,

VOL XXXI
1110. 19

, JULY 1-15, 1983

Re.l

..

.~~

cftilltm ili) (ffiI? GQIJJfIf)

cro~

Tuberculosis is no morc a
dreaded disease it was; it
i~fully curable. now.

Rural
health

Being perfect in health is the precondition of any nation set on road to the task of development.
It is partlcular,'y sO In case of rural areas where both the nature and the requirements of life and
avocat/on require reasonab 'e standard of health on the part of the people. That Is why, health care
has been an Important part ~four development plans, It has been given an Important place In
the new 20-polnt programme. Be/llg committed to achieve the goal of Health for All by 2000 A.D.,
act/ve cO?t1nuingparticipation of the 'community would p'ay a significant role ill its achievement.

A sizable number of our villages

have been covered by health care
racilities _.but much still remains
to be <fone.

l
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Vol. XXXI ~
No. ~I9
July I, 1983 ~

Editoria

Asadha
10,, 1905
.

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:' C);NJi,.\ZEltl';B1G,

impediment in the development of

. .niral ~.
has been the low level of awareness
~mong. the rural pOor. Since. centuries they have
been 'expl!iit~d by various vested ,interests and heen
kept at aqanrt'slengthfrom
the, benefits of develop(India's Journal of rural deyeiopment)
men't~ 'The plight of the rural women can be easily
guessed 'froin this state of sOCial circUmstances.
.'"."..
Though the wornI'll constituted' nearly half of rural

pOpulation, their 'contribution to: society has been

-"'" ... ,-.
looking after the children and 'doing the domestic.
MAHILAc MANDALS AND TIlE. RURAL
.
,WOMEN.
cnores. .They have. been, and to some extent still
H. ~<f
;Hanumappa andT:.'M:.si,jatha"
'remain, . o~e of the most ~backWard sections of our
,NON-FORMAL EDUCATION FOR: RURAL
.'s~iety.
It is ,not an exaggerati~ to state 'that' if
: ;;
,
.. DEVELOPMErI.'T,
the rural society'is
rea1i forge ahead, the gene, <Damodar Suar and'S. [(Panda
~ationof
awaien~a;ddevelopment
of the per-.
~;~
... sknality of rural women is Uiefirst most important
RAsui:.ESSENCI1: OFMONITORIN~
{hij;gto'do.'
And there hav~ been number of effort.
" ,,' ,.S.
Bali:JkrisJ:na
Inthe direction' t~o:
','
,'."
: :. ".~,. :
'1' "-2': mE::MiRKEnNG
'PROBLEMS,OF .IUJRAL .
~ ,.' , , ." ""."
,.'
, "'.
,INDUSTRIES
);",....::,:C:;:Si~a:
i?;;;;"ak,ishn:..:':Ra~a~
V.Ram'w;a ."
~!.'
, ~._

Kuruksll:llra

CONTENTS

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"SEii~1~:=i~~~~~'
6ii~,of' the

Anuva Saikia

TUNDI : 'SELF~HELP ,EXPERIMENT .IN

TRIBAL DEVELOPMFNf
J. S.BTara

21

TIlEY SHOW THE WAY ...

, ,..
,-,

~
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"

',.

',",-

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':lIDn:oR

, .,: (M~S'YRATN.AJUNEJA

""", ',;. ASSTT."EDITOR

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: ';~C'N';

SHARMA

,"
.

"
. SuB"EDITOR .'
.(MR~.i..PARA~JEET ,.G.'SING~
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. :. COVER

~st pq~sible';;'aYi to help the ~al women.to b~lfle ~s JJS.c<tu.1 a pa,rt ,of .sOj:i~ty ~~ ,!!:teir
. men is .t4t:o~ .vollPliip'y 'll!lso~ijl~i~nslike the M!Wil.a
Man,dajs. 'f:hus"as itha~ 'il1!'ea~dybeen.pt!'~.~t,
,a
. llumber ,of .places 'in the 'country, 'they can play an
hllp'ortant role
changing .the outl~k of rUral women,., to make'
them
aware . of'th~
problems. of
.. .. ,.'
, 'life
around ,thell1 and to solv~ thes!, throiJ,gh volunt;u"Y
,1lli\s~effort.to thl\'heI!!'!i~Qf fue ,P'=Qp!e!,f~rt!f!ll
"reas ,at; !l\fge. TJ.1c' ~~ijnent
,qfMahill;! !'~~
,naS':.alnply dell101lsll'atecLthatthese can' he .. USIld as
:p6Werful :change-agenis:and, ,can set .in ,a chain-re<'action',that 'Will proourefar-reaching
changes at
~verylevel of. tiie,ritti,(
s,,!,iety. rv)abga .~
,Q~:,to, he .give!! .all'..~!!~Qur~gel!1ellt.in.their .fo.~'
.,t\Oy: ;gcidance 'hI ,day.to,qay ;fjlnct!<mi,ng. and 'I\eces~SlIlY:Jinancial :help ,to ,diversify :their activities.
.. .

in

- -

'

,~

, . :M;:~;L'i>ARMAIt

.' If! : this' Jissue',we giye. ,a' study :of. 'Mahila .,Man5\a1S
P.ilirte*Uo~-uiVisio., , 'whichrhave' dOfic';a';ci'OOitablejob 'in Karnatakaby ~
Patiala House, New,:Delhi-1IOOOI
'iJili,sirig amOiig;'th~:rur~"women an awareness of th~
'" "
.. ' ,.
'" Tel::
.- ~87983
,
c,pot.el1tial th~y :~ess,to,bring.,in
.change and how"they
,-::"
~~p..,pjay th~.:~ghtMli'~le
in the.sqciety .theY livein.
KrIsbi <lJhaviui; New 001hi.ll0001
'I;eleph";; :3!l4&8il .~ 3il~6
.'1t is: 40~.cth8.t ;~ :stilClywi)l ,prov.~ of !Il!mense use
" \EdIt~'Itcs\d~';":);~5'9iO . toreaders.~:: ,"\'-::~';

EnqUIries reganIlng :Substtii>tliin!,

BnsiDell'l' Maimger,

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A Karnataka study

Mahila. mandals
and
.
the rural women

I',

H. G. HANUMAPPA and T. ,M. SUJATHA

'1Dstitu1e for Sodal aad Economic e-ge,
Bangalore

ORGANISATIONS have a vital role to

play in,the uplift of the rural population. But low
level of general awareness among rural people due to
low literacy rates acts as a crucial constraint to bringing about socio-economiC changes in rural areas, Orga- ,
nised or colleetive efforts to bring about socio':economic
ahanges can succeed' but rarely in a, traditional rural
society like ours., How:ever, tills has not deterred
many of our ,rural leaders to continue their efforts in
" .organising voluntary ,associations for' the b~nefit of the
people of our rural areas. Among different types' of
voluntary organisations, the mahila mandai or the wOmen's association set up at the village level can be con-'
sidered as an important instrument of . change among
rural women. Rural women'in India remain as one of
the'most backward sections of our society and there is '
an urgent need to develop their, Overall personality.
One of the best possible ways to accomplish this, is to
encourage'formation: of more and mote mahila mandals
in the villages and use them as change agents. It is
necessary to incorPorate special progralDllles for rural
women and children Within the broader frame'-work of
rural development schemes. But so far as the government programmes for women and children are concerned an attitude of patronage seems to persist. As a
result, ,most of the rural development projectS contilln
very few programmes for' women and children. Historically, community development projects were laun:ched in 1952 for the, economic andsociallip~
of the
OLUNTARY

. Note: The primary data psed iiI ,~s paper :is

l~rgely
drawn from a study by T. M.' Sujatha :.. A Functional Analysis of- Mahila 'Mandals in Relation fo
their 'Contribution to -Rural Development,
M. A.
(Rural DevelopmenJ)
dissertation -submitted to the
Bailgalore University. 1982 (Unpublished).

,rural population and in' 1953, the Central Social Welfare, Bo~id was' established to promote activities for
women and children in both rural and urban areas. In
1957, these welfare organisations began their activities
in community development blocks with coordination
committees and were ,called as welfare extension projects. In 1961-62 the, activities were handed over to
'the rural organisations called mahila' mandals.'

The task before mahiia mandals

THE,' available
1Dformation there
were 58,300 'mahila mandals working at the end
of 1975-76 with 'an 'average membership of 364
per block.' In Kamataka, mahila mandals are register~.
, ed under the Societies Registration Act. 'The growth
and development of mahila mandals depend Oil th~ extent ,of active participation of gram sevikas. It is the
gram sevika, who has to initiate the 'rural women to
enrol as members of mahila mandals. The day-t<H1ay
work of a mahila maIidal are looked after \Jy its officebearers, who are elected or nominated among themselves to look after the functioning of mahila 'niandals.,
Regular visits of officials, (both gram sevik~s and
mukhya sevika:~), attendance of -(eachen; (both to the
mahiJa samaj and balwadi) and interest of the mem=
hers of the 'mahila mandal. in taking lip maximum
number of programmes are some of the essential requirements for the successful flinctioning of these
organisations.
CCpRDlNG'TO

1 Me,enakshi Apte,' "Rural Womey. and' Develop~n'i in:

India" The Indian Journal of Social.Work, Vol. XXXIX.
NO.4,' Jan. 1979, Special Number on Rural Develop.
ment pp. 440-447.
2 D. Paul Choudhry:
"Change through Mahila Mandals",
Kurukshetra, Vol. XXVI, No., 11, Man:h, 1978, P. 14.

KURUKSHETRA

July 1, 1983

,-

Broadly the aims and 'objectives of mahila niaridals

encompass such activities which can promote socioeconomic and political interests of the rural 'women,
through voluntary action based on democratic ,princi,pIes'.
'
Institutions 'like mahila ,mandals should become part
of the village life and in the' due course much can be
expect~ from certain well established mahila mandaIs
and' such other voluntary institutions which can look
after the educational, social, economic and cultural,
needs of the rural women,"
, As a matter of fact, very rarely one comes across
,any systematic study on the functioning Gf these mahila
mandals, and !. not
many studles are available.. which
,
attempt assessments of the impact of these service ,organisations and their programmes on the socio-economic life of rural ~0D:len.4
, In the present paper, we shall attempt to assess the
'functional impact of mahila' 'mandals in the process of
,socio-economic upliftment of rru;al women.
Bangalore 'rural south and, north, taluks form the
areas of the present stua y." There are' thir1y-.ix
mahila mandals working in Bangalore rural south (13)
'and north (23). Sample of ten mahila mandals each
from Bangalore rural south, and north tiiluks. were
selected, which were reportea to be' runctioiring well,
twenty different mahila maridal presidents and eighty
other participants were selected randomly for'the study.
"Separate 'questioniuiires forllie
committee members'
and the participants were prepared' and canvassed.

Organisational set-up of mahila mandals

a mahila mandal ilI a village, rural

women come in contact With one another at the
':initiative of gram sevikas or mukhya sevikas. On a
day decided by the sevikas, all'the members are called
fat a meeting to elect the office-bearers among themselves. Each mahila mandaI 'usl1ally haS a ,president,
,a, Vice-president and a secretary., 'The staff includes
teachers for both mahila satnaj and balwadi and a
servant (Aya)," They' are appcinted by the government or the village panchayat mahila mandals are
supposed to keep the records of its functionS, firiance,
etc.
I

OR ORGANISING

Some of the socio-economic characteristics emerge

from our' study of office-bearers and members of
3 H. G.Hanumappa: Socio-etonomic Inventory for BlockLevel Planning, Studies in Integrated Rural Development, I\lMlg:ilore, 1981 Pp. 104-107. ,
4 T. M, Sujatha, Op, it. P. 27
.'

,5 T. 1M. S,!jatta, Op. it. Pp. 42-49.'

KUROKSHETRA

JUly I, 1983

mahilamandals.
With regard' to ,the composition -of
the age of the committee meipbers, 15 per Cent of ~hem
, 'belonged to the 'age-group of below .30 years, 65 per
cent of them were in the age-group of 30 to 50 years
and 20 per cent of them were in the age-group of above
50 years.'
More than 75 per ceu't of ,the presidents of mahila
,mandals were the wives of the village headmen or
,chairmen or ,patels (gowda). Remaining 25 per cent
were others; who were interested in the welfare activities ,of the 'cOmmunity. An example, of this is that 'one
of the secretaries of 'a :mahila mandai has been 'serving
in her organization idr the last 25 years, with sense
of dedication.
'

Seventy per cent of the office bearers were from

Vokkaligas, 20 per,cent were Brahmins, 10 per cent
Lingayats. Most of the office-bearers were rich (70
per cent) belonging to fanillies having more thail 25
acres, of land.
"
~
Over 72 per cent ,of the participants in different
programmes were from higher castes and the rest (27.5
per cent) were from S.C. and S.T., but their participatiop has been quite good. .
With regard to the educational qualifications of
office"bearers, 55 per ceilt had studied upto high school
or S.S.L.C; 15, per Cent had studied upto degree.
Twenty per cent had studied upto middle SchooL
standard and 10 per cent of them'studied uptoV standard. One ,admirable feature was that'none of them'
were rePorted to be illiterate ..
Sixty-three per cent, of the members (participants)
studied upto X standard, 16 per cent have stUdied
upto V standard and 21 per cent of them were
degree-hol<IerS. Again, it is heartening to ,note that'
all the participafits ,reported were literates with edu.'
cational attainments of \lifferent levek
, In terms of marital status, 85 per cent of the members were married and 15per.cent
unmarried; 17.5
per cent of the 'participants were employed women;
74 per cent and 26 per cent were from )lUclear and
joint families respectively.' Duration of participation
indicated that those with one year' participation ..were
more (34 per cent) and those whose participation with
longer duration of 9 to 10 years were not many (3
per cent).
'
,
From the data we 'oould identify.s major activitieS
of mahiIa mandals between 1960 and 1982.

.V. Recreali6riiiJ programmes

1., SpbrtS activities'

Number 01
Numbd
,01Mohila,!JP.rogrtJmfllS

Item

Mdn a s

A'verage
'atten--

2. Public lectures
3. Public functions
4.. Filmshows
S. Entertainment.
6. Saraswathi Pooja
7. ,IridependenoeDay
8. RepublicDay
, 9. Special programmes: film
shows for the benefit of
farmen; .

'dance
2

1. Training in -craft's

17

IW,

135
. 138

155

2. Tailoring

12

31

15

56
' 209

II,

.1. SkiJl{orrnoJion

3. Adultiiteraci

programme.

4c Usiog of pesticides

5. Ne,. methods of agrioul~'

ture-and resource utilisation

II .. House-keepi1l/f:
1. House-keeping programme

i, ,Kitchen

gardening

193

36
'63

273

12

50

224

31

.~ 341
328

10

Progi':ammes .the vUi~ge_deari "

J: Keeping

at the attendance oJ' woll1en~;

members in' various, programmes (Table 2), interesting1y" we find' that, tailoring and craft classes are
, highly papillar. More than 90 per cen! attendance was
reported in these two programmes. On oraf,enquiPes,
it, was, f:ound OIlt 'that, 'while. training in' tailoring
activities helped, in both saving some money ~hich
was being spent on stitching their own, clothes elsewhere, it also helped in utilising their leisure time'
'hi stiching other's clothes which resillted in eamin
Some ,exira income for the family.' We should note
here that those who attended' for one 10 three 'year
were niore' in number and also reported a higher percentage of attendance than those wbo took part'
,tht:seactivities for more than four years: It is'surprisins to note here that quite a large number of respondents did not' show much interest in a number of
;t6grammes in terms of their attendance (Table.2). , ,

24

52

36

197

8
10'

' 21
36

166
214

310

10'
'

. 3. Sanitation programmes, - .

4. Keeping the drinking water

s.

well clean
Speci~ Prog;amme~ for
schoo'! dropoo1i1s .

(a)15
(b)1I

14li

A special mentiOJi can: be I1llidehere abOut the popularity of typewriting training 'programme organised by
one mahila mandaI. in the, village Hesarghatla (Bangalore North TaIuk).
ThiS particillar mahThi mandaI
conductedfiv~ typewriting training programmes and
,trained 125 members between 1978 and 1982. Other
mahila mandaIs can think of orgapising such pro-,
gramrnes.

IV. Balwadi aot/vities :

,I. Baby shaw
2. Play activities of baiwadi

programme

10

us

Ii

'6

35'

72

426,

24
16
24

93
146
183

3. Learning activities of the

Balwadi programme
4. Drama .
.$: Field activities{Sports)

it Mus'ic ilfOgtarnnieS' '.

'4

Table 2:ExteiJt

of attendance of women io varions prograinmes organised by Mabila Mandals,

Year

Year 1-3
st. No. .Programme

No.,
1. Training in 'crafts

2. Tailoring

3. MUlt literacy
4. Family plaooiDg .
'
s. HbUSe Keeping .
6. {)bildcare
7. Kitchen gardening
'8. Improved methods of cooking
9. Cultural programmes
'to. Sports.

628

F..WE TAKE A LOOK

ill, Health and Hygiene

2. Prepaiing m~nure beds'.

24'

,
191

iJ

/7

mme
5. Cbild care programmes.

50
334
2120
1908
1221
173
'319
292

, '8

3. Imprgved methods of
cooking.
4. 'P~Irii{y :planniiig'progta ..

13
II
6

68
39'
49
30
52'
79
79
54

13
8
12
6 .

Source: T.M. Sujatha liP' ,cit.

. '

5.8 '
62
12
26
29
22
,33
37
33
.19

'%
73
78
15
33
36
29
41
46'
41
24

4'

Total

non~response.

& above

-No. ,.

No.

%.

15
14
.2
4
6
I
7
10
3
3

19
18
3
5
8
I
9
13
,4
4

7.
4
66
50
45
54
4()
33
54 '
58

, 8
4
,82
62
56
70
50
41
55
72

No.
80
.80
80
'80
80
80
80
80
80
SQ,

%
100
100
100
100 .
100
100
,100
100
100
100

/'

Source,: As in Tabie L

KURUKSlIETRA

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'One notable fentureof the mahilamimdals that we
sludiedwas the interest ..that the members evihced in
arranging excursions to various' tourist and piligrimage
centres both inside and outside Karnataka (Table 3).
Though the highest number of women-members visited
places like Bangalore aud Mysore, the response to

other.places also was quite eiicouraging. This ten~ncy

indicates the growing interest among niral women ..to
visit different places. This tendency can be exploited
positively by mahila mandals to create awareuess by
increasing the freq uehcy of such. tours.

Table 3 : Excursions arranged by the Mahila Mandals to different places ofinterestJor women Rnd children.

st.

ilace.; of visit

No, of M ohiia

No.
I. Bannerghatta
2. Hebbal
3. Bangalore
\ 4. Mysore
S. Haleheedu
6. Yalahanka
7, Tirupafhi
8. Belur .
9,-Mandya
10.Dharmasfhala

2
6
7
6
2,
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
I
,I

11. Rameshwaram
12'. Kanya Kumari

"

13. Nandi,

14. Shivagange
15. Somanathapura
Source:

:rabl,e 4 : PrograD1lnesproposedto

7
6
2
2
2
2
2
1
I
2
2

t"l

I:
1

be undertaken by lbe Mabila MandaI.

~Programmes

.'

1. -Typewriting
2. Improvement in tailoring
3. Conducting of beauty classes
4. Providing library facilities
5. Garment~making
6. Powder.~aking'
7. "Kitchen. gardening
8. Improvement in handicrafts.
9. Papad-making
..
10. Pickle-making,
II". 'Soap-making
12. Poultry

'.,."

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,_I.

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13. Other programmes

. Percentage

"

"

3
9
5
5
2
1
1
10
3
1
I,
2
12

15
45
25
25
10~
5

~
.;-

5
SO
15
5
5
10
60

As in Table 1.

WOMENPARTICIPANTS
felt that the mahila
mandaI. are doing positively' good service to the
ural women, As there is some improvement o1n the
ocio-economic life of rural women, all, the partici:
ants of the mahila mandals whole-heartedly suggested
or its continuation in their villages. They felt mahila
andals helped 'them to improve their general
HE

Nl!. of Mahihi

M andols Plann!ng

, No.

T"'

32
95
205
175
55
30
'70
55
18
30
20
70
67
52
60

place in the future :plan~ of these mahila mandals'. But

a few of them have also indicated intereSt in starting,
beauty classes. Mahila' Mandals contemplating on
starting "beauty classes can as far as possible try to
populanse the indigmous inethOds of, beauty culture
rather than'imitating wasternised ...

The future outlook

HEN ASKEDABOUT"'thefuture plans, of 'these

',',
Mahila Mandals, many have responded 'and
have supplied .a list ,of these 'programmes '(Table 'I).
provement in ,tailoring and crafts finds an important

Source:

No. of participants

As in Table 1.

W. '
st. .

No. of Pragrammes

M andals arranged

'koo;.,-

URUKSHETRA

July 1; 1983

ledge, but expressed the doubt whether, mabila

mandalsconld' help them to improve their total
personality, However, the. participants felt that mahila. '
mandals helped them in bringing about abetter, uuderstanding amOng the' members and ,also to impwve
their statu-s in the village.
(contd .on' p: 20)
7

"

Non-forinal: education for

turaJ .development'
,

:
DAMOPAR SUM and S. K. PA!'o~A
Indi:p1 Institute.of TeocImology,Kharagpur (W. Bengal)

,
the formal educa-

.. , is )ikel),' to yield,grea;ter return than investtnent in huIrujn re~oUIc.es,of which the most iplportant component
is .education. For this, ,the imni.ediate objective of
education is to relate it to life needs, goals, aspiraeducational paradigm to cater to the needs and aspirations 'and' employment potential 'of rural people and
tions of the vast segment of the population. The need
there):>y,make it a powerful instrunIent of the social,
, for shifting educational parameters is due to the limitaeconomic and cultnral
transformation.
Extending
tions impOsed upon the formal eduCation, i.
full-time'
. classroom attendance, linear graded system geared to
this premise, Kothari Commission related education
certificates and other fomiaI credentials, age ~pecificato productivity, national integration,
modernisation
tions, rigid language pattern, inflexible design, highly
aM to'social, moral and spiritual'values.
The Comtheoretical approach, upper-class orientation and inmission ,has also recopuuended that for ihe purpose
ability to cope with increasing occupational and funcof increasing productivity,' education should. comprise
tional problems. Along with this, its high eost and . , of social education, work experience, relevant techstandardised norms irrespective of context and needs
'nology, industrialisation and, finally, vocationalisation.
, are the main features of its inadequacy. Particularly,
The formal schools 'are only equipped to take c~e
as far as formal education is concerned the rnral priof only a part of the essential learning I\eeds of rnral
mary and secondary schools are in deep trouble. They
people; mainly literacy and numeracy. So it is left to
suffer from heavy drop-but "rates, non-participatiop,
the informal anti nou-formal education to meet the
'erosion or quality, low achievement of students and
other essential learning neros. But informal education
low enrolment' of females. The system of education
is acquired through 'daily experience and inte~action
is also hierarchical and its very nature is elitist, . indiwith the socio':':U1tural environment. This filters from
vidualistic and 'anti-manualist.
The consequences
the older to the younger through traditional apprenticeof such an education are seen in rising unemployment
ship and is a 'life-long education'. So apart from being
and a sense of failure arid despair among the youths,
a 'panacea,the non-formal education is also a viable
whose futility is too ubiquitous' to be'missed. So the
alternative to promote rural develqpment and to brin
present system of education needs a radical reconsabout ,social change. These are organised or semi-orgatruction with a view to improving sociQ-.ecO!;101mc,
ruse<!educational activities operating outside the regular
and coltural spheres of the country and rearrsiilg the
structure and routine of the formal system, aimed at
ideals of a socialist society.
, serving a variety of learning needs of different targe
groups and generally concerned with achievin
practical objectives. Some of the non-formal pr'
, Iinportance of non-fortnal
education
,
granniIes cater,to the same needs as ;he schools. Bu
URS IS,
country wloere rural population is about
bcith the forms are not strictly contradictory to eac
80 percent and nearly half of, the population are
othe!,but
are, ,inutiI::illy reinforcing partners, e.g.
l}ving below the poverty line. 'It 'need ,not be stressed
Cuba's 'sehoul in the countryside' Kenya'. 'villa
that for rural development and progress, no investment.
polytechnics' 'Upper Volta's rural learning ,centre
N MANY DEVELoPING' COUNTRIES,

I tion by its 'very' m,ture and function.has proved to

:be inadequate and calls for a search for an alternative
e.,

-KURUKSHETRA

July 1; 198

"and Thailand's

'sec6nd chance schools' for adolescents

(Ahmed. and Coombs, 1977). It "extends to include
vocational, skill, environmental 'imd social educatiou,
.work experience, agricultural and. craftsman training,
. small entrepreneur a1Id business management training,
-and instruction regarding health, nuirltion,saDitation,
childcare, family planning, local food production,functional literacy, numeracy, housing and many others: .

(NFEP j , iIi. which the iliee

indePendent' sub-'
systerils such' as extemal resource and fund supply
team, resources in the project area and the' rural pe0ple Should be co-ordinated.
.
'.

The external resource and fund supply organisation:

consists of expert personnel, planners; supervisors.'
and investigators. The point of entry may be sought
by needs, aspirations, motivation and at~tude survey.
of the'local cofffimunity members by the investigation
Objectives
Co~ttee,' so as to "ensUrewhere to start a programme!
ON-FORMALEDU<!ATIONhas multi-directi()nal obaimed at the development of the roral people. Identi.
jectives for rural development:
.
.fication of hitherto unfulfilled needs of rural people
.
1 will surface naturally. This infomIation y.i1l be made:
available to the planning committee for co-ordination
Catering .to the felt needs and interests of the comand action formulation, at which '.Ppint the committee
munity through productive activities, so that learn.will .again scrutinise certain programmes keeping 'in
ing will be a preparatory ~tepfor life.
"
vie~ the resource constraints and needs of the people.
t';"
After fOmlulation of programme, tlris will be put to
[2
discussion with the rural people where their participa. Modification of behavioural pattern and related actition imd deciSion-making regarding the progralIimes will'
vities, development of positive attitude towards.
be encouraged with technical information and logistic
work and life, character traits and' values condusupport. - After this, the .rural' people will select and
cive to effective personal development. .
suggest the personnel to 00 trained for different objec-'
tives and programnies, where the training to\.launch
3
such programmes will be offered by .the experts. Th~
EmphaSis on functional literacy and numeracy to . iural personnel after mininIlUD.training will transfer
bring about cOnScientisation.
their 'skills, abilities and knowledge to the rural' pea-pI" in which" the supervision cOnlmittee will keep a
4
Const'iD! vigilance over the entire programme.
For
, Provision for knowledge and skills for civic partiachieving maximum effeCtiveness, monitoring and
'cipation.
evaluation will be made by the expert personnel. li
satisfactory, the process will continue, otherwise the
5
sequence will be again repeated from the resources
Scope for scientific outlook and .elementary' knowand the fund supply team (top) to the bottom to sec
ledge of the process of nature and social environat which stage the correction' is needed. In this way,
ment ..
a look at the flow chart points out vividly' the proper.
way of integration and co-odination of di1ferent chan6
nels needed for the success: of di1ferent faculties of
. Ensuring functional knowledge and. skillS' fo~ raisNFEP for .rural development.
ing a family economically and .operating a house-.
hold.
In this' flow chart some of the special features
require consideration. The plan should be such that
a single development programme will generate a
Envisaging an increase ',in employment potential
series of development prograIIl!I!es. For example,
in'roral sect()r:
the 'nutrition educatiou ;will initiate health care, day
care in . schools< and agricultural ~ucation
etc.
8
Secondly, the instructors for such a programme will
Acting ;,S an internal adopter to adopt ac.eording
be selected by community members because people'
to changing needs .and resources.
will' place greater' trust in them. The instructors will
become more approachable, serve with .more understaoding and Dud out alternative outlet for changing
NFEP and rural development
resources than. educa~ counterparts in. town who
EFOREEMPHASISING
its objectives, it requires a
will be less inclinect to take risk. In this context,. in
suitable operative system, which will amplify
Peno region of Peru,. the communities are electing the
w it will be organised and integrated for develop- .
'yoUngrural leaders who receive initial training, to ron
ent . of roral people. This system comprises the
the education centres (UNICEF, 1976). Thetrainees
quences for non-formal
education programme
Will be rUral-skilled persons, having minimum know-

.'N

'.

ledge regarding the itnparted education, willing to

, stay in'!he village, d~ire !o undergo training and serve'
'their peppll:' with commitinent. Criteria like ~ucation and othc;rs mus! not be ~et so high, as to
exclude many candidates. The local personnel, after '
training, will be able to transfer their skills to, the
rurai inhabirtants, so that the rural inhabitant becomes
the initial starter and 'gradually a . skilled, producer.
Training to rural personnel will be given by the
experts in locaj context to detect' the difficulty' in
resource mobilisation to be followed by upgrading
courses at the end of each year for augmenting their
capabilities to instruct' the neighbours., Thirdly,
though. SDme of the literature cOntradicts thekey role
of popular participation, still a ,good'deal of experience
confirms that the joint work of the project implementing agencies and the rural peopl~ to meet, the
real needs, people's consciousness regar:dingthe pro,j,ct
objectives, people's decision-making 'in, the
,sequence of implementation, feedback of, information ,
from both the directions, frequent interaction:' and
_coIimiiinicatioli of the experts and rural peopie are
the effective ways to develop community, :participation
for the success of the programnie. Befor,e initiating
such a progrannne, the cycle of agric!1lfural activities,
tne socio-economic status; motivalioni attitude, community
.problems, convenient
tinllng, ftminf:ial
support, cultural and soCial constraints 'will be made
available. Along with th~ prime obj~ctive, 'jndividm;l
choice for.' the courses will be determined and provided based on physical potentiality, aptitude and
interest. The instruction 'for ,the cours~s will' be 'in
local 'dialect to facilitate/understanding, and"inteiac- '
'tion. Multiple entry to different ptograIimieshas to
be encouraged to enlighten the rura,H,,1k. The pro'gramme should also incorporate playing 'materials,
stimulating the exploratory things to incrcase creativity of the children. The teaching . 'should hielude
self:stUdy, evaluation and functional communication.
The,measurement Of learning shouid be made by the
effort of the learner rather than by imparting of
information' by the instructor to the learner. '

linkage' to the hillher educati<ll1al set-up. in

.) country.

..

'I' ",'

'.1

NFEP
grammes:

HE

will' include

It is required that SDme adult members' of th~

community be functionally literate 'to facilitate
. communication and understanding of both developmental problems and project objectives.

3
, ne ru~al skilled-persons should also be given
.skilled training regarding S<lme' non-agricultural
activities like' repair of physical infra-structure,
work in cottage and other small scale industries,)
This will help them t.o earn on part -time basis as
well ,as a supplement to the high seasonal underemployment. A progr~I1le in one devel.oping
country which trained local' blacksmiths to repair
agricultural implements and others,' gradually I
to repair bicycles, and mot.or- cycles (Lele, 1975).
Upgrading the traditional skills' through trainin
has, the' advantage of familiarity, sequential
arrangement and improvement over time compared
to a foreign skill.'

Most developed modern skills are inappropriate

to the needs Df tIie villagers. To r~ise their qualit
, of life, they should be trained in local skills developed out .of local experience, i.e:, prepara!ion 0
compost pit from cow-dung, forCi;t leaves, agricultural and fuel wastage, preparation and repair of
agricultural i!1lplements, !lse of manu'aily operated
extraction presses to extract oil from locally availabl~ seeds and rice from paddy, improved traditi0!!calmethod of. crop storage, to reduce losses in
quality and quantity, which are, popularly known
as .'Iow CDSt appr.opriate .'technology' for rural
devdopment.
, '

I}

1!

As children areCthe future productive' force of

the country, this edu~ation will place much emphasis on 'children, particularly knowledge regarding health measures, better nutrition,' prevention of
diseases, and healthy family life. The insttuctor
will provide not only the knowledge regarding 'the
above, ;but,~also serve asa network of tfansmitting
5'the .,knbwledge .to' tii.e rural people and act "as a
. 't

10

.J)

r,!"

,5

The farmers of the village must he made aware

and be train~ regarding benefits' and applica!ion
'of 'improved seeds, marketing, m,ethods of irrigation arid cultivation, rearing of, domestic animals,
credit availability, fertiliser, rotation of crops and
overall farm management in .orcler to rilise ,their
production and bence the rural economy' Suice
the farmers are the value adders to the productio
process and ~
the elites -.are the value
realizers , th
'.
linkage associated with the fanner's
productio
pr'fess' should be given quite a' high consideratio

many .important' pro-

",

Components ,of NFEP

~

the

.'

. U.

.1

. zi! In -many developing- countries women-have" ,co

stituted,;an important part.of
productive

.KURUKSHET-RAJulyl,

19

force,

)'@t

their participation

in agricultural

-.

train-

ing has been very limited. In Ind;,., working day

for women is between,15 to 16 hours, mo,tly i"
the., agricultural seasons.. So along with child
care, nutrition, meal preparation, :livestock rcarine,
they should also be haiged in agric~ltural and
othe.r rural resource based income g~neruting: ac!;':""
vities.
All these require actiop-oricrited
programmes for better output. In this context, some
of the works that deserye special attention are
Bidisa .intMidnapur, Grihini Schools 'in Chhotanair,';'r ,te1;ion of Bihar, NCERT pilot project at
B.h~m,~d!,1ar
;i~
Nai?ita(dis~rict o~'T.!tt~r
=Pr:~deshand
the l:'evolutionary. c'ducatiori~in;Tnnzania...
j'

:rhe .ptoject'at Bidisa Iias been able to contradict

th~ myth of Lodhacborn criminars. '" The Sa;naja
. Sevama Sangha h~s been able to educate Lodha
childreriand. theIr parents to attain self-sufficiency
by productive activities along with the trad.itional.
curricula for children (Bhowmick; 1977.). In the
Grihini schools of <;bh9tanagpur area, the ill,iterate
girls are given a ~ine month training .itl.child care,
homecraft etc. along with the formal educational
curlicula before they are married (Bogaeit, 1979)'.
The Bnumidhar model hlcluded the Bhumidha~
drop-outs, where 'York experience '(mat Weav.ilig
from 10cal.RlImbas plant) and environmental studies
Vlem ~uccessfu1 in raising of drop-outs. (Kurrieh,'.
] 979); In Tanzauia, with' the basic 3R's greater
emphasis is placed OD. aviakening ,the child's curio-.
sity ih the world around. Learniug of traditional
crafts' (homecraft, carpentry .etc.) from villagers and
village cODstructie'llis a: p~rt of the .Dew curriculum.
. All these relate study with production and economy.

Conclusions

HE NFEP should be g;ven a high degree of auto. nomy and freedom of choice in introducing a particular course, .because it .is context and need dependent
for different targeCgroups in rur,u "",eas, where possibly

a strict bureaucratic

imposition

Will

stifle

creative

potential and restrict free'. development. .. 'Another.

important objective of NFEP i.~also the liberation of

1-

the poor. Because of the disparity between the value

'adders (sm_all farmers, worJsers etc.) and value realisers (moneylenders, traders, elite etc.) the former aFe
not motivated to use their full poteutial in the production process. In the conte~t of NFEP, awareness ahd
knowledge acquired will, motivate thg nlral poor to
realise the eJitire sequence .of each aId every c.ctivity,
so that they will utHize their full potential.
.
Though the primary schaols are solely to provide a
rural orientation, in practice, they reinforce the parents'

desire for a non-agricultural and urban career for their

children. Mobile trmning ,ce'~tres, rural polytechnics,
young fanll'ers' associations etc. are - at~empts to
ruralise education, .but have tnet with limited success
.' and impact because they Jack proper -integration like
other development. activities.
Medern .'educational training prograp.lmes such. as
agricultUral schools,' polytechhics; tecbiIical traming
centres. are in the heart c~urban areas and are-too
expensive. Unfortunately tbe existing forms of (lCCU- .
pational education .are primarily market~oriented .and
m";'D't to develop .skills for urban markets, resulting in
artifitHil brain drain to urban - areas. from' rural. So
with a view to decreasing the misplaced use of resQurces, if. the .education can provide run,!l orientation
accord,ing tb context and need, success may be hope'fully guaranteed. It will generate .employment. poten- .
tial within the .rural "scene, with the slogan 'back to the
fbirthp!ace' inste-ad of. making the clientele a burden
to the society and to themselves after completing the
formal. education.

When successfully managed, it will bling about new

irlformation improved skills, ability to .plan and manage
. the. household as well as the village affairs,. and a new
openness to change among the rural poor. Other
adjuncts ot'.the pr~ss will be generation of employment. potential within rural settmg, discouraging migr.a-.
tion to urban' areas for white-collar jobs i'ncrease of
small farm and' off-farm ac:livitres arid.blingiug.to the
fore the best farmers, artisans, craftsmen, busipess and
social activitisis for'rurai
development.
~
.
-.
-

REF'ERESCES
1. Ahmed. M:, Coomba. H. P: Education for Rural Developmcl1t; USA, 1977. p. xxix.
2. A Strategy for Basic Services, UNICEF,-New York, 1976.
3. B~owmJck,P ..K, Education .ofunderprivileged: A suggesfion; Man and Life, Vol. 3, 1977.
4. Bogaart. V. D. M. Non-formaled~cat!on,conscientization
5. Cerni, M. H. In Tab-za,nia

a textbook revolution.

~n.dvillage action.

Imp:lct. VoI.14. 1979.

"UNICEF News, Need hasi\1"any Faces, New York, 75, 1973.

,6. Kurien. J. Non-formal Education for R9ral Drop-outs: A critique.of the Bhumidhlr. Model.
Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, No.4.
1979.
.
,

"The Indian Jo.llrndl Of"Sociaf.~

.

7. Lele. U. The Design' of Rur,a]

1975.
. Development. : The John Hepkins B'niversity Press, Baltim?re,
.

11

RAStJ
essence of n1onitorin

,
Director ~S~~),

.
W

that U]1plementation is the real bottleneck in the achievellle~i "of ~biectives ~fan oiherwise' well fo~m;UatCd
plan; tile role of monitoring is' being be!ter 'appreciated
at present. This is particularly so in the context of
rural ~evelop!"ent programmes in general and IRDP
(Integrated Rural Developmeut Programme) in particular... .
\
,.
ITH THE

INCREASING

REALISATION

In the gnidelines of the .Government of India with

regard to IRDP"detailed iDstructions are given with
regard to monitoring. These include drawing up of a
schedule of visits by the Assistant Project Officer
(Monitoring) in. the District Rural Development
Agency (DRDA) , . maintenance of village plan
registers giving ,particulars of identified faD1ilies,distribution of Vikas Patrikas td beneficiaries, compilation
of progress reports, etc.

At present the DRDA'~ are mostly preoccupied with

the grounding or launthing of a'scheme and have very
little time left to keep track of the beneficiary after a.
scheme is given to him. The AIJO (Monitoring) is
usually busy in compilation of progress reports. It
will be quite some time before the guidelines are
followed both in letter and spirit.
.
The purpose of monitoring is to turn 'inputs' into
'initial results' following a time schedule. Inputs include assets like animal, services like credit and tech- '
nical 'advice r~garding management. of a sch~me.
'Initial results' could be for instance higher milk/wool
yield. As a preliminary fqr this, intermedi~te objec. tives should be formulated and quantilied. At present
the time schedule exists only in the form of an annual
target, i.e. covering 600 beneficiariesin a block. Further details regarding activitics and quarterly .targets
heed to bc worked out.

",

What is RASU?
of 'inputs' into. 'initial results' has

T to be planned for stage by stage and should not.

be left to take care of itself. In this conneCtion,four
HE

1'1

CONVERSION

s:

BI\.LAKRISHN
Nati01~al
~tu~te of R.ural De"elopm~t,H~eraba

aspects of wputs peed to be examined ;md monitored

car~lIy.
These "!;e ~s f!,llqws:
(a) Requiremel)i-(R)
(b) Availability-(A)
(c) Supply-(S)
(d) Utilisation-(U)
RASU serves as an acronym to refer to these various
aspects.
The extent'.-of requirement
of input;;. should be
examined in the first instance at the prpject appraisal
stage and.checked up for authenticity and validity at
the monitoring stage. The amount of credit required,
thc total number of animals required for the successful
running of the scheme in the block are examples.
Next, it is necess~ry to ensure that. the. required
quantity of inputs are available in the block for distributing wherever and whenever required. - Procedura
wrangles may have to be resolved in the case of credi
and breeding farms may have to be activised in th
.case of animal husbandry schemes.'
.
The supply of inputs in the right quantity at the righ
place and timc' is equally important, Transport an
storage problems and communication gaps are possibl
.hurdles in this respect.
Utilisation by the 'beneficiary for the right and U;ten
ded purpose cannot be taken for"granted. Cases 0
diversion of' credit to other purposes and" sale 0
animals to yield immediate gains ~e not uncommon
These sh~uld 'be checked.

shouH be done at the block leve

I
covering the above aspects.Supervisiou
of Ihi
work is the concern of DRDA monitoring staff.
NPUT MONITORING

The above aspects are being built intl) the desi

for a montoripg system of IRDP in a pilot study a
. NIj.tD currently iri progress in a block in Waran
district of AP. This'is being done with specia)..ref
rence to sheep-rearing scheme.
,.
.
KURUKSHETRA July 1, 198

The Illarketing problems

'of rural industries
C'-SIVA RAMAKRISHNA

jmme~orial, th~ v~llage handicrafts

S-and time~
Co~ge industries have occupied an important.
:t~CE

place in our country's eco'nomy. Till the adv~nt of the

British nile, indi";' cottage and vill'HleinduStry products had reached a highy;atermark 'of qcellence and
enjoyed 'worldwide reputation ~:ildmarket. However,
these industries suffered a severe setbacl>'.on account
of the Britisjl Government's deliqerate polity to scut*
,their growth by all possible measures. In ~ddition,
the growth of modern industries and joint industrial
establishments that e"panded production of goods on
a mass scale, inflicted untold hardship on the millions
of 'rural artisans' and craftsmen engaged in the village
and cottage industries.

bridge this gap'. In short, all our five year plans and
Industrial Policy state!"ents have stressed the need to
dev~lop the village ,and small iri<!!Jstries
to create largescale employment opportuTlities,promote i1ecentralisa:
tion and dispersal of industries, achieve diffusion of
owners!liP and prevent conc~ntration of economic
power; promote entrepreneurship, develop agro-based
and ancillary industries, improve the skills . of rural
artisan; and promote village handicrafts, reduce the
role of subsidies aI)d set up the production of 'essential
articles aI)d also develop e~port potential.

The ~tate of TIlTalindustries

industries, mention
A may be made of handloom (khadi,
~'oollen and
MONG

It was Gandhiji who realised the significaryceof the

village and cottage industries and vehemently ple>y!ed
for their revival as a part of rural reconstl1!ctionpro, gramme launched by him. With the dawn, of Inde, pendence, our Govetnment also realised the need to
develop thc village'and cottage industries 'and give
them their rightful place in our ecoilOmyand thereby
included 'a provision 'relating to the development of
these industries in the Directive Principles of'the State
Poli~y as incorporated in the Indian Constitution. The
1ndustrial,P.>licyResolution of 1956, and the Industrial
Policy Declaration of 1980 too emphasise the need, to
develop the village and cottage industries sector in
view of its crucial roie' in eradi~ating poverty and unemployment in the rural sector. .
. , Studies in India have shown that' chronic unemployment is'low but the employment that an individual
, gets is, mostly part employment and an einployment
without proper remuneration. Thus a vast number'
of' population which can contribute to productivity,
given.thpight opportunity, is now left unemployed and
not fJ!lly remunerated. Rural and sinall industries
have been suggested as an important programme to

KURUKSHETRA July 1, 1983

RAO and S. V. RAMANA

THE

VARIOUS

VILLAGE

, silk), processing of cereals, pulses, ghani oil, village

leather, manufacture of cane gur and kbandsari, palmgur making and ,Qtherpalm 'products, non~edib1e oils
and soaps, handmade paper; bee-keeping, viJIage
pottery, fibre, carpentry and blacksmithy, lime-manufacturing, production of gobar gas, collection of forest
plants 'and fruits fO,r medicinal purposes, shellac,
manufacture of household aluminivm utencils, bamboo
and cane work and manufacturing of cottage match'
etc. These industries enable the villagers to develop
their own initiative, cooperation .and, spirit of self-,
relia!-1ce, and thus provide ~~mployment,
.increase in, comes, slowdown migration to cities and increase the
supply.of goods and sen-iceS to farmers at lower cost
and also stimulate rural and regional dev~lopment.
The fpregoing account clearly establishes the importance and the need to develop the village and cottage
. industries in India.' There is no gainsaying the fact
that' their development very much hinges on tlle pro,per marketing fa~iIit\es. And, in fact, the problem of
inarketihg has been an Achilles heel of the, village and
cottage industries iI1 our country. The function, of
13

Then there is the problem

of meeting
thl> fast
changing tastes and fashions of the urban consumers.
'Due to lack of entrepreneureal
skills and education,
activity..
;"
the rural artisans mostly stick to the production
of
goods which are' no more in demand by the urban
Problems of marketing
consumers.
Goods can' errsily be sold profitably when
they
are
consumer70riented.
Wi~h the quick change
'kKETING DOES NOT merely
imply selling or
. in CO;:lsumer tastes and likings, a village artisan. finds
physical transfer of village industrial products to
it 'difficult to cope with the changing' needs of thost'
an agent at a given price.
Far from that, marketing
using t~le village industries' products.
Again, most of
slands for a dynamic economic function.
In the COllthe village artisans are disorganised and dispersed and
text or the poor village artisans it begins with advising.
have no knowledge of customers' attitudes and tastes .
.them what to pra,juce, what marerials to be mod,
what tVIf Af. tech~~logy,
us,; !. or ,llrOdu,cKft0odS_ ofT' imp0.rtance of brand image and the corpor~te image.
Only a handful of agcncies are presently OI1gaged' in
!k!:iticaQrl
an'di qJai',tyJ1I1S
. ies~~~-l
evolving the new designs that would meet the- tastes
jug .th~.I~ral 'i"..tisa~~ ilf procuring ra:r materials
at
of the consumers.
There is a wide communication
a~ila}g!it.w
.fi!!l.eri!J.BtI!JJOlucqg)
targets, deljgap benvcen the village industries and the urban convery schedules, and of course locating markets for his
A~1o'd',tcl!s:/ .~ b OMl OjH"lllllArFcAll ..:IJe .:.l
.
sumer as a result of which the village artisans produce
goods of traditional nature oblivious of the emerging
. The role and function of marketing have undergone
trends in conSumer tastes.
u.L1r.eme.pd"u~ chiingeoimrre<ientryclrs .. ' qtl'p11Jre injbitlie
;:flWiti{~~anf:tci'handloomtextiles. such- as khadi, the'
,,~abbaffiflarketing:isl,being[ ,:rtapidlYJ31ar1)J'isf&me'd
12mofu
. 'l!fi1tk'lJtfflg~jii(jQrie through a network of retail outlets
'".1m in tn'j.,/~)I' 'IrJ, '..
.
'
-1gadlti.OOJIbbu~inesS>.tDlJl'pmliessitm. "",IlI ithe ,hmrl!;arclis
_setup.~:,;,~n,'~e.;~ss\stance fro.m KVIC.
But the village
1,~Hth.ncOlin iL~"
mitlr] rapi<!linih angqs, takiHg' 'pliJC'" in'tthe
IfilllsanS liRi! cobblers
makmg chappals, and
those
lmoCll!'izof' iliving;i rtile .a1titmil5S',iilspirati"JI"P ilistes rrm'l!j
e.dible oils, paper products, and
:.ilMhiW'Jl,ofj(lhencirnJiJlJl""pl" ama-al"q billldl;tgO'ip.gwca
'o1:h~rs tlo ndt' .i\\lve"similar
facility
to market their
~cQl!anfl<'II"'II",
th~r\3"",tuiotmwendenGenp"ripdl0,t~e
\5.I'b'tiU't'ts"1i'nd"lWohte
niost of their prodncts cannot find
ihma be!'J,. ",1ti:<!meIii!lolls,iqdris\ri1iblellO!op'militr.Jeallmg
't"Wfija?kepIl'Pfs"a'consequence
they mostly depend on
J!Olllll.ll':
nf
_,':/1;'.
.
.
:Ail th",J!i"u<tSsprdliu "lion; rbDg>;Wiriet"",fH'QTI.nmcr;1901Jds
,the 111,ladlemerrm whose bands they get explOlted. A
[lIih;01P.~","<lilrli<lm'sqa:rce '1"'d5this-.w.5'i!luded IP ",ow
'tHl(~hl'!fpp.j!~\~!u 'bf.the present set-np of the marketing
no 7.Eoo'J .10 !~;Jt\:JlH
..'
\.
dimension tGL,th"'prqJb1enp",f ,~keiing,~M'I'~odu&j~1of
avclIues'uniler
th~ KVIC reveals a marked defiCIency
village industries.
'
marketing is not merely that of an adjunct of the production process but more as the fou.tain head of such

tp

aultiil

Tll.:~i~~#f'~~t~:gOO~,s,

<.:lilh2fiP~!sl,BJfJll~dPw~I.H?lf~dJcient

and the rural

!lWJll~1\\,i>xeJi/lQl.e;ty
~penilentJ("'lIIlthcJpOOductg'of
Me
mWa!",ltJ.<.lustl;ies, rl;lBnt, :ndV'pJaiJ 'a.cOun11ofttiJ,e; molJei;n
'Jllc(l.:b, c)lioofnb i~ iotltlstr! e~,fu:tvarlirfg, t~ e iiFUr.ahqnarl<et.,
-,hliJ0,'i!la@1Jiru:i\ls~
'af.'!\'.'Ilot>i1n aftpoWIDnon~olO<Witli,Hlln d, ilh""cmnpl"iti(}hofrpml tqe'l'I'ibdtiG!~ qf,imeolarge
;s,qill!'Jin~u~kJik"l,that WM;u":,, c<Oruminerriilemjrof dnily.
-nMik -0 ,hi l fa~!: [,,1wI :eJitirenv.ill"go aqind ustnies .'feetbf.ls
,,9~re 'lin rth~:A0'un1J;)l1~!toW],'l'noduclionbofiqmljhillcom.!l!~jties jg"arqunj! l!~,peii=t
'ornless-t:ind !!hi.: meagq,

,s.l.1.~~i$ .not;gQD:ig"ltpdlllfili~ncec,them1arlrebatr!aU!I! cairn

,1::h:m
2~LjJ.Q::> 10 ,gnilIJ1J.c'!HP.llf,1 bru; )110'11 aOJi:J hOi;
.aI!ficuIR, ~llJ
in. sellinQ
the .nroducts
",at .-'.the
1'''":.1u ,~. "'1:.J~J..iLJlr
:Jl..,;;WJ" r:..J,11~.rJ1.1
..
-:;.:.loll

tAnotlier
vll,age.lev""l.is~theJ&c1r
of.
p'lIrchasinu
..nnW~L
of l'_H'
;,the
-[!~~ ...
iO
JIII.ll
I) b f1'rH_o-J1:Jl'"('> ..... :J7;J;.~::-H,.I.;H'.,
villagers,
Therefore fthe vjllilge .artisans have. to.,in~nl
::UC:Jl:)fn. In:..ur~~1 qnJ:)- ,,':J1-.,JU:[-(:'J"" ,)r.,,-._oi ..t,.:l1

'lQ

Jy~ri~~I:l
:.4fiPfiH2 ~9;~eo~o~~.,
~~~~rs;~nq)
o!l!~!~~)iJ~;-

men for the rlisposal nf. thei,!;, - p,roducts.

Sincedq~J,hp.
J"'UJ l.:..{:WOIJli 7,"1-.J. ,\11, I (,j %." .I.l;)?
GlUo' , ...';D-!{'v
finanCial,
Do.itlOn
'of
the.rur"'
.artisan
does:
not
[P" ermit
--jJr.lfn{j\Jl~(JU
lJ,ilr(jl~.pTDin: jli1~.l. -J~,,_.l"'l~k.d~ , .-.H
him to purcliase the necessary raw materials and other'
'inp).l1S, '-hI; hifs'iitlBiipPto1!clf)tl\eulO'<i1l1 'lflifferlOt6rJT the
'qet!ilJ fimilltY!itil!ipreEurechiif'fi'eC'es ~liilfr inf\ht\i"',niPlllis
J'giVes)alnp~i'scCifie'Jfdtrlth~ fuidtliemeIi~andJl\tllefliliilJets
tOlCexplbi/l'the>,sit\fatl(;nT,'" TIfo'ugJP OCl5Opei'aliv8.~I Ji'il~.e
Ibeell,lse-t''Up''ib .filF'ltlleirbnlods/thliif'f1mctiorillfg'%
'far
Ifrom; wa~isfaclbt:y ifn"itctf<lliilffof"tb e' sltbrlg"hOldi 'OfT'!lie
:vestedi~nterestsrf3ver .,tHem?:) 1!10 ni ?''ji1j21~bni tl~HUO:l

~~;W.W~Rtf9~~)~~~t~
~ternally as ~ell as externally..
GompaJ'e'd /0 life need and
the vast potential,
the
nuinber

of

mar1}eting

outlets

is far too
small.
research, for the
IstiIdyJpf{ [lmarkeLtrends
in relation
to demand and.
-supplYJil:ili1Jspite,o 'enjoying various forms of support
-ft!oill Ihe,iKMIC,,'theCentral
and State Governments
,durihgJrtherllato<iouple
of decades, it. is 'a pity that
'Dlitrkming' ;of', Jkhildi 'still depends
on .rebates
and
~benffonms ~f',supporl; .
10 t":,Olqoi"ob
Suggestions

'1lllcioe dS,1pa'liiQ1i1arly' no marketing

a,h,
~~r'{i~~~~1:?~l\i~fiT.
COVERAGE
by using: profes:t:. .~tl)ltUl;~rmsr~hd'.evolving innovative techniques

WYj!~j"fof'
(~iU~::;~n
.fll

\4n~ie,dy'development

and growth of the

A few sug-

iRA croi{ag~[.industries
.in India.
~:JnJ(.lJur;j .'
.

>dI:;:u

_~tl?rRf ,fp~,~~PWr?lt,n.~,,the m'ark~tmg of VIllage

cellage tndusiiiaI products are given b,elow:

and

::iwnrb twl,
'I~JJbiv1i!!~lI\\'iikelilm ~rg:,misation of KVIC
to be
lfiO!@{W!l\!ly qy,yr~!'1Jlea and revamped to enable it to
l:i~Prry.l~ts fM.~,~ons
more dynamically.
-'Ioiam:JOfJ

.'oiviJ:mbOJq

ms

01

')!;J.:-j'.:

I,m; bk1\tlainanlf Villiige' Industries'

Commission h~s to
,oi''Plajlrr,i nllfc1F niore "positive role in developing a .
oj ~rnff~l.?~mq lfJl>r"tU.;'f
(eoutd. on p 17)
UKORUKSHETRA

July 1, 1983

1
I

Seasonal variation of female

partjcipation in farm work
"

' ANDY A SAIKIA

, _ASsIt. Prof., J;l~It. of Agr;; ~DOmicS, Assam~ri. t1Divendty,Jorhat (ASS;"')

EASONALVARIATIONin agricultural activity is

inherent in the nature of prO<!uctiondue to the
rigid necessity of carrying out agricultural operations
during specific time span. Employment in agriculture
is,. therefore, marked by periods of peak and
slack
seasons. The extent of seasonal fiuctuation in employment is higher in case of -female:labour as felllales are
engaged in some specific'agricultural operatioris during
""r.tain 'periods in the crop seasons. The nature' of
demand for female'labour in rural. labour market is
different from -that for Iliale labour insofar as the
former is subjeCt-to sharp fluctuations while 'latter
exists throughout the agricultural season.
The pattern of distribution of labour requirements
between different agricultural 6peratjoris in different
months Of.the year is dep'endent on cropping pattern;
crop int!'JlSity'and' type of farm technology followed.
The annual rainfall distribntion is the most important
determilling factor of cropping pattern particwarly in
the absence of irrigation facilities, Under double and
multiple cropping, the' scope for utilisation ~f iabour
increases. If dijferent crop sequence, crop colllbination, area', under cnltivation ,for double, and .niUitiple
cropping practices' .are so arranged that 'peak seasons
for different cro.ps,occur at ,different times, the sea"
sonal variation of labour reqnirement~ay. be mOderate. But if the seasonal peaks for diil'e;ent. crops
occur more or less during a particular time span, fiuctuation in seasonal1abour requirement would ,be 'very
high.

The present study was coriducted' iri ten villages,

selected purposively from the three sub-divisions of
Sibsagar District, Assam~ so as io represent different
agricultural situations and populatiori . characteristics.
The data relate to the year 1979-80, Altogether 216
households, comprising 25 per cent ,of total ,house.
KORUKSHETRA lulY I, ,1983'

holds,. were selecte'd raridOluly for ,intensive stUd,Y.

Households were stratified into marginal (D-1.0 ta)
small '(1.01-2'.0 ha) and niediuin (above 2.01 ha)
on the hasis of size of operational holdings.' Paddy',
was the dominant crop grown by all sample households.
..,

Findings of the study

D EMALE WORKERs.-Female workers comprised

1.'

54.72 percent of total female population' in the

ten villages. Work participation rates of females
varied significantly both ~illage-wise ,and size group\vise. For all villages work' participation rates 'of
feffi\l-leswere 58.3,7 per cent in
marginal, farms,
52.71 ,per cent in small.farms and 53.91 per cent in
. 'medium farms., Agriculture is the IllOst important
secto.r prOviding elllployment to 97.54 per cent of the
female workers both as primary and secondary occupations. , ,Out ,of-to,talfemale workers engaged in farm '
activities, 84.38 per cent worked as' fun' time workers
and only 15.62 per cent' were 'engaged as' part-tim<j
,workers.. In 8-hour days; the average annual employ- "
ment of females in farm activities was 5,1.53 days in:
rllargina1farms, 73.13 days in small farms and 89.37
days in mediUm farmS.

'ONTHwISEVAlUATION'
OF FEMALE.PARTICIPA,
. TIQN.-.Fro~ the monthly distribution pattern
of total and average maridays worked' by females in
farm activities, 'relating to cultivation,' ;'f paddy; as
shown in Table T, it is evident tliat ouring the crop
soasOli,
(a) farm activities
of.' females
spread duringa
.
-'
.
"A
span of 9 moriths; (b) Jnly-Angust arid. December-,
January were thc' busy months forofemale workers and
during these periods utilization of f~male labour was
'15

very 'high in farm activitie:;; (c) in the other monthS,,

farm <lctivitieswere less for female workers. During
,February, ~arch and April, females did not work in '
any type of farm production. The nature of monthly
variations in female labour utilization was similar in
difierent faf!ll size groups but the extent of monthly
fluctuations in man-days .worked by females were'
higher in Jiigher.. farm size groups. During JulyAugust and 'D.ecember-January, average man-days
worked by females increa~ with increase in size of '
farm, but during other months definite relationship
, Table I ~
Montlt-wise distribution of average DIlUl-dnys

between size of farm arid miin-days worked by females

was not seen.
Mshown in Table i, an average female wor~ed for
1.73 days in May, whichincrcas,d to 7.15 ,days in
June, 13.05 days in July, 'and '16.04 days in August.
In September average man-days declined to, 8.45 and
to 2.58 in October. From November farm activities o~
females started rising and in December it was highest
at 19.66 days and then declined to 13.,;\8 days in
January.
worked by female ,workers in difFerent farm size gronps.
'

Man-days Size G~ouPWise' (In 8-hour days)

Months

Marginal

May.
June
July,
August
September.
October
.

.'
,

2.03
5.15
10.70
11.91
4'52,
2'41
7 -07
15 .39
9.76

November.
. . Deee.mber
January
..
, February}
. Marcb

Nil

Small

Medium

All Sizes

2'31
5.12
12.93
14.18
10.60 '
2.29
6.86
19.57
14'51

1.06
, 10 .73
14'86
21.08
9.60
3.10
8.65
24'23
15.29

1.73
7 '15
13 -05
160()4
8.45.
2.58
6.69
19.66
,13'38

Nil

Nil

ApriL

"

Female .workers had two busy periods in the crop

season. The first busy period started from the middle
of June and continued upto middle of September.
During this period, females were engaged in transplanting of winter rice (sali) and harvesting of autumn rice
(ahu). The second busy period began from the last
half of November' and continued' npto middle of
January. This was the harvesting period of winter
rice. ,During transplanting season, man-days worked
by females wer highest in August. During harvesting season, J:)ecember was, the busiest period' for
female workers.
ONTHL Y
VARIAnONS
in the prOportiOli of
, female labour force engaged iIi farni activities as '
~hown in ,Table II indicate that during busy moJ!lhs

Table

n : Mon tlt-wise vnriatlODoHemale

Nil,

'.

of July, August and December, 98 to 99 per cent

of the female workers worked in the farms while durfig lean months ouly 12 to 28 per cent of the female.
workers were engaged ;there.' The rest of th~ female
workers withdrew from the labour force and
engaged themselves in other non-fahn activities. The
proportion of female workers engaged in the farm
during' the busy months increased with the increase
in farm size. In medium farms, the proportion of,
the females actually engaged in farm activities during
July-August, were, even higher than the proportion of
females labour force due to engagement of' miilor
girls and aged females as family workers during such
periods. Such minor girls and aged females were.
' not, in the regular .'work force in the rural housepolds.

labour force engaged in Agriculture (percentage)

.

"

Proportion of.female labo.ur force engaged in different farm size

Months

"groups

Marginal
. May
June.
, July.
August:
September
October
,
November.

DeCember
January
February
Marcb
, April

.
}

'.

5.74
.14 '75
95-()8
95 -08
78.69
11'47
19.67
95 -08
95.08
,Nil

1:

Small

All Sizes

Medium

13.38
19 -01
97.89
97.89
88 -03
12.68
28'17
97 .89
97'89

9'02
' 9-02
103'76
103.76
71-43
11.28
34'59
100 -00
100 -00

Nil

Nil,

\,

11.59
14'36
98.99
98 '99
,79'60
11:84
27.71
97-73
97'73
Nil

...'...:,'KdR'OKSHgTRA July 1, 1983'


<

; The rat)ge of seaSonal vanations ill employment, is 'remairi wit!lout gainful ePlployment for loilger periods
Wider for females than. for males as they are engaged
in the crop seasqn. It is highly imperative
evolve \
in farm activities during specific operations. ,The
measures to provide job opportunities for females in
nature' of division of labour in. agricultural activities
rural areas b~th in the farm and non-farm sectors
between male and female members were similar irresin order to bridge the gap between employment and
'pective of ~he size of the farm. Female pa(ticipation
.unemployment in ajp-iculture. Intensification of agriin agriculture is marked by concentration of work
'culture through adoption of double and multiple crop,'
during a few months and sharp ifse and fall in, work,
,intensity during different period in a year.
'
pilig practiceS 'would increase prospects of employ.
,
ment
on ,the farm. Development of small scale and
"
Conclusion
cottage Illdustries and expausion 'of rural .Welfare
'~erviCes would enhance employment opportunities
EASONAL
FLUCTUATION
in employment is higher
for females in the non-farm sector.
in case of females in iural areas and females

to

I.

(conidfrom p. 14)
necessary infrastructure for marKeting of MOUS
goods produced by', the" cottage' and village,
industries.

3'
'The Khadi and Village Industries ,Commission
should undertake market research on'a continuous
basis to asSess and evaluate the chartgiJig trends in
oonsumer tastes within and outside the country and
to develop the local. market as wejl. as the export
potential of the village industries' products.

, There is every need to set up

District Level
Organisation that would look after the task. of
6timulating ,production, expand supply and widen
the local markets for the' products of the village
industries lying within its jurisdiction.

7
I

, A separate organisation to provide m'arketing

sen.ices to the village industries sector has to be set
up in public as well as private sectors.
The
working of the existing orgamsations may be toned
up so as to render them more effective in evolving ,
extensive marketing networks for !he village industries products.,

8
A general complaint about the c9tlage industries
.is with regarcf to the poor quality 01 the products
and general lack of their acceptability, to the con-.
sumer, particularly the urban cOnsumer. In view of
the rural markets being sman, to make the rural
:industries' products more acCeptable 'in the urban
markets, it is essential to improve their quality, and
consumer appeal by. taking necessary steps.

5,
In order to increase ,local consumption some
kind of "Swadeshi" sentiment must be developed
among the peopfu to build up local market and local
'. support. Besides, a study of the village weekly
markets and shandies should be taken up to find
out the sales potential and 'the marketability of the
village industries' produ:ts.

6
In order to provide a packa~ of f!",ilities to the
village industrIes, necessary measures have to be
initiated to (a) supply raw materials at cheaper
,rates; (b) to arrange credit facilities from institu- '
'tional 'agencies; (c) evolve. uniform procurem~nt
policy atld price policy; (d) identify the, poten!,al
de~and; (e) improve the quality .of the products,
and also its design and packaging; and\ (f) initiate'
training programmes to the village artisans and
develop ,their skills.

~ KURUKSHETRA July

'

9
Rural marketing and service centres '(RMSC)
',covering all trildes in a block is another pattern
introducl'd recently. Such centres should be set up
In ail parts of the country.

~RIOUS STRATEGIES for ,promoting the" marketing

, of village and cottage industries' products have
.been tried through the formation of cooperatives, ,es.
tablishment, or' sales emperia, marketing federatiens,
government depets and a number of other ~ales'organisations. ,Still there is .a vast scepe to develop an
.effectlve marketing network keeping in view the above
suggestiens. Ulymately it is the effective marketing
that the sets the trend for grewth and development
of the cottage and village industries that play a key
role in the Indian economy a'nd whose reach in terms
'ef empleyment and dispersal of 1ienefits is vast en-,
ought .te mak~ a dent into rural peverty.

17

Tundi: self-help experimenf

in tribal d6velopment
J. S.BRARA

Deputy Commissioner,:DlilUibali '(Bihar)

EN YEARS AGO if a stranger visited one of the

, tribal villages of Tundi block in DJ"mbad d{strict,
he invariably got a cold reception. On seeing ,him,
the tribals would avoid hini, recede into the fields and'
forests, and even threaten-menacingly with their bows
a~d arrows. To them, he was probably like the rest ; I
ont to grab their lands, catch them in their credit net, I
or otherwise cause them harm. Even local officials
were looked upon with .suspicion and avoided.

Today a visitor is received with smiles and warrnth.

His feet are washed by tribal girls in the traditional
gesture of hospitality, and he is given a glass of mille
If there is a prior intimation of the visiting dignitary"
he is received a mile before the .,village by tribals in},
their traditional attire, complete with bows and arrows,
spears and drums. He is escorted by'them singing to '
the beat of the drums, imd garlanded by dancing tribal
'women, Th,e fear and suspicion has been replaced by
friendliness and trust.
The process of change began when the blOCkofficials started examining the land ownership in the area..
Through a gradual process of moneylending and
mortgaging, tribal, land had passed iJ,lto 'the possession ,of outsiders. The tribals became reduced in
status from owner-cultivators to mere labourers on
their oWn land, producing crops for aliens, crushed
under a debt burden irredeemable due to the atrocious
, rates of interest. It was this vicious'exploitation that
, had made the tribals suspiciouS of all outsiders.

, 'Restoration of land-and

faith

provides
tectiou to tribal tenants frO)ll exploit[t{on
e~ction by 'landlords; it even protects them
alienation from their iand 'by mortgage 'or

HE

18

CHHOTAHAGPUR'TENANCY

ACT

Under Section 46 of the Act, any mortgage, lease

beyond five years or any sale or gift will be held invalid, except those which involve transfer to other tribals with the previous sanction Of the Deputy Commissioner. ' Like many existing acts and laws, this
One too was' lying dormant in the case of Tundi,
tribals because there were no complainants, there was
, no one to mobilise and guide the tribals to seek help
from th~ administration. Besides: if past experience
was any indication, they did not expect much help
from officials either. The arrival in 1974 of a Deputy
Commissioner, known for kis devotion to ,the tribal,
cause came as a boon. A survey was condncted~ and'
a massive nUinber of, restoration cases were instituted. By means of camp courts, it was made possible to, '
energise the Block machinery to institute 2109 cases.
Within the period of one year, orders were, passed
in 152'9 cases'restoring 1016 acres of !and to 1708
tribals in Tundi, its original owners:
The drive was so effective that since 1916, when all
pending cases were disposed of, no, fresh cases have '
corne tO'light. But more than restoring possession of
land, the drive' ,brought about a' restoration of .faith,
new developmental attitude that has moved the people
forward without looking back ever since. As a result
of the awareness that was created, the tribals had now
begun clamouring for, ,greater development' action by

government agencies.

,T

Modified area development approach

UND!, oue of the ten blocks of the rich industrial

,
Dhanbad district, is also the 'most backward
proand ~ ' block. Haviug no roal resources; it is essentially a
hilly area with poor soil and the agriculture here is
from
dependent on the whims of the monsoons.
sale.

KURUKSHETRA July 1,1983

'tum!i block covers an area of 395.4 sq. km,wvided, into 24 ,panchayats, with a total' population of
83,152. (;)f this, 36,541 are tribals, comprising 43
percent of the total populatio!),., since, the Qverall
population of tribals in the block is below 50 percent,
the tribal sUQ.-plandevelopment programme would not
be applicable in Tundi. 'For areas outside the subplan, where there are pockets of tribal conc~ntration,
each pocket comprising oj a minimum of ,1O,OQO
population of which at least 50 p.\<rc~n!'!Ie trib~, a
special project was taken up in 1980 entitled "M<>9ified Area Development Approach" (MAnA). Two
such pockets' were identified in Tundi Block-Tundi-I,
contaiIJing 102 villages with a population of 21,921;
of which 14,893 (67;94 percent) are tribals; and
Tundi-II, comprising of 88 villages with a population
of-23,;Z90 of which 14,759 (63,37 P!lrcent) are
tribals.
The' most' noteworthy feature 'of this special
programme ~ that it is to be undertaken by the trib$
themselves. The tribals will decide wh",! programme
are suitable, they will decide the priorities and also
execute it themselves. Outside contractors or agencies
are completely forbidden. The importante of this
aspect is tremendous; not ouly does it remove the
usual malpractices of sub-standard performance and
profiteering, but it gives a psychological thros,t to the
tribals enabling them to participate both in conception
and execution, of their development programmes.
Development theorists and critics of the various
projects taken up during the last two decades hav~
emphasised that !he concept. of plannjp.g and impl:mentation from the top' does not yield the desired results. These are innumerable c",ses where development projects have' failed even after cOmpletion be,cause they did, not actually take into account the
iequirements of the people at th~ grassroots. Even
today, for example, housing colonies for the poorer
sections are lying abandoned after completion because
a thorough study of' the needs <J.Ildrequirements of
the beneficiaries Were not given due consideration.
Developme'nt criti"" have pointed out th~ importance
of reversing the trend from top-down to bottom-up;
the need for planning from below, and ,he organisation ,and mobilisation of ,the poorer sections of successful implemenl"ctionof the 'development projects.

NDER M';-diliedArea Development Approach, the

'tribal
pockets ,are divided into groups of 10 to 15
village comprising 2 to 3 panchayats. For each area,
one socialwork~r is ,appointed from among,the tribalS
with their ,concurrence. The social worker is selected
on the basis of leadership qualities and interest in
development ,work, and his ability to mobilise and
familiarise the triQals with the d~velopment programmes and the possib.i!ities. He is paid a stipend
~ Rs. 300 per month. He maintains constant lialson
betwoon his area and the block officialS.

KURUKSHETRA July 1;'1983

Since the initiation of the pr~amme in 1980, lts.

16. lakhs have been earmarked' for Tundiof which
RBi', 11'.3 lakhs'have been spent so far. A total of 1506
schemes have been taken up of which 1306 have been
completed. ' These include various irrigation' schemes;
drinking water wells, cattle and, agricutural implements bullock carts, milch anim.als, sweening
machines, implements for carpentry and for village
craftsmen, an~ repair _and construction of school
buildings. Nointermediarics have 'been used at any, '
stage. No Cash has bl',n made .available to the tribalS
for purchases of the items to prevent misuse, 'The
purchase has been done centrally and distribution done
at camps among the tribal beneficiaries selected by
the tribals themselves at therr village committees.
SOUle items like, agricultural spraying machines are
distributed among certain tribals as cnstodians . for
geiler,u use for all in the village.

D'

RINKING .WATER is a' basic and essential ~equirement whIc1"was nnfulfilled among the trIbals i'n
Tundi. The problem was specially severe during the
pre-monsoon months when rivukts go dry." Apart
from construction of the' large diameter wells used
both for drinking water and irrigation, it was found
that the problem could be solved to a great extent. by
construction of small diameter shallow wells, locally
called 'Dari-C!tua', in low lying areas. The practice
of ,digging up these shallow wells during the lean
nlonths was existing from before; under this programme it was decided to' construct cemented shallow
wells in large numbers so that they would provide
clean and regular drinking water all. the year roul\d.
58 such wells have been completed and 23 are under
, construction.

After drinking water, irrigation to 'facilitate culti.vallon is, the main requireUlent of the tribals of,
Tundi, who are still essentially dependant on single
crop agriculture. The construction and deepening' of
,irrigation wells was taken up , un&r this programme '
and as a result of the awareness generated, asSociat",
,ed programmes like lift irrigation schemes of the
Minor krigatiolJ. Department, irrigation' Projects of,
Bihar Hill Area Lift Irrigation Corporation, and
construction of wells with subsidy' from DRDA were
also taken up as a special drive. ..

MAnA generally envisages small schemes. In

one area; however, it was felt that a very Useful
medium irrigation scheme could be constructed which
Would serve to irrigate over 100 acres of land.
There were objections to entrust ,this scheme to tribals
sinCe it was felt that the scheme was tOQbig and too
technical for them and should be executed by a specialised department like M'mor Irrigation. This was
vehemently opposed by the tribalS who had by' now
developed the ,confidence of implemen!ing theiroWn
19


'scllenits, and had ako tully realised that they c6uid
ensure beller
, quality at cheaper cost by undertaking
the work themselves. They did not trust the other
departmentsBince many' schemes have' been left
inComplete by these departments due to delay and
escalation of ,costs. Moreover, in the past these departments had conStructed the schemes in their own
'wisdom, often impractical for' the tribals, who felt
, they had no utility for these. _
'

Tundi blazes a new trail

ple!ion qfthis ,schenie, the\ribals have shown: !heir

, ability to undertake and 'efficiently complete larger
schemes entrusted to them. " This is bound to 'result
in granting larger schemes to, the tribals under this
programme.
Tundi Block is well o~ its way to proiress and the
tribalt; 'have learnt to help the~el'les.
They come
forward with their demands and know their rights;
ana the government agencies' are responSive. Sometimes this has involved action against errant officials.
A veterinary officer realising tolls and giving fake in, jeetions to animals own~ by tribals was summarily
transferred and proceeded against., An ad,ult education project' officer foUnd clainting and pocketing
funds for non-existent centres was suspended.

THEIR'ENTHUSIASM, 'the District Adminis-,

tration agreed io relax the rules and entrust the
pimd~ Nala Medium Irrigation, Seh~J!le,irivolvirig
Rs. '1,35,000, to the tribals. Tbe work was taken np
iri Feb'\Uary this year on a war footing. ':Q1etri!>als
The success of this movement has, transformed the
were greatly' encouraged by this gesture and,theIaith
feeling among the tribals from one of.non-cooperatiorl.
shown in them and were determined' to complete this
, and sep.rr",tism to an attitude of concerted and in~
scheme in the miriimnm possible time. Hundred/; of
, volved development. The BOO and' Circle Officer
tribals offered their labour' willingly at the site and
,proudly show the schemes to visitors and the disbelievwithin fo,, ~onths, the scheme w completed !!!lper
ing critics. Needless to say, much remains to be' done
specifications, well before the ons,et of the monsoons.
to further improve the area and' the livip.j;conditions
The District AdininiStiation, ensured proper guidance
of the tribals'; but developing the enthusiasm and right'
, ,by the engineers of the Minor Irrigation l;)epartment
spirit is criticili, and achieving that h~ been the real
and promPt disbursement' of funds. A subsidised 'sasti:
roti' (cheap food) shop was also set up to provide , success in TundL' The success siory of Tundi Block
should s~rve as an ideal example for people in other
meals for the labourers; the management of the shop
tribal areas.
was again by a local tribal. ' Wiih the SUCCessful
comEEING

, I

(contd. trom p. 7)

With the introduction of maltila mandals in a

village; we could' discern a change in the way of talking of the women, increased cultural awareness
and a certain improvement in their self-care and'
behaviour. They were found to be more neatly dressed and were found to keep themselves mqre dean and
tidy in their personal carriage. There was an' improvement iri the social' interactioJi among women,
,wno have learnt the method of talking, to other.;
with 'mOre confidence and with some sense ofassurance;, ,Certainly nota mean ,achievement for,
rurlu women! In sonie cases, there was an improvement' in the 'socio-economic conditions especially"
ainongthose who were attending the tailoring claSses
as they could earn money by. way of taking, up the
j'ob of:'stlidiing' clothes etc. It also helped them to
develop 'their own skills in kitchen-gardening, and
attend 'to their, own poultrY" tailoring and ,handicrafts in a ,better way.: Sanitation and health aspects
oCthe village were also taken, care of due to ,their
increased :awareness' about' their' own health. They.also eVinced' "keen interest in 'knowing more and
more about the affairs or the'State, the country and
the world events~
'
, ::'"
"

the world events:

relt that they '~an, work vigorously if more fliiids ' are
I ,

20

available for their' actiVities. Some of the members

felt that mahila mandals should conduct short-term'
and condensed courses in teaching school subjects
for the benefit of the' scheduled caste and backward
class students to improve their educational leveL
T IS also' interesting ~o note that those mahila man" dals which were well established ~d were getting
pnvate grants were found to function more effectively and as 'and when the grants got reduced the work
also dwindled. The funds that they are getting rrom
the government in the form of grants were not enough
, to, fulfil the objectives of the maltila mandals. The
committee members hoped to improve the financial
status of maltila mandals in the years to come through
their
. own efforts in addition.. to government grants.
,

In the foregoing we have attempted to iUustrate

that specialised voluntary agencies like mahila mandals 'show great promise in improving the socioeconomic status of rural women' through their activities. We have also demonstrated that how keen
and sincere' iIiterest of the pf!rl of organisers of
mahila mandals can go a long way in helping rural
women"to not only acquire new skills but also enable
them create a 'congenial atmosphere a! home and 'outside for a beller life.
'

t,,:

KURUKSHE~ JUly 1;

1~83

I.

, 'They show the way,.

\

This feature is based on success stories viz. achie~ements gained in viuloua

spheres of rural development by.farmers, institutions, experimenters and. individuals. There is hardly an argument over the. tact that. dedication and zeal to
pui in hard >l?0rkcan achieve anything. And one achievement inspires and shows
the -way to others! '
,,
We hope our esteemed readers will send us their oWn experiences in, the
'field so that other can benefit by them to usher in a better life for our rurill.
people. (Editor)

Houses for the rural poor

no rule of thumb. for villalte
THAT'THERECAN'be
development,was proved in Kuppireddygudem, a
smaIl village is situated in Suryapet taluk of Nalgonda, .
Andhra Pradesh, Knowledge' gained from studying
books on rural development ~r going through ,vanous
manuals can help a little, to he sure, but' an actual
contact with village life ha~_no parallel for an adminis- ,
!.rator.
(

.-

This village was surveyed in 1974-75 and a list of

house-less (eligible beneficiaries) persons was prepared.
There. were sixty "fthem in all. Five acres of land
was acquired for. providing house sites to these people
(3 acres at the rate of 5 cents each) arid fur internal
roads and Community Hall. The- Government of
Andhra Pradesh had a scheme of rural housing at the
unit cost of Rs. 1000. . The entire cost is borne by
the Government. (No repayment is expected from th~
beneficiaries. (This scheme has since been. discontinued). One such colOliy was, sanctioned for this
village.

I
!

Generally speaking, only huts are taken up under

this' scheme for construction. ' So much so that it has
oome to be better known as Hutting programme. As
fire accidents are all too common in these parts, huts
with their thatched roofs are not safe to live in. Oniy a
-tiled roo( is proof against fire. But providing a tiled
roof in a uuit ~ost ofRs. 1000 is not possible.
KURUKSHETRA

, ,

Inly 1, 1983

Now, in order to .overcome this difficulty, the heneficiaries themselves.were contacted for their views: All
the officers involved in the execution of this programme'
were oonversant with village life. Counting on the
native common sense of .the villagers, we explained
the vulnerability of a thatched roof to fire and also
the difficulty of.laying a tiled roof within the unit cost
of Rs. 1000, They understood the problem and
assured us that they wonld themselves contrib~te some
money for the tiled roof from their savings. In addi.
tion, they came up with a novel pr0]>OsaI. The pro-

'Paimyrah leave.s stacked before a hut for constructing.

a ca~tIe.shed
21.

posaI' was that they would lay an the intern31 roads

,by, 'Shram Dan' so that themeney intended for internal
-' rOaas, aIsQ'would 'be utilisedfiirthe
purchase oniles.
_ The, very oriiin;,];ty of tkidea, was refuies1Jing. It was,
-' :ev~riJiloieheaitenihg
as it came 'from the villagers'
'theInselves.' ,Tbey ,consiructed; the colony in a record
,timeof::t1uee: months,
'
. ~.

"

....~:.,' :,.:.-:,.. -..';'~_:> - -"

A'~~ew.
.ofli~s~ buu,rf4?r',we,ake;r sections
"

:,'

-,'

at

Kupp;reddyglidem

Now there is a well laid out colol}Yof sixty houses.

I draw two lessons from this ex~rience : First, whenever any,developmental activity isiaken up, the officer
c~nremed should go to the village himself and spend
as much ashe can sPeakinipo file beneficiaries. 'No
amount of or administrative experience can match
the common'sense of the villager. Secondly, while
selecting ',beneficiaries for schemes such as this, care
should be taken ro select those who can afford', two
squaremeaIs a day,' 0uly they can have suffiCient
interest and time to 'construct a ,house. For those who
cannot even earn their own upkeep, housing colony
cannot, in the nature of things, be the top priority.
F'or these people, employment must be provided under
tlie:V:aii~t;s nrraideveIopmenf schemes to enaoletheni '
"to'rri:ike both ends meet. Housing comes lifter that,
'not before. If this is not clearly,understood, the selection 'of beneficiaries for the varioUs ruraI development
, ,schemes'
is bound to gp awry. 'the
success story of
, the cOnstruction of the housing' colony at Kuppireddy, gtirlem is a result' precisely of. this understanding. ,
.,--PHANI KUMAR '
~'
SDM, Nalgonda (A.P.)

45th of his life, With years rolling by for Erappa and

his parents" wife, ~ndJ)u;' three children, life was' a
burden that had:ta be li'd;~
Since Erappa's parentS' were aged, his Wife had to
look after the household: work and the three childten.'"
There was ouly one' hand,'i.e" Erappa whi> worked as'"
a 'cooly earmng about Rs. 7 per day. Taking around
250 working,days, his ilJ~ome was about Rs. 1750.
His wife also, acccmpaiJi~d him at least about 100 days
in a year and earned Rs, -350 at a wage rate of Rs. 3.50
per woman 'coply iu the'nearby fields. Thus aU put
together, the :income of the family was around to be
,Rs., 2100,per:ilimum. ,iUs needless to say that with
this income tlley found'it hard to manage life. Erappa
was one cif,i1ieJlOuseholils,surveyed and selected as the
beneficiary oORD? in,,the Myakalura:hally cluster. He
opted' fQr ,the, Buff~oe, scheme which was part of his
househeld :plan., "
Canara Baitit,::HiriWrwas entrusted with the financing el' thk~~ve
duste~:' The Dynamic Manager of ,
Canara. Blink, :,uiing ~witJ1B.D.O. Hiriyur, conducted
,-.redit camps andfie](fvlsiis culminating in the sanction
J{ buIfa1oe' sch~:tl:ie loan to the beneficiary, Improved
buffaloes were purchased and handed over to the bene-,
ficiary by the purchase committee and thus came a
happy day when finally the buffaloes, arrived at
Erappa's house,
The' buffaloes yield upto 4 Ltrs. a day and at the
present market rate of RS. 2.50 per Ltr. it is sold at
Rs. 10 per day. DeductiDg the cest of feed and
graSs 'at RS., 2 Per day for the buffaloes: there is still
an' inCOmeof ~s. 8 per day.. A soon as the present
gQes 'dry another buffaloe would be given to ~
as
part of the scheme. Thus today, Erappa has an additional income of Rs. 8 per day which works ont to
Rs, 2900 per annum (Approx.) with his earlier income
of R,s.,21QO per,y",,the family has an annual income
ofR~,:50,(j(jpe't:an,niIth.:' :Thus the family has crossed
the povertylfue,'"
"'"
'
'
Erappa' while talking:.!o the Projectailthorities Ie-',
vealedlhat"the buffaloo'scheme has been' of immense:
suptJ'Ortand ,has helped to consolidate,his eC~OI~ic,
pQSition" Lik fur ,hiin: ROW is definitely a little better
to ,lead,:than befere ..

Erappa's new'strength

U on.,EMPPA'of:Myaka1urahally,
,r:,Chitradprga:
District, the year
-.....
.

'.'

',;

Hiriyur 'Taluk,
1982-'83 was the

...

'

'.'

,'

~.

..'

-M. N. SHANKAR
FPO, Chitradurga
(Karnataka)

, ,

--:

22'

J. ': _ ~.'

,-

":'1,

.
",'

".".,

iKURUKSHETRA July 1, 1983

fd"orethan 1600 primary health

~ntres will be added during the
sixth Plan period.

Rural
health
With the objecti"e of providing better primary hea'th care and medical care services to
r"ral areas, triba' areas, and poor people, differelll schemes have been launched to meet the basic
hea:tlz needs of rural areas, to prel'ent and control nutritiolta. deficiencies and to reduce mortalit)'
and morbidity among infalllS and chi dren.
Efforts to eradicate and contra' commun'cab 'e diseases and train'ng of hea.'th workers has
been a part of all hEa th care schemes, The new lO-point programme has laid special emphasis
all improving the hea th !itatus of peop 'e by promoting family
planning on a vo,'untary basis and to
augment primary hea thfaci ities and contra' ,eprosy, T. B. and b indne'S. Besides, programmes
are on for accelerating the wefare of women and chi dren, especia.'ly those in triba', hiil and
backward areas.

The driving force behind the

health planning is the commitment of the nation to achieve
the goal of Health for All by
2000 A.D.

I:

---

(Licensed under U (DN)-54 to post without

ment at Civil Lines Post Office, Delhi).

Regd. No. D (DN)L39

RN 702/57

prepay-

r,',

The main o bjecti v:: of h~a1th car~ p~ogram_"1l'~is to._makeit ~vailable to even the poorest of the poor.

Rural
health

A number of schemes hal'e been )auw;lred 10 extend medical and healtlr facilities
in rural
and tribal areas, such as Community Health Voluntary Schl!me (now kiloHm as Health Guide
Scheme), Multipurpose Workers Scheme, Reorientation of Medic'a! Education Scheme etc.
At
presellt 111
ere are 5,444 primary 1Iea:t1lcentres (PHC) and 51,192 sub-centres catering to tlce Icea'l1I
and medica' lIeeds of t1le vi loges. Eaclc PHC caters on 011 a,'erage 10 80,000 to 1,00,000 pop"'ation
i.e. abolll 80 to 100 l'i/ages.
A sub-centre CO"ers a population of 10,000 i.e. aboul 10 ,'ieages.
Tlce number of docto's alld 1Iospital beds has iltcreased by morel t1lall two-alld-a-haf
limes alld
Ihat o.fnurses by more than six limes sillce the p'an. began.
PUBL15HED

BY

PRINTED

BY THE

THE DIRECTOR, PUBLICATION

BUSINESS MANAGER:

MANAGER,

GOVERNMENT

S. L. JAISWAL

DIVISION,

NEW

DELHhllOOOl,

OF INDIA PRESS,

ASSTT. DIRECToR

AND

FARIDABAD,

(p) : K.

R. KRISHNAN