6 composite board
7 hardwood plywood
8 mixed plywood
9 softwood plywood
10 multi-ply
11 crossbanding
12 star formation
13 parallel-grain plies
14 single layer chipboard, standard grade chipboard
15 multilayer chipboard
16 peg board, perforated hardboard
17 hardboard

33

Plywood
Plywood is one the most extensively used boards which is made up of an unequal number
of sheets and veneers called plies. Three- ply plywood consists of three veneer of equal
thickness glued together with the centre or core veneer, having its grain running at right angles to
the outer veneers. This gives it considerable strength. It has extensive uses which may include
panelling and lining as well as other forms of covering. The grade is usually stamped on the
board by the manufacturer and these must be recognized when deciding the usage of the board.
34

Int - Denotes for internal use only and indicates that is has been glued together with glue having
low moisture resistance. If such timber is exposed to moist conditions there would a separation
of the veneers.
MR - Fair resistance to moisture.
BR- High resistance in exposed conditions because it is boil resistant.
WBP- Indicates that it is weather and boil condition and also in the boat building industry.
Laminated Panels
These panels are constructed of thin layers of material glued together to form special
effects. These panels will resist warping and shrinkage.
Hard Boards
This is yet another of the wood waste product. Hard board are made from wood chips
and logs. The wood is pulped by machine, and bonded with adhesive and finally pressed to a
thickness of 3mm- 6mm. With such a thickness they usually have a width of 1.2m. With lengths
of 2.4 3 m. Their usage includes panelling, wall and floor covering.

Bagasse Board
Bagasse is the residue left after milling cane during the manufacture of sugar. The
material is crushed to a pulp, mixed with adhesive and compressed with a heat treatment. This
results in a hard durable board suitable for interior work.
Chip Board
This board makes use of machine chips of wood, glued and compressed into large sheets.
The core section consists of larger chips than the surface. A disadvantage is that it is unable to
take a screw. It is used for cheaper range of furniture as well as wall coverings.
Lumber Classification
Lumber is sold by standard cubic measurement, board measure.
Any size over 30mm and 100mm is boards. (31mm thick and 100mm wide)
37mm thick is planks
Measurement in length is called linear.
Measurement in length and breadth is called square measure.
Measurement in length, breadth and thickness is called cube measure.
N- Number of pieces in stock.
T- Thickness in mm.
L- Length in metre.
Note:
- 1 inch=25.44mm
- 1 foot = 304.8mm
- 1 metre = 3.281ft
35

Formula to calculate board in m is:

Foot board measure 10 pieces of 2 x 6 x 120
= 10 x 2 x 6 x 12 0
12
=
120 FBM
L (M) x W mm x T mm =
1000 1000

m3

If L = 5m W = 175mm T= 5mm
Then volume of board or lumber =
5 x 175 x 25
1000 1000
= 0.02m3

36

FOUNDATIONS
The purpose of the foundations is to adequately transfer the load of a structure to suitable
ground and to spread building loads over a sufficient area of soil to avoid undue settlement,
particularly unequal settlement.
Foundations should meet the following requirements;
(1) Building loads must be supported and transmitted to the ground,
(a) safely; transmit and sustain to the ground the total dead and imposed loads so
as
not to cause any settlement or
(b) without causing deflection or deformation of the building;
(c) without affecting adjacent buildings.
(2) They must be of such depth or be so constructed as to avoid damage by shrinkage of the
subsoil.
(3) They must be capable of resisting chemicals in the sub-soil.
The explanation of common terms associated with soils in foundation work is given below:
Settlement: Ground movement, which may be caused by:
(a) deformation of the soil due to imposed loads.
(b) volume changes of the soil as a result of seasonal conditions.
(c) mass movement of the ground unstable areas.
Made Ground: Refuse, excavated rock or soil deposited for the purpose of filling in a
depression or for raising the site above its natural level.
Bearing Pressure: The pressure produced on the ground by the loads.
Bearing Capacity: Safe load per unit area which the ground can carry.
Back Fill: Lateral excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in around the walls and
foundations.
Sub-Soil: Sub-soil lies below the topsoil to a depth about 300 mm.

Types of Foundations
The types of foundations normally used in construction include strip, raft, short bore pile
and pad. Various types of foundations are used in domestic buildings. The type of foundations
selected depends main~ on two factors:
(1) The total load of the building ("live and "dead" loads).
(2) The nature and bearing capacity of the subsoil.
(3) The design of the building.

37

Strip Foundation:
The majority of domestic structures have a strip foundation in which a continuous strip of
concrete provides a continuous support under load-bearing walls. This type of foundation is
composed of plain concrete usually to a mix 1: 3: 6 volumes (1 part cement, 3 parts sand 6 parts
coarse aggregate). The thickness of the foundation must not be less than the projection (P) and in
no case less than 150 mm. Reinforcement bars are sometimes used in small domestic building.
These bars strengthen the structure, and make it less vulnerable to earth tremors.

Strip Foundation
Wide Strip Foundation
Where the load bearing capacity of the ground is low, as for example marshy ground, soft
clay and made-up ground, wide strip foundations may be used to spread the load over a large
area of soil. It is usual to provide transverse reinforcement in the base of the footing to withstand
tensions that will arise. This is usually placed near the bottom of the footing. The depth below
ground level should be the same as for normal strip foundations. All reinforcements should be
lapped at the corners and junctions.

38

Deep-strip Foundations
These foundations are used in shrinkable clay soils (to reduce the cost of normal strip
foundation) in depths of 900 mm or more, and to counteract the variable soil conditions in
different seasons. In reducing the width of the foundation trench, the quantity of excavation,
backfill and surplus, soil-.removal is also reduced. The deeper foundation also provides greater
resistance to fracture from unequal settlement (by increasing the load bearing strength of the
section).

Deep Strip Foundation

Raft Foundation
Raft foundations cover the entire area of the building and usually extend beyond it. They
consist primarily of a reinforced concrete slab up to 330 mm thick, which is often thickened
under load bearing walls. The level of the base of the raft is usually within 300 mm of the surface
of the ground and the reinforcement is often in the form of two layers of fabric reinforcement,
one being near the top and one near the bottom of the slab.
39

The reinforcement helps to spread the loads and resist tensile stress, which could cause
cracking of the raft.
Raft foundations are best suited for use on soft natural ground or fill, or on ground that is
liable to subsidence as in mining areas. The ground at the edge of the raft should be protected
from weather, which can cause erosion or slippage. This can be overcome by:
(1) Laying concrete paving around the building
(2) Deepening the edge beam
(3) Laying a field drain in a trench filled with suitable fill as shown

Raft foundation

40

Stepped Foundation
On a sloping site the most economic procedure is to use a stepped foundation thus
reducing the amount of excavation, back fill, surplus soil removal and trench timbering. The
foundation is stepped to follow the line of the ground and the depth of each step is usually 150 or
225 mm (multiple of brick courses).
The lap of concrete at the step should not be less than 300 mm. The damp proof course
may also be stepped in a similar manner. Where the slope exceeds one in tenth it is desirab1e to
use short bored pile to overcome the sliding tendency.

Stepped foundation

41

Short Bored Pile

Short bored piles were devised to provide economical and satisfactory foundations' for
houses built on shrinkable clay. They consist of a series of short concrete pile cast in holes bored
in the ground and joined or connected (for load bearing walls) by light beams usually of
reinforced concrete. They have several, advantages over strip foundations:
i.
speed of construction
ii.
reduced quantity of surplus excavated soil
iii.
ability to proceed with construction in bad weather
Problems do, however, arise on stony sites or where there are many tree roots.
Holes are normally bored to a depth of 2.5 - 3.5 metres by hand or mechanically operated
auger keeping the holes vertical and on the centre 1ine of the beams. The depth will be
determined by the stability and bearing capacity of the clay.
The piles, generally about 300-350 mm in diameter, should be cast immediately after the
holes have been bored. A mixture of 1:2:4 concrete is generally used. Short lengths 20 mm
diameter reinforcing bars should be set in the top of each corner pile and bent over to cast in with
the beams. The reinforced concrete beams often 300 x 150 mm' in section, are usually cast in
formwork, but in some cases are cast in trenches.
The placement of piles is influenced by the shape of the building, the load to be carried
and the load-bearing capacity of the piles. With load bearing walls, piles should be provided at
corners and junctions of walls, with intervening piles placed to give uniform loading and, as far
as possible, to keep ground floor door and window openings mid-way between piles.

Short bored pile foundation

42

Pad Foundation
Pad foundations are isolated foundations designed to support columns. The area of
foundation is determined by dividing the column load plus the weight of the foundation by the
allowable bearing capacity of the ground. The thickness of the foundation must not be less than
the projection from the column (unless reinforced) and must, in any case I not be less than 150
mm. The size of foundation can be reduced by providing steel reinforcement towards the bottom
of the foundation running in both directions.

Pad foundation
The area of the pad for a foundation may be calculated by determining the ratio of the load to the
bearing capacity of the soils under laying the structure.

Terminology
Three terms used regularly with foundation construction are explained.
Footing: offsets at the base of a wall to provide a greater bearing area.
Damp proofing: making waterproof by special materials or processes.
Hardcore: broken bricks block or stone consolidated as a foundation for concrete in solid floors.

43

Excavation and Timbering

Excavation Works
The excavation for foundations follows after the setting or laying out the building and
fixing of profiles. Excavations take various forms depending upon the type foundation to be laid.
Excavation
The term excavation means to hollow out. In building terms it means to remove earth to
form a cavity in the ground.
The method of excavation can either be manual or mechanical. Manual excavation is,
used extensively on small domestic structures. The manual process requires hand tools such as
pick axe, shovel, digging bars, forks and wheelbarrows.
Types of excavations
1. Over-site Excavation that involves the removal of topsoil up to 300mm deep.
2. Reduced Level Excavation which is carried out below the over-site level to form a level
surface on which to build and can consist of both cutting and filling operations. The
level to which the ground is removed is called the formation level.
3. Trench Excavations are narrow excavations that are primarily used for strip foundations
and buried services. Excavation can be carried out by either machine or hand.
Types of Trench Excavations
Battered faced
Vertical or straight faced
Battered Excavation
Vertical/Straight Excavation
Advantage:
Advantage:
No temporary support is required to the Minimum amount of soil is removed and
sides of the excavation
therefore minimum of backfill is required
Disadvantage:

Disadvantage:

It incurs extra cost for over excavating and The sides of the excavation may require
extra backfilling
some degree of temporary support

Reduced Level Excavation

This is necessary because very few sites are level in their natural state.
On small sites the process is similar as for Site clearance. Bulldozers are used for cut and fill
operation and a mechanical shovel plus Lorries are used for cut only operations.

Trench and Pit Excavations

On small sites the hand process can be used but if the depth of excavation exceeds
1.200m some method of removing spoil (soil) from the excavation will have to be employed. In
this event a trenching machine such as a Back actor could be employed.

44

Types of Excavation Machines

45

Typical excavation machines include:

1. Bulldozers
2. Scrapers
3. Graders
4. Tractor Shovel
5. Skimmer
6. Face Shovel
7. Back actor
8. Dragline
9. Multi-Purpose Excavators
10. Trenchers
Mechanical - The bulk of major building projects is now performed. The principal machines are:
Dragline: A bucket dragged towards the machine, and it generally excavates below ground
level.
Face Shovel: This digs in deep faces above the level of its wheels or tracks.
Skimmer: This is used for shallow excavation up to 1.5 m deep and is particularly useful for
levelling and roadwork.
Drag Shovel or Back Actor: This digs below its own level and towards itself and is primarily
used for trench excavation.
Drag and Clamshell: This is for moving loose materials.
The Scraper: Operates like an earth plane and carries its scraping with it.
Bulldozer: This is used for, bulk excavation and grading.
Front End Loader and Back Hoe: This is for excavating and moving loose materials.

46

Timbering to Excavation
This is the term used to cover temporary supports to the sides of excavations and is
sometimes called planking and strutting. The sides of some excavations will need support to:
Protect the operatives while working in the excavation
Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench.
The type and amount of timbering required will depend upon the depth and nature of the
subsoil, weather conditions, type of soil, and the duration of the operations.
Types
1. Timbering in firm soils
2. Timbering in dry loose soils
3. Timbering in loose wet soils
4. Timbering in hard soils
Safety
When excavating foundations and. drains in soil that is liable to fall away from the sides
of the trench, timbering should be used to prevent this (the soil from falling into the trench).
The builder must ensure all trenches are safely timbered or pile sheeted. Apart from the
death or injury, it will result in additional cost to the builder to re-excavate and new damaged
work in the trench should the sides collapse. Proper attention should be given to safety at all
times. The construction industry has a very high accident rate and everyone in the industry must
be more safety conscious.
Timbering
Timbering is the temporary support used at sides of trenches to prevent caving in. The
support given to sides of the trench depends upon the depth of the trench and the soil conditions.
Weak soils will require more elaborate temporary support.
Terminology
Poling Boards: are vertical members that usually measure 175 mm x 31 mm x 1 m.
Walling Board: Horizontal members placed against the poling boards with cross section
measurement 150 mm x 75 mm. The length varies.
Struts: Horizontal supports placed across the trench to hold the other members in position. They
are spaced at centres between 1.5 m and 2 m along the length of the trench and are usually 100
mm x 100 mm in cross-section.
Wedges: Sometimes pairs of folding wedges are used between the walling boards and the struts
to take up slackness.
Types of Timbering
1. Open Boarding
This is used for moderately firm ground such as sandy gravel, soft dry chalk, clayey, gravel.
2. Poles and struts
These are used for moderately firm ground, such as stiff clay, firm gravel and hard chalk. The
poling boards are spaced 1.829 m apart.
47

3. Close Boarding or Sheeting

This is used for unstable ground such as loose sand, wet soils and made up grounds.

Timbering in hard soils

48

Timbering in loose dry soils

49

Timbering in loose wet soils

Safety
Construction regulations state that:
1. Heavy loads or machinery likely to cause the collapse of the sides must not be moved close to
the excavation.
2. Open excavations must be fenced off to prevent persons falling into them.
3. Approaches to excavations must have warn1ng lights prominently d1splayed at night.
4. No vibration likely to bring about collapse of the sides must be caused close to the excavation
Curing
When concrete is poured it begins to set/cure and as time passes it becomes solid, and at
the same time increases in strength.
The chemical reaction which accompanies the setting of cement and hardening of
concrete is dependent on the retention of water is known as curing. Exposed concrete should
therefore be sprayed and covered with bubble plastic sheets or quilts of plastic with fibres or
straw or cement bags (sandbags), until it attains maximum strength (cures). To develop
maximum strength concrete requires the correct conditions and a certain minimum time,
depending on the temperature. Time ranges from 7 - 28 days for normal Portland cement.

Placing
All form work should be checked, cleaned and oiled before concrete is placed against it.
Concrete should not be permitted to fall freely more than one metre. When transported by a
barrow over rough ground segregation of the materials may occur as larger particles settle to the
bottom of the barrow. This will result in weakened concrete. To prevent or reduce this, use
pneumatic wheels to help cushion the shock.
50

Precautions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The area of concreting should be free from all debris.

The area of concreting should be washed.
The mixing bed should be as near as possible to concreting area.
The approach of the concreting should be free from all obstruction.
Oil the form work to allow ease of striking.
Do not allow concrete to fall freely more than one metre.
Use barrows with pneumatic wheels to reduce segregation of materials.

51

WALLS
Definition
This term refers to a unit that is used to sub-divide or partition space.
It is also considered to be a unit that encloses a space thus giving it a degree of protection from
the elements.
Categories of Walls
There are essentially two categories of walls namely:
Load bearing walls and
Non-load bearing walls.
Load bearing Walls
These are walls that are designed to transmit imposed and super-imposed loads in
addition to their own weight to a suitable foundation. They can either be external or internal
walls.
Non-load bearing Walls
These walls are designed to accommodate their own weight in addition to fixings placed
on them. Most often these are used internally.
Functional Requirements for Walls
A wall should be:
Fire Resistant;
sound insulated;
weather resistant;
thermally insulated;
design to accommodate fixings such as doors and windows or openings, and
designed to safely transmit all loads encountered to a suitable foundation.
Types of Walls:
Rubble walls
Brick walls
Parapet walls
Party walls
Block walls
Cavity walls
Timber Framed walls
Dwarf walls
Concrete walls (In-situ and Prefabricated)

52

Brick walls
The materials used in the manufacture of bricks is clay or it may be from sand or lime
and are available in a wide variety of strength, types, textures, colors, and special shaped bricks.
In the manufacturing process, the raw material (usually clay) is dug and then prepared
either by weathering or grinding before being mixed with water to the right plastic condition. It
is then formed into the required brick shape using a mould / form before being dried and fired in
a kiln.
Bricks are generally manufactured to a length of 337.5mm, a width of 225mm and a height of
112.5 mm.
However, the usual size of bricks for common use is 215 mm in length, width 102.5 mm and a
height of 65 mm where 10 mm of mortar joint thickness is added to 3 faces.
Bonding
This is an arrangement of bricks in a wall, column or pier laid to a set pattern to maintain
an adequate lap. The bond is set along the length of the wall working from each end to ensure
that no vertical joint is above another in consecutive courses.
Purpose of Bonding
Bonding is required:
To ensure that maximum strength is obtain whilst the load to be transmitted through the
wall, column or pier is being distributed.
To ensure that there is lateral stability and resistance to side thrusts.
To create an aesthetic (acceptable) appearance.
Types of Bonds
English Bond
This bond is formed by laying alternate courses of stretchers and headers. It is one of the
strongest forms of bonding pattern used.

English bond details

53

Flemish Bond
This bond is formed by laying headers and stretchers consecutively in each course. It is
not as strong as English bond but is considered to be aesthetically superior.

Stretcher Bond
This bond consists of alternate courses of stretchers and is used extensively for block wall
construction.

Stretcher bond details

54

Parapet Walls
This is a low wall projecting above the level of a roof, bridge or balcony forming a guard
or barrier at the edge. Parapets may be exposed to the elements on three faces namely front, rear
and top and will therefore need careful design and construction if they are to be durable and
reliable.

Party Walls
Party wall is an interior lot line used or adapted for joint service between two buildings.

Cavity Walls
These consist of an outer brick or block leaf or skin separated from an inner brick or
block leaf or skin by an air space called the cavity. These walls provide better thermal insulation
and weather resistant than block or brick wall. The two leaves of a cavity are tied together with
wall ties at not less than 900mm width and vertical heights of 450mm.

55

Cavity wall details

Timber Constructed Walls
Types: Balloon Framed
Platform Framed
Members:Foundation Footing, sill plate, sole plate, studs, Noggins, Top plate, wall plate, trimmer
stud, cripple stud, header, window sill.

56

57

58

Block walls
These are walling units exceeding in length, width or height the dimensions specified for
bricks. They are made from a mixture of cement, sand and marl/crushed stone to specific
proportions.
The size of blocks varies depending on their use, but the standard length is given as length 400
mm, width from 75 mm up to 215 mm and a height of 200 mm.
Blocks suitable for external solid walls are classified as load bearing and are required to have a
minimum average crushing strength of 2.8N/mm2.
Block walls
Characteristics
Adequate strength
Good insulation
Low cost
Good load bearing capabilities
Block walls
The core of blocks assumes more than 25% of its total area/volume. According to the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), blocks are graded based on compressive
strength and range from:
600 psi to be used above grade
800 psi used for all exterior walls
Definition of a Scaffold
These are three definitions of a scaffold:
1. A temporary platform either supported from below or suspended from above, on
which workers sit or stand when performing tasks at heights above the ground.
2. A raised wooden framework or platform.
3. A temporary structure of timber, boards, etc., for various purposes, as for
supporting workmen and materials in building.
Suspended Scaffolds
Supporting outrigger beams must be able to support 4 times the intended load. To keep a
scaffold from falling to the ground, it must be attached to the roof, tied to a secure anchorage, or
secured with counterweights. The suspension ropes and rigging must support at least 6 times the
intended load.
1. Counterweights must be attached to secure and strong places on a building so they
wont move.
2. Do not use bags of sand or gravel, masonry blocks, or roofing materials that can
flow or move.
3. Do not use gas-powered equipment or hoists. A hoist must have an automatic
brake for emergencies.
4. A 1-point or 2-point suspended scaffold must be tied or secured to prevent
swaying.

59

Independent Tied Scaffolds

An independent scaffold consists of a platform resting on horizontal tubes, usually called
transoms, which are fixed at 90 to the face of the building and which are secured at both ends to
a row of uprights, or standards, and to horizontal tubes, often called ledgers, running parallel to
the face of the building. An independent scaffold, although it must be tied to the building or
structure, does not rely on it for its strength.
Working platforms and gangways
The scaffold boards which make up a working platform should rest squarely and evenly on
transoms to prevent the risk of tripping. Where the ends of boards meet, transoms must be
doubled and so spaced that no board overhangs by more than four times its thickness. Too much
overhang will cause the board to tip if you step on it, while too little less than 50 mm will
mean that it is easily dislodged. Normally, each board should have three supports to prevent it
bending or sagging. The space between the edge of the working platform and the face of the
building should be as small as possible. The width of a working platform should be sufficient for
the work which is to be carried out from it, and recommended widths are:
not less than 60 cm if used as footing only;
not less than 80 cm if used also for the stacking of material;
not less than 1.1 m if used for the support of a trestle platform.
Gangways or runs should be of adequate width for their purpose and should preferably be
horizontal. If the slope exceeds 20, or the surface is likely to become slippery with rain, laths
should be fixed at 90 across the slope, allowing a small central gap to accommodate
wheelbarrow wheels. Finally, precautions must be taken to prevent boards lifting in high winds.
Single pole or putlog scaffolds
A common type of scaffold for smaller jobs is a single pole or putlog scaffold which consists of a
platform resting on horizontal putlogs (called transoms in independent scaffolds) fixed at 90 to
the face of the building. The outer ends of the putlogs are supported on horizontal ledgers fixed
parallel to the face of the building and secured to a single row of uprights or standards, also
parallel to the wall. The flattened inner end of the putlogs rests flat on the wall, or in holes in the
wall, rather than on ledgers. It follows that the scaffold cannot stand without the support of the
structure.
Tower scaffolds
A tower scaffold consists of a platform resting on horizontal ledgers connected to four uprights,
supported on base plates if static or on castor wheels if mobile. It is devised for painters and
others who do lightweight work of limited duration mainly in one place.
Protection
There must be a 3" high toe boards to prevent things falling off a scaffold. If things on
the scaffold are taller than 3" (above the toe board), other systems, like debris nets, can be used
to catch falling tools or materials. If things can fall off a scaffold, people must be prevented from
walking under or near the scaffold.
Fall Protection
On most scaffolds, guard rails must be on all open sides and ends. On supported scaffolds
and some other scaffolds, guardrails or personal fall protection is enough. On most suspension
scaffolds, both are needed. Use a harness, not a body belt for personal fall protection.
You do not need a guard rail on the working side when the platform is less than 14" from the
work (18" for plastering and lathing). The open side of an outrigger must never be more than 3"
from the face of the building.
60

On supported scaffolds most of the time, the top rail must be 38" to 45" above the
platform. A top rail must be strong enough to hold 200 lb. (or 100 lb. on single-point and twopoint suspension scaffolds). A mid-rail must be about halfway between the platform and the top
rail; most mid-rails must be able to hold 150 pounds. If mesh, screens, or panels are used, a top
rail is needed (unless mesh was designed and installed to meet guardrail requirements). Scaffold
walkways must have no more than a 9.5" gap between planks and a guardrail. Dont let junk
collect on the scaffold. You can trip and fall.
Guidelines for checking a scaffold
If a scaffold is more than 2 feet above or below a level, there must be a way to get on or
off such as a ladder, ramp, or personnel hoist. The way to get on or off must not be more than
14" away from the scaffold.
Put a standing scaffold on a firm foundation (with base plates attached to feet)for
instance, with one piece of wood under each pair of legs (across the shortest distance),
extending at least 1 foot past each leg.
Uprights must be vertical and braced to prevent swaying; platforms must be level
A scaffold that is more than 4 times higher than its base is wide must be tied to supports.
Scaffold setup and use
Scaffolds must be capable of supporting at least four times the maximum intended load.
Provide a ladder or equivalent safe access to all levels. The ladder-like rungs on some brands
of commercial scaffolding are not to be used as a ladder. Note that a ladder leaned against
scaffolding on unlocked casters could cause the scaffolding assembly to roll away from the
ladder.
1. Ensure planks extend between 6 and 18 inches over their end supports unless they
are secured from movement, such as being attached with wire to the metal
supports.
2. Use a tag line when hoisting equipment onto a scaffold.
3. Do not allow tools, materials, and debris to accumulate and cause a falling hazard.
4. Wire or fibre rope used for scaffold suspension must be in good condition and
capable of supporting at least six times the intended load.
5. Install guardrails and toe boards at all open sides more than 3 m (10 feet) above
the ground or floor. Guardrails are not less than 5 x 10 cm (2 x 4 inches) cross
section, or the equivalent, and 0.9 to 1.1 m (36 to 42 inches) high. Diagonal or Xbracing can only be used as part of a guardrail system in some specific situations.
The minimum height for a toe board is 4 inches (10 cm).
6. Working on scaffolds is not only potentially hazardous for workers on the
platforms, but for people working below. Objects can fall on them despite the
presence of toe boards and the best intentions of the workers on the scaffold.
7. Restrict access and/or require hard hats for those below.
8. Ensure all wheel brakes are engaged except when movement is required.
Basic Safety
Most scaffold platforms and walkways must be 18" wide or more. If a work area is less
than 18" wide, guardrails and/or personal fall-arrest must be used.
Ten-foot planks must extend at least 6" past the end supports, but not more than 12"; no more
than 1" between planks or between planks and uprights.
Wood planks must be unpainted, so any cracks will show.

61

Types of Scaffold

a. An independent tied scaffold which does not rely

on the building for its strength. It has inner and
outer rows of uprights or standards

b. A working platform showing guard-rail and toe board

with wire mesh filling between them and the closely
boarded platform

c. A single pole or putlog scaffold, with a single outer

row of uprights or standards and which is partly
supported by the building

d. Mobile tower scaffold-wheels should be locked when in use; ladder access

should be inside the tower

62

What is Shoring
Shoring is a form of prop or support usually temporary that is used during the repair of
original construction of buildings and in excavations. Temporary support may be required, for
example, to relieve the load on a masonry wall while it is repaired or reinforced. The support
may be supplied by shoring the wall with the heavy timbers sloping upwards at about 65 to 75.
The top of the timber is so arranged that part of the wall load is transferred onto it while the
lower end of the timber is framed on to a base transfer the load to the ground with minimum
deformation. Wedges may be used to bring the shore snugly into contact with the wall. If the
wall is several stories high, vertical series of shores may be required. Shores are also used to
support the forms of cast-in-place concrete slabs, beams and girders in reinforced concrete
frames.
Another explanation of shoring is described below:
Shoring is often used to stabilize a building when it is to undergo structural modification
or repair. Commonly made of timbers measuring 12 (30.5 cm) by 12 shores are placed in an
inclined position bearing against the external wall of the building. The upper ends which are
sometimes capped with steel fit into niches cut in brick work and the lower ends rest on bases or
platforms. The application of wedges or steel jacks between the lower ends of the shores and the
platforms shift part of the weight of a building from its foundation to the shoring. Shores are
frequently used as supplemental support for buildings damaged by fire or by underpinning
failure. When employed horizontally e.g. when a building is removed from between two others
the shores consist of wood struts suitably braced and exerting pressure on wall plates in order to
distribute the thrust over a wide area. Shoring is also used widely in shipbuilding to support
hulls that are under construction.
Two Main Systems of Shoring
Dead Shores
This type is used to carry the dead load of the brick work etc. whenever an opening is to
be formed or when an existing opening needs to be widened.
Timbers of a square section are positioned above the line of a lintel or BRC. These are
therefore called needles because they pass through the wall. They are supported by timbers or
similar size called shores. The shores must be stood upon sole plates which in turn must stand on
firm ground preferably concrete. Shores should not normally exceed 1200 mm centre to centre
but the size of the opening and the amount of load to be supported above will dictate their size
and spacing. Cleats are nailed each side of the shore at sole plate level to prevent it becoming
dislodged while the other end metal dogs are used to secure the needle to the shore. Whatever
number of shores or needles are used they should be linked together by the sole plates and
bracing where necessary. The main consideration for the positioning of the shores is that they
should in no way interfere with placing the lintel or the beam into position. They should also
give the bricklayer room in which to work.

63

Raking Shores
These are used for very different reasons from the dead shore. There may be occasions
when the two are used in conjunction with each other. Raking shores are designed to give
external support to a building which may have become in danger or collapse. They are rarely
used when the building is adjacent to a site where construction work is about to be undertaken
which could cause serious movement or vibration and the shoring is erected for precautionary
reasons. The system may consist of one or more rakers depending upon how many floors the
building possesses. A single raking shore consist of a wall piece of 225 x 75 mm secured flat
against the wall with metal wall hooks against which the shore is positioned. At the head of a
150 x 150 mm raking shore, a needle of 100 x 100 mm passes through the wall plate about half
way into the wall thickness. The angle of the shore should be about 60 and in no case should it
exceed 70. Particular attention must be paid to the position of the raking shores in relation to the
floors.
The foot of the shore is seated on to a sole plate which should be placed on a very firm
soil or weak concrete mix. An angle of 80 between the raking shore and the sole plate will
assist in allowing the raker to be eased into position without undue hammering.
A notch is formed in the foot of the raker to enable a nail or crow bar to be used for
easing the shore into position.
All shoring systems should be eased in the same way as arch centres before being totally
dismantled.

64

FLOORS
By definition, the function of any floor is to provide a level surface that is capable of
supporting all the live and dead loads imposed.
Functional Requirements
The primary functions of floors are to:
Provide a level surface with sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of people
and furniture.
Exclude the passage of water and water vapour to the interior of the building.
provide resistance to unacceptable heat loss through the floor
Provide the correct type of surface to receive the chosen finish.
Be reasonably durable.
Categories of Floors
There are basically three types of floors widely used in the building industry, these are:
Solid Ground Floors
Suspended Timber Ground Floors
Precast Concrete Floors
Solid Ground Floors
A domestic solid ground floor consists of three components:1. Hardcore
2. Damp Proof Membrane
3. Concrete Bed
Hardcore
This should be a suitable filling material to make up the topsoil removal and reduced
level excavations. It should have a top surface, which can be rolled out to ensure that cement
grout is not lost from the concrete. It may be necessary to blind the top surface with a layer of
sand or fine ash especially if the damp proof membrane is to be placed under the concrete bed.
Damp Proof Membrane
This is an impervious layer such as heavy-duty polythene sheeting that is used to prevent
moisture passing through the floor to the interior of the building. Other materials are,
cold/hot poured bitumen,
rubber solutions, and
Asphalt or pitch mastic.
Concrete Bed
This is the component providing the solid level surface to which screeds and finishes can
be applied. The thicknesses that are generally specified are:
Plain in-situ concrete (no reinforcement) 100-150mm thick
Reinforced concrete, 150 mm minimum.

65

Suspended Timber Ground Floor

This type of floor consists of timber boards or other suitable sheet material fixed to joists
spanning over sleeper walls. They are:
Susceptible to dry rot (a fungus that attacks damp timber).
Adequate ventilation under the floor coupled with damp proof courses at an appropriate
position will control or alleviate this problem.
The use of airbricks is employed to allow for ventilation and should be spaced at 2 m
centre around the perimeter of the building.

Concrete Floors
The over site should not be less than 100mm thick although it is often 150 mm thick. The
mix of concrete should be at least 1:3:6 with a maximum size of coarse aggregates of 38 mm, but
a mix of 1:2:4 is to be preferred incorporating coarse aggregates with a maximum size of 19 mm.
the concrete mix of 50 kg of cement to not more than 0.11 m3 of fine aggregates and 0.16 m3 of
coarse aggregates. It should be noted that the edges of the slab are not to be built into the
surrounding walls to allow the two elements with their differing loads to move independently of
one another.

66

Concrete floors

67

Timber Floors
A timber floor finish laid directly on the bedded in a material which may also serve as a
damp proof membrane. Timber fillets laid in the concrete as a fixing for a floor finish should be
treated with an effective preservative unless they are above the DPM. The DPM must not be
lower than the highest level of surface of the outside ground and it must be continuous with, or
joined and sealed to, the DPM in any adjoining wall, floor pier, column or chimney.
Floor members
Joists-A steel or timber beam that supports a floor or roof
Sill- A ledge below a window or door
Sub floor- an underlying or rough unfinished material supporting a finished floor.
Header-A brick laid in a wall so that the smallest surface is visible
Bridging- are small metal pieces placed diagonally between floor joists.
Skirting- narrow boards around the margin of a floor sometimes called the baseboard.
Floor Members
Sleeper wall
(Honeycomb built)
Hardcore
Over site concrete
Wall plate
Floor framing members
Joists:
Common, trimmed, trimming, and trimmer types
Floor boarding
Skirting
Air bricks
Joist supports
Strutting
68

The honeycomb built sleeper walls

These are usually built two or three courses high to allow good through ventilation.
They are spaced at 2,000 mm centres which give an economical joist size.
Wall plate is secured to the sleeper wall along with a DPC material. The joists are then
toe-nailed to it.
Floor Joists
The floor joists are pieces of timber that span between the wall plates and support the
floor boards. The size of the joists depends on the spacing of the sleeper walls. The table is a
guide to the appropriate lengths for joists that are spaced 400mm apart. Judging the length of the
joists correctly will reduce waste and time spent cutting the timber.
Span(mm)

Joists size(mm)

Joists length( mm)

1200

38 x 75

3800

1800

38 x 100

3100 or 4800

2000

50 x 100

4100

Trimmer, Trimming and Trimmed

A stair case will go through the first floor. Since you must form an opening, you will
need to cut into the joists. The joists around the opening are called (1) Trimmed Joist- they are
shortened by the opening, (2) Trimmer Joist- they support the trimmed joists, and Trimming
Joist- they support the end of the trimmer joists. This type of work is expensive and must be
done very carefully to minimize damage to the joists. The main principal is to join the end of the
trimmer joists firmly to the end of the trimming joists because the load is greatest at that point.
You can use a metal hanger or a house joint in the upper half to avoid cutting into the trimming
joist.
Joist Supports
The ends of the joists are supported or fixed to the load bearing walls by building them in or by
using special metal fixings called joist hangers among other methods, which are rarely used.
Strutting
Timber is known to be hygroscopic, i.e. it is made up of cells, which will absorb moisture
readily.
Significant changes in temperature and humidity may cause timber to expand, contract,
deform or twist.
Shrinkage in timber joists will cause twisting to occur which can cause movements of the
ceiling below and surface cracks to the finishes applied.
This problem can be overcome by inserting strutting between the joists if the span
exceeds 2,400 mm. The strutting is usually placed at mid-span.
Typical arrangements of strutting are herringbone (metal or wood), inline solid and
staggered solid strutting.

69

70

Joist Sizing (depth)

The sizing of joist can be determined by BC tables or
by formulas:
Formula 1
Rule of thumb:
Span in mm + 50 mm = depth of joist in mm.
24
It is assumed that the breadth joist is 50mm and is spaced at 400 c/c

Formula 2
Rule of thumb:
BM = Wl/8 = fbd2/6
Where;
W = span x spacing of joist x floor loading kN/m2
f = fibre stress of the material
b = breadth (width) of joist (assumed to be 50mm)
d2 = joist depth
l = length of span
In-situ RC Suspended Floors
These are reinforced concrete slabs that incorporate beams spanning between columns.
The beams may span in one or two directions.
Slab variations are:
One way spanning slab
Two way spanning slab
Two way spanning flat slab
Other arrangements
Precast Concrete Floors
These floors are available in several basic formats and provide an alternative form of
floor construction to suspended timber floors and In-situ reinforced concrete suspended floors.
Advantages
The main advantages of precast concrete floors are:
They eliminate the need for formwork innermost cases.
Curing time for concrete is eliminated therefore the floor is available at an earlier stage to
be used as a working platform.
Superior quality control of product is possible with factory-produced products.
Disadvantages
Higher degree of site accuracy is required to ensure that the precast concrete floor units
can be accommodated without any alterations.
Less flexible in design terms
Formation of large openings to accommodate ducts, shafts and stairwells usually have to
be formed by casting an in-situ reinforced concrete floor strip around the opening
position.

71

Types of Precast Floors

PCC Beam and Pot Composite Floor
PCC Channel Units
PCC Plank and Pot Composite Floors
Waffle Floors
Floor Finishes
These are finishes usually applied to a structural base but may form part of the floor
structure as in the case of floor boards. Most finishes are chosen to fulfil a particular function
based on several factors.
Types of Floor Finishes
Quarry tiles
Tongue and Groove Boarding
Timber strip Flooring
Wood Blocks
Ceramic Tiles
Floor Screed
PVC Tiles
Carpets and Carpet tiles
Factors of Floor Selection
Appearance chosen mainly for their aesthetic appeal or effect but should however have
reasonable wearing properties. Examples are carpets, carpet tiles and wood blocks.
High resistance chosen mainly for their wearing and impact resistance properties and
for high usage areas such as kitchens. Examples are quarry tiles and granolithic paving.
Hygiene chosen to provide an impervious easy to clean surface with reasonable
aesthetic appeal. Examples are quarry tiles and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheets and tiles.

72

Important Steps in Constructing a Timber Floor

Steps:
1. A timber joisted floor maybe covered with timber boards, or sheets or strips of
clipboard pr plywood. The majority of timber floor are finished or furnished with salt
wood board between 100mm and 150mm with a thickness of 25mm.
2. The boards are laid at right angles to the joists with two floor brads, of a width of the
brads being 40mm in length than thickness of the boards and the heads of the brads
well punched down below the top of the surface boards.
3. When constructing a timber floor the floor boards are normally joined together in
tongued and grooved joints, although in other expensive work, plain or square boards
can be used.
4. With a timber covered solid floor it is important to pressure impregnate the battens
and to apply a brush coat of preservative as a safe guard to prevent decay.
5. Where it is considered desirable to avoid punch holes for brads, boards may be secret
nailed and by using splay rebated, tongued and grooved joints, to help reduce the risk
of splitting the tongue when nailing. This method of nailing and jointing is really
suited for floor boarding.
6. Floor boards should preferably be rift sawn, when are cut as near radially from log as
near radially from log as practicable on conversation.
7. The edges of floor boards should be kept 13mm away from the surrounding walls to
allow movement and reduce the risk of damp penetration.
8. The gap is closed by skirting at the base of the wall or partition, which also masks the
gap between the button edge of the wall plaster and the floor, provides adequate
resistance to kicks.

73

ROOFS
Definition:
A roof is a unit which covers the top of a building. It serves to protect the structure from
the weather and adds beauty to the design. Roofs are built with wood, concrete or steel
frames that are covered with decking and then a weather resistant roofing material.
Functional Requirements
It should provide adequate weather exclusion
It should be designed to provide the required degree of sound insulation
It should be structurally sound so that maintenance can be done
It should be providing light and ventilation
It must be able to support its own weight, attached fixings, wind loads and imposed loads
It should be thermally insulated
Factors Determining Roof Shape & Design
The shape chosen by architects and engineers depends upon factors such as:
The size of the structure
The design of the structure
Climatic conditions
Cost
Appearance
Roof Classifications
Roofs can be classified as either a Flat roof or a Pitched roof.
A flat roof is one whose angle of slope lies between 0.0. to 10.0.
A Pitched roof has a sloping angle over 10.0.but less than 70.0.
Types of Roofs
Lean-to Roof
This type is not often used on large spans, but more often found as a covering for a rear
or side extension to a larger building. The lean-to varies to suit requirements and the upper end
of the rafter is fixed to a wall piece which can be corbelled or bolted to the wall. The foot of the
rafter is normally birds-mouthed (notched) over a wall plate.

74

Couple Roof
This is a double pitched roof of the simplest kind, consisting of common rafters birdsmouthed over the wall plate and fixed to a ridge board at the apex. In general the birds-mouth
notching should not cut into the rafter any more than one third of the depth of the rafter. The
maximum span for this type of roof is 2.5 m.

Closed Couple Roof

This type is suitable for spans up to 4 m. It is stronger than the couple roof, having a
ceiling joist spanning the wall plates. This new Span member prevents the spread created by the
forces distributed to the wall plates by the rafters, thus making it suitable for the larger span.

Collar Roof
This type of roof is suitable for spans greater than 4 m, but up to a maximum of 5.5 m.
There is no specified position of the collar, but its effectiveness would be reduced considerably if
it was placed any more than half-way between the wall plates and ridge The most common
position used is one third of the height of the rise above the plates. If the collar is halved into the
common rafter with a dovetailed halving, as shown, the full strength of the tie will be achieved.

75

Gable-end Roof
This is a double-pitched roof having two sloping surfaces and which terminates at the end
with a triangular section of block, wood, or brickwork.
Hipped-end Roof
This is a double-pitched roof where the roof slope is returned around the shorter sides of
the building to form a sloping triangular end.

76

Eaves
The portion at the foot of the rafters which overhangs the wall face is called the eaves. It
serves various purposes which include:
1. protection of roof members
2. protection of walls
3. it offers good ventilation
4. it shows attractiveness

77

Types of Ceilings
There are generally two types (suspended and close boarded) of ceilings, which serve the
following purposes:
1. tying together opposite walls and roofs
2. supporting upper floors
3. it offers good insulation
4. it offers aesthetics appearance
Advantages of using Roof Trusses
1. time
2. cost
3. strength
4. materials saving
5. weight reduction
6. quality control
7. ease of prefabrication

Types of roof coverings are:

1. Asphalt
2. Bituminous felt
3. Thatch
4. Plain tiles
5. Interlocking tiles
6. Corrugated sheet metal
7. Slates
8. Wood shingles

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Parts of a Roof

Technical Words for Parts of a Roof

Covering- is the external material that is laid over the roof structure to protect the inside of the
building. Coverings can be: asphalt; bituminous felt; thatch; plain tiles; interlocking tiles;
corrugated sheet metal
Eaves- the bottom end of the roof where it meets the wall
Fall the slope required on flat roofs for water run-off
Fascia a thin timber board that is fixed to the end of rafters or roof joists to support the gutters
Hip the point where two inclined roof surfaces meet over an external angle
Jack rafter a short rafter that spans the hip and eaves or valley and ridge
Pitch the angle formed by the slope of the roof
Purling A purling can be:
1. a horizontal timber that provides support to the rafters
2. a timber member spanning between roof trusses that supports roof sheets
Rafter the timber member that spans from the eaves to the ridge in a pitched roof
Ridge Tile a tile that caps the top of the roof
Ridge a timber at the apex of the roof that takes the tops of the rafters
Soffit the horizontal distance between the supports of structural members such as the rafters
Valley the point where two inclined roof surfaces meet over an internal angle
Verge the edge of a roof that meets a gable wall
Wall plate is the timber member fixed to the top of a wall to secure a flat roof joist or rafter.

79

Truss Types

80

DOORS
A door is a movable barrier that separates internal and external spaces. It is usually attached
to a frame on one side by hinges. As it is, it performs various functions which include:
1. Protection
2. Security
3. Privacy
4. light
5. access/exit
6. ventilation
Types of Doors

Panel Doors
These can be described as one-panel, two-panel three panels etc. up to as many as twelve
panels. Panel doors consist of panels, stiles, top, bottom and middle rails and sometimes
muntins, which are vertical intermediate pieces tenoned to the top, bottom or middle rails.
Panels to doors can be glass, plain plywood, and plain solid timber or raised solid timber.
These doors are suitable for both internal and external use.

The Parts of a Panelled Door

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Flush Doors
Flush doors are very popular, on the account of their plainness, low cost and ease of
construction. A flush door consists of a core of either laminated solid timber or skeleton
framework with a facing of plywood. The strongest type of flush door is the solid core, which is
constructed using strips of timber that are laminated to form a solid board, with a facing of
plywood on both sides.

Ledged, Braced and Batten Doors

This is a very simple door for internal or external use; which is cheap to make.

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Framed, Braced and Batten Doors

This door is stronger than the ledged, braced and battens because the battens are set
inside a timber frame. The framed, braced and battened door consists of these pieces:
- battens that form the surface of the door
- a frame with a head rail, bottom rail and two stiles
- a ledge
- braces

83

Door Ironmongery

84

Door Dimensions

Doors for domestic buildings are usually about 2 metres high. Their width varies.
Type of Doors
External
Internal
Fire-resistant

Thickness (mm)
40-50
40
44

Width (mm)
760-900
680-760
760-900

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WINDOWS
Functions of Windows
Windows on a building provide natural light and ventilation to the interior while excluding
rain and insects. Windows are usually made of steel or timber, but other materials such as
plastics or aluminium are also popular. As such windows serve various functions which are:
(1) Provides lighting and ventilation
(2) Sound reduction
(3) Appearance
(4) External viewing
(5) Emergency exit
(6) Security
Building Regulations for Windows
Windows are usually put together in combinations of openings and fixed lights to comply
with the regulations for health and hygiene in habitable rooms. The standard requirements in
most buildings regulations are usually:
(1) The minimum area of window in a habitable room should be 10 per cent of the floor area.
(2) The minimum opening area of the window in a habitable room should be 5 per cent of the
floor area
Glazing
The glazing is the glass part of the window. Glass is essential to let in daylight, but to
exclude wind and rain.
The thickness of the pane depends on its height, width and the amount of likely wind
pressure. These types of glass are commonly used in small buildings:
1. Clear Glass, which is about 3 to 4 mm thick;
2. Obscure Glass, which is used in private areas such as toilets and bathrooms. It is usually
4mm thick and comes in a variety of patterns;
3. Special Glass, which is used in internal or external doors that require stronger safety glass
There are two main types of special glass:
1. Wired Glass, which can be clear or obscure. It is about 6 mm thick and is reinforced with
wire;
2. Toughened Glass, which is manufactured to a specific size and cannot be cut. When this
glass breaks it shatters into harmless pieces. Car windshields are made from toughened
glass.
Technical Terms for parts of a window and frame:
Bottom rail the bottom member of a sash or light
Head the top piece of a window, which is fixed to the underside of the masonry
Casement a side-hung opening window
Sill the bottom piece of a window, which is fixed to the bottom of the opening
Jamb the vertical sidepiece fixed to the surface of the window opening
Mullin a fixed vertical piece in the window framework, which separates the fixed and moving
parts
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Opening light another word for sash

Sash the whole moving part of a window including the glass
Stile the side member of the sash
Top rail the top member of the sash
Transom the fixed horizontal piece that separates the fixed and moving parts of the window
Ventilator a small sash, which is often top-hung to provide secure ventilation
Types of Windows
Awning An awning window unit has a frame with one or more sash which swings outward at
the bottom. This window can keep rain out even if this is open. Awning windows usually come
with weather stripping and storm sash and screens.
Hopper This type of window has a sash that swings inward at the top. This window can keep
the rain out even if they are open.
Sash Sash windows are those in which the sashes slide up and down and they are normally
consist of two sashes, placed one above. Where both sashes open they are termed as double-hung
sash windows.
Casement With wood casement windows, a solid frame is fixed to the edges of the opening
and this receives the glazed casements which may be side hung, top hung or bottom hung. Small
top or bottom hung casements are used for controlled ventilation, whereas the larger side hung
casement can be opened for greater ventilation in warmer weather. Side hung casement can
create a safety hazard with young children and where above ground level is very difficult to
clean.

Figure Showing a Typical Wood Casement Window Assembly

Pivot These are windows that are hung at the top and side by hinges, and the sashes are pivoted
in their frames.
Louvre - This is individual pieces of glass held in clips and opened by a lever arm, which locks
the louver in position.

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1. side-hung casement window

2. side light
3. top light
4. sliding folding window
5. top-hung casement window, awning window
6. bottom-hung casement window, hopper window
7. horizontal pivot window
8. vertical pivot window
9. top-hung sliding window
10. vertical sliding sash window
11. horizontal sliding window
12. louvered window
13. centre hinge, centre pivot hinge
WINDOW IRONMONGERY
88

89

STAIRS
Buildings have stairs so that people can:
(1) Gain access from one floor to another
(2) A way to make emergency escape
(3) Decorative purposes
(4) Means of transportation of goods from one floor to another
(5) Join two or more floors together
Some common terms associated with Stairs
Rise - The vertical distance between the top of adjacent treads
Tread - The horizontal surface of a step where you place your feet
Stringer/String - A structural member that supports the tread and riser
Going/Run - The horizontal distance between the nosing of the adjacent treads
Step - A combination of treads and risers
Flight - A series of steps between floors
Handrail - A rail fixed in a position to give assistance to the user of the stair, which is
either fixed a wall or supported by a Balustrade
Balustrade - The protection erected on the other edge of the staircase to prevent anything falling
off the edge
Baluster - Rails between the hand rail and the string
Stair well/case - The opening in which stairs to be constructed
Newel- The post at the end of a flight of stairs to which the stringers and handrail are fixed,
usually 100 x 100m
Building Regulations regarding Stairs
(1) Maximum pitch must be 42
(2) Going of any step must not be less than 220mm
(3) The rise of any step must not be more than 220mm
(4) For any flier the sum of going plus twice the rise must not exceed 700mm or less than
500mm (2 riser + going = 500mm
(5) Headroom must not be less than 2m above the pitch line vertically
(6) Any stairway less than 1m wide should have one handrail or two handrails more than 1m
wide
(7) Handrails should not be less than 840mm vertical height on the pitch line and not less
than 900mm above the landing
Given a stair to construct, distance from the finished lower to the finished upper floor is the total
rise.
The ceiling height is 3m and floor thickness is 150mm.
The total rise is the sum of ceiling height and floor thickness which is 3.0m + 150mm = 3.150m
assuming that the total going is 3.60m.

90

Calculate the tread and riser:

Total rise
Rise = Number of risers (an ideal height for a riser is 187mm) an formula used is
(2 risers + going) = 550mm 700mm
Divide the total rise 3.150m by 187mm = 16.3 risers or 17 risers
Each rise = 3.150 = 185mm
17
Total going
Going = Number of treads (number of treads is always one less than the number of
Going =3.60m = 225mm
16
Therefore 2 risers + Going = 550mm 700mm
(2 x 185mm) + 225mm =
595mm = 550mm 700mm

91

risers)

FINISHES
Rendering
External rendering is the process of applying a cement and sand plaster coat to the
outside walls of a building.
You render to:
(1) to improve the appearance of concrete block walls;
(2) provide a waterproof finish to porous blocks
(3) Provide a base for a colour finish.
Smooth render is a cement and lime mixed with sand and a 1:2:9 mixture. It is put on as a
finishing coat and trowelled to a smooth finish. If an undercoat is needed, then the proportions
should be reduced to 1:1:5. This is the least satisfactory finish because the trowelling can bring
too much cement to the surface, which causes cracks.
Roughcast render is a top coat of cement, lime and sand in a 1:2:9 mix over a 1:3 cement and
sand backing coat. While the top coat is soft, you throw 6-13mm cement-coated aggregate into it.
Scraped render is a 1:1:6 or 1:2:9 mix of cement, lime and sand. You scrape the top 2mm off
with a saw blade just before it hardens to remove the smooth skin.
Pebbledash render is a final coat in a 1:1:6 cement, lime and sand render with 6-12 mm pebbles
lightly pressed into it so that the aggregate is exposed.
Tyrolean (popcorn) render is produced by a machine that throws a 1:3 cement and mixture onto
the wall for a deeply textured finish. The cement can be coloured to produce a permanent
coloured finish. The background can be rendered or the Tyrolean render can be applied directly
to a raw wall and built up in layers.
Plastering
The term plastering means the application of a smooth coat of material to walls and
ceilings. The purpose of plastering is to provide a joint less, hygienic, and easily decorated
smooth finish to walls. Plaster is mixed with water to make a plastic mixture, which can be
spread directly on a surface in a thin 10mm layer. The surface absorbs the water in the mix by a
process called suction. The suction process stiffens the plaster rapidly so that you can level it
while it hardens and sets. When the plaster dries it leaves a hard, smooth finish for decoration.
The type of concrete that you might plaster would be the soffit of a floor slab. The concrete may
be quite smooth from the concrete was poured. To prepare concrete, you need to wash off all
traces of oil and hack the surface to provide enough key for the plaster. You may apply one, two
or three coats of plaster to achieve a smooth finish. Generally, you need to apply two coats
unless you using plasterboards, which need only one. Three coats are only used if the surface is
extremely uneven. The first coat in a three-coat finish, called a screed coat, is applied to level the
surface and to ensure that the plaster is the correct thickness.

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How to plaster a wall

(1) put mounds of cement and sand mortar across the wall in columns of three about
1200mm apart, smooth the mounds to a thickness of 10mm and leave them to hard.
(2) Apply 75mm vertical strips of plaster over the mounds and leave them to set
(3) Mix the plaster by hand or with a small mixer.
(4) Apply a rough plaster coat to the wall between the screeds by putting it on with an
upward sweeping movement.
(5) Move the screed board from the bottom to the top of the wall in a sawing motion to
smooth and level the plaster
(6) Scratch the first coat before it sets to provide a key for the second coat and leave to dry.
(7) Apply a finish coat of 2mm neat plaster with a steel float to produce a thick, smooth
finish.
Types of paints
The main types of paint are: gloss, undercoats for gloss, primers and water-thinned.
Gloss paints are based on resins produced in laboratories which have improved the quality of
gloss paints the two main types of gloss paints are paints thinned with white spirit and paints
thinned with water. White spirit is turpentine which is used to dilute gloss paint and to clean
brushes and paints spills. The gloss paints that are thinned with water are easier to use and clean
up after.
Undercoats for gloss paints are modified gloss paints that dry with flat finishes. This makes it
easier to rub them down and improves the adhesion of the gloss coat. Undercoat also fill in the
colour over the primer and consolidate the final colour.
Primers are applied to seal unpainted metal and wood surfaces, typical wood primers are: pink
primer, aluminium wood primer, acrylic primers.
Metal primers are calcium plumbate, zinc chromate.
Water-based (acrylic) these are less durable than gloss paints, but they are also easier to apply.
Because they dont seal surfaces, you can use these paints on new plaster. Water-thinned paints
have the primer, undercoat and finish in the same container. Two types of water-thinned paints
are: lime washes and emulsions.
Varnish is a transparent solution that solidifies into a protective coating. Opaque and coloured
varnishes are called lacquers.

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Properties of Paints and Varnishes

Paint
The properties of paint are: a pigment, a binder and a solvent or thinner to make the
mixture suitable for application. Paint pigment is a fine powder that either strongly scatters light,
to yield a white effect, or absorbs certain wavelengths of light, producing a coloured effect.
After application, the paint undergoes changes which convert it from a fluid to a tough film
which binds the pigment. The nature of these changes varies with different types of paint. Some
such as size- bound distemper and chlorinated rubber paint lose the thinner by evaporation. With
most paints containing drying oils, part of the change on drying results reaction of the oil with
oxygen from the air. In emulsion paints and oil-bound distempers, the binding material is
emulsified or dispersed as fine globules in an aqueous liquid. After application the water
evaporates and the globules coalesce to form a tough, water resistant film.
Varnishes
Varnishes are transparent solutions produced by heating a drying oil, resin, drier, and
solvent together. If applied as a thin film, varnish gives a hard transparent coating upon
evaporation, oxidation, and polymerization of the solvent. The numerous variations in
composition and preparation of varnish make its classification difficult. The so-called spirit
varnish, for example, is a resin dissolved in a volatile solvent that contains no drying oil, and
asphalt varnish is a solution of asphalt and a solvent that gives opaque, black coatings. Opaque
and coloured varnishes are called lacquers.
Stains
A stain is a chemical dye or pigment used to color glass, paper, textiles, or wood. The
staining substance, which uses alcohol, oil, or water as a vehicle, is transparent and thinner than
paint or coating, and it penetrates into the grain of material being dyed.
Methods of Application
Paints
Paints are applied to:
- Masonry by roller, air brush, hand brush or spray.
- Metal by roller, air brush, hand brush or spray.
- Wood surfaces by air brush, hand brush, roller or spray.
Varnishes
Varnishes are applied to:
- Wood surfaces by roller, air brush, spray or by hand brush.
Stains
Stains are applied to:
- Wood surfaces by airbrush, hand brush, spray or roller.
Brushes and rollers are used in many different sizes according to convenience.

The Purpose of Solvents

Solvents

94

The purpose of solvents is to dry paint when applied by causing it to evaporate, oxidize
or polymerize.
Laying tiles on concrete sub-floors
Tiles are made from a variety of materials and laid on sub-floor in individual units to
form a complete covering. They are laid on an adhesive or mortar bed, depending on the tile
material. Some tiles are having wide joints, which are filled separately, while others are filled so
tightly that no joint filling is needed.
PVC Tiles
PVC tiles have precise measurements (300 300 3 mm). They must be laid on a
perfectly smooth screed because they are so thin and fixed with adhesive. However, they can be
fitted so closely that they do not have a gap in the joints.
PVC tiles are usually:
Resistant to grease and oil;
Waterproof;
Durable.
Although they come in a wide range of colours and texture, PVC tiles are one of the cheapest
floor finishes you can buy and lay. They are maintained by applying a surface coating of wax
and then washing with soapy water.
Quarry and Ceramic Tiles
Ceramic tiles are clay tiles with a hard semi-glazed finish. They are usually measure
about 150 150 mm or 100 100 mm and are 15-20 mm thick. Since they are fired in a kiln they
are not shaped as precisely as PVC tiles, so they have a 3-mm joint between the tiles.
Quarry are made of natural stone and cut from the slabs in quarries. These tiles are
bedded in mortar so a levelling screed is not necessary. The level of the finish floor is determined
by battens, which are the thickness of the tile, fixed temporarily to the floor and levelled. The
bedding should be a 1:10 mix of cement and sand mortar. You spread the mortar on the concrete
and the bed the tiles level to the battens. The joints should be grouted with 1:1 sanded grout.
Finishes on Timber Floor
It is usually not practical to lay any cement-based finishes on timber floor. Because
timber moves and flexes, it is liable to cause crack in the floor finish. The added weight of a
cement-based finish would also mean that the floor construction would have a heavier and
stronger.
The finishes that can be laid on timber floors are:
1. PVC tiles, which can be laid on the flooring as long as the boards are flush at the joints. It is
safer to lay a 3-mm hardboard cover over standard 100-mm strip flooring to avoid the joints
showing through;
2. Carpet, which can be from a wide range of qualities and styles. And underlay will protect the
carpet and extend its lifespan. You can lay carpet loosely as squares and rectangles, fit it from
wall to wall in seamless areas or lay carpet tiles on adhesive back.

95

Types of Tiles
Square tiles are the most popular. They come in three varieties to suit the expose ends of
the tile runs. The basic tile, which is glazed on the surface only, has unglazed edges. The surface
of the basic tile can be:
1. Slightly rounded near the edges. This is a cushion-edges tile;
2. rounded on one edge;
3. Rounded on the two edges.
Tiling Techniques
To produce good tiling you need to know how to:
1. level;
2. cut tiles;
3. set out and measure;
4. Grout joints.
Glass Blocks
Glass blocks are very thick blocks of glass made with metal reinforces between them.
Glass blocks have been in use since the early 1900- they timeless projects that can be used in any
type of architecture.
Glass blocks are usually used as walls, windows, or floors. Imaginative new design
elements make for new more exciting looks for building projects. They also require very little
maintenance.
Glass blocks are one of the sound insulating materials. Compare with windows made from other
materials, glass block windows have a much better heat insulation making it somewhat fire
proof. The heat insulation plays a role in avoiding frosting in the winter

96

RELATED SERVICES
The Principles of Plumbing Pipes
The principles of plumbing pipes are:

Types
Size
Materials
Methods of Joining
Fittings

Types
Drainpipes can be made from a variety of materials. Your choice of drain pipe will
depend on availability, price and suitability for the purpose. This list describes some of the most
common materials for drainpipes:
1. Vitrified Clay, which is clay that was fired at a very high temperature to make it
waterproof;
2. Cast Iron, which is a very hard metal alloy. This material is quite expensive and is
normally only used for commercial buildings.
3. Concrete, which is cast using the methods of production used for concrete.
4. Pitch Fibre, which is made from pitch fibres or waste fibres and bitumen or pitch;
5. Plastic, commonly known as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This is a popular material
because it comes in long lengths, is light and makes joints easily.
Size
Common sizes are 50 mm for wash basins and WC flushing, cisterns and 50 mm for
multiple sinks and baths. A minimum 100 mm drain is usually adequate for a domestic plot.
About 20 small houses can be connected to a 100 mm drain because only one or two will
discharge water at the same time. If required, then a larger pipe one with a 150mm diameter is
available.
Materials
UPVC is the most popular material because it does not need decoration, it is light weight
and easy to fix. It does not rot or corrode. However this material is easily damaged and is not
suitable for areas where it could be hit by moving vehicles. Fibre cement is a durable and heavier
material than the plastic and requires more joints and supports.
A variety of materials is available for water supply pipes, of which probably the most
popular is light gauge copper tube, largely on account of its durability, flexibility, smooth bore,
neat appearance and ease of jointing. Polythene pipes are rather soft, not completely resistant to
ground gases, need ample support and cannot be used for grounding electrical instillations.
Polythene pipes are flexible and their smooth bore speed water flow and prevents the formation
of scale. Lead pipes are now little used on the account of their high cost, weight and suitability
with soft or acid water and their use in new dwellings is not permitted. Mild steel pipes are
relatively strong and inexpensive, and are made in three categories- light, medium and heavy.
Methods of Jointing and Fittings

97

Methods of joining chosen depend on whether you are using:

Rigid Pipes with Rigid Joints
Rigid pipes made from clay, concrete or cast iron need rigid joints with sockets that are
wide enough to insert pipes with straight ends, called spigots. There should be enough space
around the jointing material.
Rigid pipes with Flexible Joints
Recent developments in pipe technology have made it possible to use rigid pipes with
joints that allow some flexibility. This is useful because rigid joints may crack with slight
movement. Two types of flexible joints are:
1. Spigot and socket combinations
2. Polypropylene sleeves.
These combinations can be used to make to make flexible joints for concrete pipes.
Flexible pipes with Flexible Joints
Flexible pipes distort under loads. This distortion should be limited to 5 per cent of the
pipes diameter to maintain the flow of water. Similarly, the flexibility of the joint should only
take up slight movement so that the pipe maintains the correct falls. You can join pitch fibre
pipes with polypropylene sleeves with gaskets or by tapering the ends of the pipe and driving
them into collars. PVC pipes are made with socket and spigot ends. They can be joined by using
a solvent weld the pipes together so that one pipe sits slightly inside the other or by inserting
rubber rings into the grooves of the sockets and spigots.
- The most common form of joining mild steel pipes is screwed and socket.
- In plastics compression is probably the best method of jointing.
- Soldered joints are normally used in lead pipes.
In the house the main sanitary fittings are:
- WC;
- Bath;
- Sink;
- Basin:
- Shower.
They should be made of materials that are easy to clean, durable and water proof.
The Principles of Roof Drainage and Disposal are:

Pitch/Slope
Gutters
Down pipes
Soak away

98

Pitch/Slope
The pitch or slope is the angle of the slope of the roof measured from the horizontal. A
steeper pitch needs more roof-covering material, which increases the weight to be supported. The
surface is affected by wind so therefore the roof needs to be strong enough to allow for the
factors.
Gutters
A gutter is a channel fixed to the long edge of a roof. The bracket on fixings on the fascia
should be at 900mm intervals. A gutter will have an outlet which is a spout that points down to
connect with a rain water pipe. In most domestic buildings, one outlet is usually enough to take
the rainwater during normal wet weather. The distribution of water along the length of the gutter
pushes it naturally towards the outlet. Any residue of water usually evaporates.
Gutters are available in various lengths and are made from various materials such as:
- Cast Iron
- Asbestos and cement
- PVC-U
- Pressed steel galvanize
- Aluminium
- Wrought copper and wrought zinc
Down pipes
Down pipes convey rain water from roof gutters to underground drains, often through a
back entry water gully at ground level. When used with projecting eaves they generally require a
swan-neck consisting of a fitting with two bends to negotiate the soffit. Flat roofs parapet gutters
may discharge into may discharge into rain water heads at the top of down pipes.
There are various materials which down pipes are made form such as:
- Cast iron spigot and socket down pipes
- Asbestos cement spigot and socket down pipes
- PVC-U down pipes
- Pressed steel galvanized light gauge down pipes
- Aluminium down pipes
- Wrought copper and wrought zinc down pipes.
Wire balloons of galvanized steel, aluminium or copper should be inserted in gutter outlets to
prevent blockages occurring down pipes.
The Combine System of Drainage
This is a system whereby foul water from sanitary appliances and surface water from
roofs and paved areas discharge through a single drain to the same combined sewer. This
simplifies and cheapens the house drainage system, ensuring that the drains are well flushed in
time of storm so that the house drain cannot be connected to the wrong sewer. On the other hand
silting may occur in large pipes and it may entail storm overflows on sewers and high cost of
pumping and sewage treatment. Building regulations describe foul water as waste water which
comprises or includes;
The Separate System of Drainage
A separate drainage system is one in which foul wastes pass through one set of drains to a
foul sewer, whereas surface water is conveyed to a separate surface sewer or soak- away. This
99

arrangement reduces pumping and sewage treatment costs to the main drainage authority but
result in additional expense in the house drainage system, eliminates the flushing action of the
surface water in foul drains and permits the possibility of an incorrect connection.
The Principles of Drain Runs
Methods of sewage disposal
Building regulations requires any cesspool, septic tank or settlement tank to be:
a) of adequate capacity and so constructed that it is impermeable to liquids;
b) adequately ventilated; and
c) so sited and constructed that it is not prejudicial to the health of any person,
it will not contaminate any underground water or water supply, and
There are adequate means of access for emptying.
Cesspool
A cesspool is an underground chamber constructed for the reception and storage of foul
water from the building until it is emptied. It is a requirement that cesspools should be
constructed so as to prevent leakage of its contents and ingress of subsoil water. Adequate
ventilation, is sited so as not to prejudicial to health nor to contaminate water supplies, as well as
permit satisfactory access from emptying and have a minimum capacity below the level of invert
of 1800 litres (18m3). Cesspools if they are to be emptied using a tanker, should be sited within a
30m of a vehicle access and at such levels that they can be emptied and cleaned without hazard
to the building occupants or the contents being taken through a dwelling or place of work. When
sitting a cesspool attention should be paid to the slope of the ground, direction of the prevailing
wind, access for emptying and possibility of future connection to a sewer. It should be sited a
minimum of 15m away from any inhabited building. Cesspools should only be used when no
alternatives are available.

Septic Tank
A septic tank is a brick- lined tank set into the ground, which receives the discharges
from a building. After treatment from natural processes, the discharge leaves the septic tank and
filters into the soil. If a house does not have a pipe system for removing waste, a septic tank can
be installed. Depending on the size, septic tanks can serve one plot or a small community. The
smallest septic tank should have a capacity of at least 3000 litres or 3m3. A two metre deep tank
which is 2 x 2 x 1m has an internal volume of 4m 3or 4000 litres. A septic tank works by using
anaerobic bacteria, which do not need oxygen, to break down solid sewage into liquid and
sludge. Raw sewage enters one end and emerges as liquid effluent at the other end. A drain
takes the liquid to a soak-away where it filters into the soil. Inside the tank, gases cause the
solids to liquefy and break up. After the solid settles as sludge, then anaerobic bacteria breaks it
100

down until it forms scum on the surface, which at six month intervals should be pumped out.
The residue in the tank starts the bacterial action again.
The location of a septic tank depends on these principles:
Access for pumping it out; it must be convenient.
It should be at least 3 m from a building.
It should be down wind
The effluent should not discharge into water supplies or streams.

Soak away (soak pit)

A soak-away is a rubble filled pit in the ground which absorbs water quickly and if
rainwater flowed off the roof of a building in an uncontrolled way, then it could flood the
building and inconvenience the occupants. Water can also flow off of shallow eaves and find its
way into a building through walls and windows. For these reasons, it is better to collect water at
eaves in a gutter and direct it down to the ground in a rain water pipe. The rainwater can then
drain away underground and discharge into the soak away.

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SOAK AWAY

Absorption Pits- An absorption pit is a critical component of the system and refers to the area in
which the water from the septic tank flows through.
A chemical Chamber- This chamber function is to detoxify the sludge sediment and make it
environmentally safe. This sludge may be neutralized for safe land application, and the metals
can be recovered from the water using existing conventional dewatering techniques separating
the detoxified, acidic sludge and the acidic, heavy metal containing water.
Disposal Fields- It is from here that the sewage after been collected to the septic tank the liquid
portion of it is then dispersed naturally into the surrounding area via underground.

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THE BUILDING TEAM AND BUILDING TRADES

The Building Team
Building is essentially a team effort in which member has an important role to play.

Building Owner/the Client; is the person who commissions the work and directly or indirectly
employs everybody.
Architect; is someone who is employed by the owner to draw and design the building.
Clerks of works; Employed on large contracts as the architect onsite representative. He can
only offer advice. He makes sure that the contractor builds the building correctly and safely.
Quantity Surveyor; prepares a bill of quantity for building projects so the contractor can
accurately price the work.
Engineers; make sure that the buildings are structurally stable. The engineer calculates the
weight of the construction materials, the weight of the people and equipment who will occupy
the house and the maximum pressure on the building.
Site Agent; is the contractors representative on large contracts. He also manages the site on a
day to day basis.
Contractor; employed by the building owner to build the building according to the design
drawings, specifications and quantities.

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Surveyor; lays out the shape of the building on the ground before construction starts. The
surveyor also checks the ground level.
Estimator- works out the cost of construction, the proposed buildings shown on the drawing.
Buyer; order materials, obtains quotations for the supply pf materials and services.
Accountant; prepares and submits account to clients and make payments to supplies and subcontractors.
Administrator - organises the general clerical duties of the contractors office for the payments
of wages, insurances and all necessary correspondence.
Contracts manager - has overall responsibility for the site operations.
General foreman; employed on small contracts. This individual should have extensive
knowledge of all aspects of building construction. He should know how to organise the
materials, workers and schedules.
Trades foreman; is experienced at specific trades such as brick work, carpentry or plumbing.
They organize and control their workers in their own trade.
Operatives: the main work force onsite, including tradesmen, apprentices and labourers.
Various Building Trades
Carpentry (Carpenter) installs doors, construct roofs, and construct formwork.
Electrical Wiring (Electrician) installs electrical fixtures, carries out wiring work.
Masonry/Tiling (Mason/Tradesman) works with concrete and mortar. Lays tiles, builds stone
walls.
Painting (Painter) responsible for finishing the building by applying paint
- Finish Joinery Fitments with various types of finishes. eg. Varnish, stains etc.
Plumbing (Plumber) lays pipes, installs taps, installs toilet bowls etc.

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HISTORY OF BUILDINGS
Factors Influencing Building Designs
History History of site: flood prone, landslide, built up and previous use.
Material choice and availability of material
Culture would have an influence on the shape and style of the structure
Climate wet, cold, windy would determine where windows or balcony are placed in a building
Cost would determine affordability
Influence of Other Culture on Local Building Styles
British
- Bricks
- Arches
- MDF
- Steep Roof
- Dormers
- Casement Windows
- Architraves
American
- High rise building
- Dry wall
- Steel frame building
- Split-level building with separate roofs for each
- Panel construction

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