6 SOURCES OF VIBRATIONS IN ROLLING BEARINGS

6.1. BEARING CHARACTERISTIC FREQUENCIES

6.1.1 Kinematics of rolling bearings for low speed applications
In a first evaluation, in a rolling bearing, mounted on a rotating shaft and a
rotating housing, exist:
-

the inner ring rotation at angular speed of the shaft, ;

the outer ring rotation at angular speed of the housing, ;
the rolling elements orbital movement around the bearing axis, at the cage
angular speed, ;
the rolling elements rotation around their own axes with a particular
angular speed, .

Fig.6.1 Basic angular speeds in a rolling bearing

When a load occurs between a rolling element and raceway, a contact surface
is formed. When the rolling element rotates relative to the deformed surface, the
simple rolling motion does not occur; rather, a combination o rolling and sliding
motions occur. Hence, a system of complex equations needs to be developed to
calculate the rolling element speeds. Also, for angular-contact bearings, if the
rolling motion does not occur on a line exactly parallel to the raceway, a parasitic
motion called spinning occurs. Such a motion is pure sliding contributing

significantly to bearing friction power loss. Finally, motions between roller ends and
ring flanges in roller bearings are also pure sliding and can result in substantial
power loss. In most applications, particularly those operating at relatively slow
shaft or outer-ring speeds, these internal speeds can be calculated with sufficient
accuracy using simple kinematical relationships; that is, the balls or rollers are
assumed to roll on the raceways without sliding.
In the case of slow-speed rotation or an applied load of large magnitude, rolling
bearings can be analyzed while neglecting dynamic effects. As a general case,
it will be assumed that both inner and outer rings rotate with non-zero angular
speeds: e or the outer ring, and i for the inner ring. It will be further assumed
that a common contact angle exists on both raceways.
Conditions of pure rolling motions of the ball on both outer raceway, (point E),
and inner raceway, (point I), provide the equations to obtain the angular speeds:
the angular speeds of the cage,
the angular speed of the ball.

Fig. 6.2 Low speed kinematics of an angular contact ball bearing

cos
,

= (1 + ),
= (1 )
[Point ] ( )
[Point ] ( )

(1 + ) =
2
2

(1 ) =
2
2

(1 + ) + (1 )
2

( )(1 2 )
2

If only inner ring rotates:

(1 )
2

(1 2 )
2

6.1.2 Bearing characteristic frequencies

We consider the following notations:
= inner ring rotational frequency;
= outer ring rotational frequency, ( = 0)

 = rolling element spin frequency

= fundamental train (cage) frequency relative to outer ring
= fundamental train (cage) frequency relative to inner ring
=rolling element pass frequency of outer ring
=rolling element pass frequency of inner ring
For stationary outer ring and rotating inner ring, the fundamental frequencies are
derived from the bearing geometry and kinematics.

(1
cos )
2

(1 +
cos )
2

=
=
w =

[1 2 ]
2

A single defect on a ball or roller would contact both raceways in one ball or roller
revolution so that the defect frequency is 2w . In addition, the defect could
contact one or both sides of the cage pocket, but this will have little influence on
vibration measured external to the bearing.
The presented equations assume the rolling elements roll over the raceways
surfaces and no sliding is present. However in practice this is rarely the case and
due to a number of factors the rolling elements undergo a combination of rolling
and sliding. As a consequence, the actual characteristic defect frequency may
differ slightly from those predicted, but this is very dependent on the type of
bearing, operating conditions and running internal clearance. This sliding can be

taken into account by multiplying the theoretical frequencies with a sliding factor
e that usually takes value between 0.9 and 1.0.
Generally the bearing characteristic frequencies will not be integer multiples of
the inner ring rotational frequency. That notice helps to distinguish the bearing
characteristic frequencies from other sources of vibration.
Since most vibration frequencies are proportional to speed it is important when
comparing vibration signatures that data are obtained at identical speeds.
Speed changes will cause shifts in the frequency spectrum causing inaccuracies
in both the amplitude and frequency measurement.
The rolling element pass frequency divided by the shaft rotational frequency is
called the bearing speed ratio. The actual value of the bearing speed ratio is a
function of the bearing loads, internal clearance, condition of lubrication.
If the bearing speed ratio is below predicted values it may indicate insufficient
loading, excessive lubrication or insufficient radial internal clearance, which
could result in increased friction generating higher operating temperature and
premature failure.
A higher than predicted bearing speed ratio may indicate excessive loading,
excessive internal clearance or insufficient lubrication.
Rolling bearings are a mechanical system whose parts rolling elements, inner and
outer rings, and cage interact to generate complex vibration signatures. Like any
other manufactured part rolling bearings have degrees of imperfections and
generate vibration as the surfaces interact during the rolling motion. Nowadays,
also the amplitudes of the surface imperfections are in the order of nanometers,
significant vibrations can still be produced in the entire audible frequency range
( 20 Hz 20 kHz). If a defect was present on the active raceways a more or less
significant change in the vibration pattern of the particular bearing is detected.
A number of harmonics and sum and difference frequencies are also evident in
the spectrum.
In the following the main sources of rolling bearing vibration are discussed with a
special attention on vibration induced by bearing failures.

6.2 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND VARIABLE COMPLIANCE

Under the applied load the concentrated contacts implied in a rolling bearing
manifest local deflection, and consequently the rolling bearing manifests like a
non-linear spring. Figure 6.3. However for each particular operating conditions a
bearing spring constant may be determined by taking the slope of the forcedeflection curve.

Fig. 6.3 The load-deflection relationship in a radial rolling bearing

Rolling bearing present a hardening non-linear characteristic that means the
stiffness increases with increasing load or built-in preload, and consequently
increased bearing stiffness raises the value of resonant frequency associated with
this spring. The radial stiffness decreases with increasing contact angle, whereas
the axial stiffness decreases.
Variable compliance
Rolling bearings carry loads with a finite number of rolling elements whose angular
positions, with respect to the line of action of the load, continually changes in
time, Figure 6.4. This mere change of position causes the inner and outer raceways
to undergo periodic relative motion..

Fig. 6.4 Bearing model for variable compliance

The greater the number of loaded elements less the movement. For radially
loaded or misaligned bearings running clearance determines the extent of the
loaded zone, and hence variable compliance increases with clearance
The movement is periodic with base frequency equal to the rate at which the
rolling elements pass through the load zone. The non-linear character of the
deflection-load relationship determines a non-sinusoidal character of vibrations
derived from variable compliance so that the frequency analysis of the
movement yields the base frequency and a series of harmonics. These kind of
vibrations are an inherent feature of rolling bearings, even the bearing is
geometrically perfect, but do not indicate a poor quality, and explain why
bearing failure detection is best performed by monitoring frequencies other than
the fundamental bearing frequencies.
Variable compliance levels can be higher than those produce by roughness and
waviness of the rolling surfaces. It can be reduced to a negligible level by using
rolling bearings with a sufficiently high axial pre-load.

6.3 GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS AS SOURCE OF VIBRATION

It is convenient to consider geometrical imperfections in terms of wavelength
compared to the width of the contact area achieved between the most loaded
rolling element and raceway:
- surface features of wavelength of the order of the contact width or less
are termed roughness,
- surface features of wavelength longer than the contact width are termed
waviness, (Figure 6.5).

Fig. 6.5 Waviness and roughness of rolling surfaces versus width of the contact
area and thickness of lubricating film.

6.3.1 Surface roughness as source of vibration.

When the roughness heights are high comparing with the thickness of the
lubricating film, Figure 6.5, the asperities of contacting surfaces interact randomly
resulting a random sequence of small impulses which excite all the natural modes
of bearing and supporting structures.
Surface roughness induces vibration predominantly at frequency above sixty
times the rotation frequency of the bearing, that means that the high frequency
part of the frequency spectrum represent a series of resonances.
Local film variation as a function of local surface roughness is usually
characterized by so called lambda parameter and defined as the ratio of the
minimum film thickness h0 to the composite roughness of two surfaces in contact:

0
12 + 22

where 1 , 2 are RMS surface roughness of the raceway and rolling element,
respectively.
To evaluate the effect of ratio on film thickness and lubrication quality of
common rolling bearings, the diagram presented in Figure 6.6 is largely used.

Fig. 6.6 Percent film versus lubrication parameterer ratio

Evaluation of the roughness values for a particular EHD lubrication regime

The simulation has been performed in the following general conditions:
-

an EHD regime with the minimum film thickness:

0 = 0.3 ;
-

the roughness of the rolling element has been considered to be finer than
that of the contacting raceway: 2 =

3 1

The lambda ratio becomes:

0
12 + 22

0
,
1.29 1

1 = 0.23

Further,

admitting

that

= 1.25 ,

Minimum

results:

= .

Lubrication parameter

EHD Film

0.2

0.1

0.06

0.04

Thickness

6.3.2 Waviness as source of vibration.

Waviness can occur in the machining process. A ring type element is compresses
at the points of contact in the chuck , three jaw or five jaw, causing stresses in the
ring. The ring is turned or ground perfectly circular; however when it is discharged
from the chuck, the stresses are released and the ring becomes lobed. The
number of lobes per circumference is called waviness. Careful attention is
required to the form and precision of all associated bearing components.Any
geometric errors on the outside diameter of the shaft or bore of the housing can
be reflected on the bearing raceways leading to the increase in vibration level.
Waviness produces vibration that are usually predominant at frequencies below
sixty times rotational frequency, but can induce vibration at frequencies up to
three hundred times the rotational frequency.

6.4 DISCRETE DEFECTS AS SOURCE OF VIBRATION.

Discrete defects can take a variety of forms: identations, scratches along and
across the roling surfaces, pits, debris and particle in the lubricant.
Bearing manufacturers have adopted simple vibration measurements on the
finished product to detect such defects. However this type of measurement
provides vibration data which are valid for that type and size of bearing.
A number of harmonics and sum and difference frequencies are also evident in
the spectrum.
Rolling element pass frequency can be generated as:

a result of elastic proprieties of the raceway material due to variable

compliance , or as
the rolling element pass over a defect on the raceway.

The frequency generated at the inner and outer ring raceway can be estimated
roughly as:

= 0.6 and
= 0.4 , respectively.
Imperfections on the surface of raceways and rolling elements, as a result of the
manufacturing elements, interact to induce other discrete frequencies and
sidebands, Table 1.
Table 1. Frequencies related to surface imperfections
Surface defect
Component

Imperfection

Inner raceway

Excentricity
Waviness

Frequency

Discrete defect
Outer raceway

Waviness
Discrete defect

Rolling element

Diameter variation

Waviness

Discrete defect

Bearing vibration signal is usually complex and the frequencies generated will
add and subtract and are present in bearing vibratrion spectra. Over the years a
number of diagnostic algorithms have been developed to detect bearings faults
by measuring the vibration signatures on the bearing housing. These methods
take advantage of both the characteristics frequencies and the natural
frequencies of the bearing.

6.4.1Discrete fault on outer raceway

A discrete fault on outer raceway will generate a series of high pulses at a rate
equal to the ball pass frequency relative to the outer ring. Usually the outer ring is
stationary and the amplitude of the pulse will remain theoretically the same and
will appear as a single discrete peak within the frequency domain6.4.2 Discrete defect on the inner raceway
A discrete defect on the inner raceway will generate a series of high pulses at a
rate equal to the ball frequency relativ to the inner raceway. Because the inner
ring is rotating, the defect will enter and leave the load zone causing a variation

in the roling element-raceway contact force, hence deflections. While in the load
zone the amplitudes of the pulses will be highest but then reduce as the defect
leaves the zone, resulting in a signal which is amplitude modulated. In the
frequency domain this not only gives rise to a discrete peak at the carrier
frequency (ball pass frequency) but also creates a pair of sidebands spaced
either side of the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the modulating
frequency (inner ring rotational frequency), Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8.

Fig. 6.7 Amplitude modulation

Notes about the side bands evolution:

I.
II.

as the level of the amplitude modulation increases so will the sidebands;

as the defect increases in size more sidebands are generated and at some
point the ball pass frequency may no longer be generated, but instead a
series of peaks will be generated spread at the inner ring rotational
frequency.
Although defects on the inner and outer raceways tend to behave in a similar
manner, for the same size defect the amplitude of the spectrum of an inner
raceway defect is much less. This is because a defect on the inner raceway
comes into the loaded zone once per revolution and the generated signal has
to travel through more structural interfaces before reaching the transducer

location. Consequently a foult on the outer raceway tends to be easier to

detect.
Likewise the rolling element pass frequency can also be modulated at the
fundamental train frequency. If a rolling element has a defect it will enter and
leave the load zone at the fundamental train frequency causing amplitude
modulation and result in sidebands around the ball pass frequency.
Amplitude modulation at the fundamental train frequency can also occur if
the cage is located radially on the inner or outer ring.
6.4.3 Rolling element defect as source of vibration
Defects on the rolling elements can generate: a frequency twice ball spin
frequency (when the defect strikes both raceways), harmonics and the
fundamental train frequency.
Sometimes the generated frequency may not be so high because the rolling
element is not always in the loaded zone when the defect strikes. Also, when
a defect on ball is orientated in the axial direction it not always contact the
inner and outer raceway. When more rolling elements are defective, sum of
the ball spin frequency can be generated and if these defects are severe then
vibration at the fundamental train frequency can be generated.

6.4.4 Cage defect as source of vibration

The cage tends to rotate at 0.4 times inner ring speed and has a low mass.
Unlike the raceway defects, cage failures do not usually excite specific natural
frequencies. In the case of cage failures the signature is likely to have a
random bursts of vibration as the rolling elements slide and the cage starts to
wear or deform and a wide band of frequencies is likely to occur.
As a cage starts to deteriorate wear can start to occur on the sliding surfaces
( in the cage pocket, or on the cage guiding surfaces in the case of ring
guided cage). This kind of cage wear leads to a less stable rotation of the cage
or a greater excursion of the rolling elements, resulting an increased sideband
presence around the other bearing fundamental frequencies, like the ball spin
frequency.

Excessive clearance can cause vibration at the fundamental train frequency

as the rolling elements accelerate and deccelerate through the loaded zone.
Consequently large impact forces result between the roling elements and the
cage pockets, Figure 6.8. Also, outer raceway defects and roller defects can
be modulated with the same fundamental train frequency (FTF).

Fig. 6.8- Impact forces between the rolling elements and cage pockets
6.4.5 Cotamination as source of vibration
Contaminants can cause wear and damage to the rolling contact
surfacesand generate vibration across a broad frequency range. In the early
stages the crest factor of the time signal increases, but it is unlikely that this will
be detected in the presence of other sources of vibration.
J.S. Laccey
An Overviw of Bearing Vibration Analysis
Maintenance & asset management, vol.23, no.6, nov/dec 2008, pp.32-42