Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Design and cost analysis of low head simple reaction hydro

turbine for remote area power supply
Abhijit Date*, Aliakbar Akbarzadeh
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Bundoora, Melbourne 3083, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Available online 30 August 2008

This paper is aimed at exploring the performance characteristics of a simple reaction hydro turbine for
power generation. Using principles of conservation of mass, momentum and energy, the governing
equations have been identied for an ideal case of no frictional losses. The paper also describes the
conception of a cross-pipe rotor for remote area electricity production. Using the ideal governing
equations an optimized geometry of the rotor was selected for the working head of 5 m. Theoretical
analysis of the self-governing characteristics has been presented. Experiments were carried out for 2, 3, 4
and 5 m head and evaluated against theoretical results. Split pipe turbine model is presented with detail
layout, while different methods of experimentation are explored for different output requirements with
varied heads. Various losses in the system are discussed, quantied and included in the graphical format.
It is also demonstrated that the experimental power outputs do not have the same tendencies as
theoretical predictions and decreases due to jet interference beyond a certain rotational speed as it
passes the maximum power point.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Reaction turbine
Low head
Hydro electric
Barkers Mill

1. Introduction
With the increase in awareness about the importance of a sustainable environment, it has been recognized that traditional dependence on fossil fuel extracts a heavy cost from the environment.
Hence keeping in mind that the world is currently heavily
dependent on fossil fuels which are rapidly diminishing, the role of
renewable energy has been recognized as great signicance for the
global environmental concerns. Hydro-power is a good example of
renewable energy and its potential application to future power
generation cannot be underestimated.
Water energy being a clean, cheap and environment friendly
source of power generation is of great importance for sustainable
future; being aware of this fact, still major of the hydro energy is
under utilized. The main reason being initial investment in building
huge dams and large power stations, the second reason is these
large dams are not environment friendly. Additionally, most of the
low head water sources are yet to be explored. The cost of the
commercially available low head water turbines is considerably
high per kilowatt output, more research need to be done on lowering the cost of these low head hydro-power systems. Use of these
low head water sources will help in de-centralization of power
supply and helping remote area power supply [1]. Thus Barkers

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dateabhijits@gmail.com (A. Date).
0960-1481/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.05.012

Mill/Heros turbine was acknowledged to be the best option for

cheap turbine [2].
This paper will focus mainly on the manufacturing and experimentation of a simple reaction water turbine working on the same
principle of Barkers Mill under the micro-hydro range for low head
applications. Simple manufacturing methods using locally available
material and skills with cost analysis will be presented. The performance of the test unit will be explored and evaluated as well as
identify potential areas for improvement.
2. Basic design and costing
Two types of simple reaction turbine designs have been discussed in the following notes: split pipe turbine and cross-pipe
turbine. This paper will only discuss the performance analysis of
split pipe turbine design.
The idea of split pipe reaction turbine is inuenced by the
Savonius wind rotor [3,4]. The split pipe reaction turbine shown
in Fig. 1 is manufactured by cutting a plastic pipe into two halves
and then off-set the centers by 6 mm and joint the top and bottom
plates. This is thought to be the simplest method for manufacturing
a simple reaction turbine and hence the name split pipe reaction
turbine. Grey PVC pipe with wall thickness of 6.5 mm and nominal
diameter of 250 mm was used. Table 1 discusses the simple costing
of split pipe turbine.
Another turbine has been designed and manufactured using
standard galvanised pipe ttings which is shown in Fig. 2. This

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A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

volume ow rate (m3/s)

density of water (kg/m3)
radius of the rotor (m)
torque (N-m)
output power (W)
angular velocity of the rotor (rad/s)
tangential velocity of the nozzles (m/s)
absolute velocity (m/s)
relative velocity (m/s)
factor for viscous losses

V_

Nomenclature

r
An
dn
nf
nn
g
H
Hc
_
m

area of each nozzle (m2)

nozzle diameter (m)
number of faces
number of nozzles per face
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
head (m)
centrifugal head (m)
mass ow rate of water in turbine (kg/s)

R
T
_
W

u
U
Va
Vr
k

turbine is made from 300 cross at the center with the two arms made
out of 300 adapter ttings. Each arm carries a 300 200 reduction elbow
to direct the ow in the tangential direction to the rotor diameter.
Standard 15 mm solid stream jet nozzles are attached to both the
elbows at the exit, this helps to recover the maximum possible
thrust from the exiting ow [5]. Table 2 discusses the simple
costing of cross-pipe turbine.
3. Experimental set up
The experimental test rig as shown in Fig. 3 was constructed
based on previous studies [6] and experiments and was built purposely. In the experimental test rig we are trying to simulate actual
ow conditions using a 7.5 kW water pump (Onga pump) which
has a maximum ow rate of 300 l/min. The supply pressure and the
ow rate to the turbine can be controlled using two gate valves on
the upstream to the water pump; one valve is attached on the bypass line and other is on the main supply line, we also have programmable speed controller which when connected to the pump
power supply can be used to control the ow rate and pressure.
Mechanical ow meter (operating range 5 l/s to 50 l/s) is installed
after the by-pass on the supply line to measure the actual ow
through the turbine. A pressure gauge is installed just before the
entry port to the turbine to measure the actual supply pressure
(range 0100 kPa).
As shown in Fig. 4, water enters through the entry port where
a V-ring lip (Forshida, Sweden) seal prevents water leakage. The
seal works under pressure from the supply water; under very low
(up to 5 kPa) pressure some leakage is observed. As the supply
pressure increases the sealing ability improves, above 10 kPa it was
observed that there was absolutely no leakage at the entry port. But
the result of high pressure on the seal is higher frictional losses
between the seal and the entry port which has been discussed
further in Section 7.

The turbine is connected to a 1.5 kW 1750 RPM DC motor (Baldor motors) using a simple key and grub screw arrangement. The
output of the DC motor passes through a variable electric load and
an analogue and digital voltmeter and ammeter. As an electric load,
potentiometers ranging from 50 W to 1000 W and load bank with
globe bulbs in series and parallel combination were used for the
performance analysis. Several tests were carried out on split pipe
reaction turbine to determine the performance characteristics under low heads ranging from 2 m (approx. 20 kPa) to 5 m (approx.
50 kPa). The test results gave a better understanding of power
generating capacity, rotor efciency and of the overall system
efciency.
4. Governing equations
Assuming that losses related to ow of water from source,
piping, rotor and nozzle are neglected, mechanical losses such as
windage losses due to rotation of the rotor and frictional losses of
the bearings are also disregarded. Assuming water to be
incompressible appropriate equations have been derived with
reference to Fig. 5 [7].

U Ru

(1)

Va Vr  U

(2)

With the centrifugal head

Hc

u2 R 2
2g

(3)

Ideally kinetic energy should be equal to sum of potential energy and energy due to centrifugal head (assuming negligible uid
friction).

Fig. 1. Split pipe reaction turbines.

A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

411

Table 1
Costing of split pipe turbine (capacity range 0.5 kW1.5 kW)
Turbine parts

Material cost (AU$)

Labor hours ($20 per h)

Labor cost (AU$)

PVC pipe OD 1000 (250 mm)  150 mm

PVC discs 300 mm  4mm (Qty 02)
Flanged transmission coupling
Stainless steel entry port
V-ring seal
Assembly and balancing

10
10
30
15
6
N.A.

0.5
0.5
N.A.
3
N.A.
2

10
10
N.A.
60
N.A.
40

Total

Total (AU$)
20
20
30
75
6
40
191

_ Tu
W

(9)

With the application of conservation of energy we get

_ 1mV
_ a2
_
mgH
W
2

(10)

_ a2 is the kinetic energy lost with the water owing out.

Here 1=2mV
If we consider the losses related to ow of water from supply
piping, rotor and nozzle, then we can rewrite the above equation as

1
_ 1mV
_ a2 mkV
_ r2
_
mgH
W
2
2

(11)

where k is the coefcient representing the uid frictional losses

associated with the relative velocity Vr. So from Eqs. (1), (2), (5), (6),
(8), (9) and (11) we get

rVr

Fig. 2. Cross-pipe reaction turbine made from standard pipe ttings.

s
q
1
2gH R2 u2
1 k

(12)

Finally, the efciency of the system being able to convert potential energy to output work can be written as

1 2
rV rgH  Hc
2 r

rVr

(4)

q
2gH R2 u2

_
W
_
mgH

(13)

5. Non-interference rotor

(5)

Mass ow rate owing out of the nozzle can be written as

_ rVr A
m

(6)

Therefore

q
_ rA 2gH u2 R2
m

(7)

Torque produced by the turbine can be written as

_ aR
T mV

For a simple reaction turbine there is a certain rotational speed

before which there is no interference between turbine and jet,
which can be called as non-interference speed. So as the rotor rotates at this speed, point C on the rotor as shown in Fig. 6 intersects
the jet at point B [1].
The equation for the maximum non-interference speed can be
derived as follows.
Point C on rotor will intersect jet at point B if

tCB tAB
(8)

The torque and angular velocity can be associated with the

output power

(14)

Here tCB is the time required for point C to travel to point B and tAB is
the time required for a water particle initially at point A to travel to
point B.

Table 2
Costing of cross-pipe turbine (capacity range 1/4 kW1 kW)
Turbine parts (standard pipe ttings)

Material cost (AU$)

Labor hours $20/h

Labor cost (AU$)

300 Cross
300  200 Reduce elbow (Qty 02)
300 Adapter tting (Qty 02)
15 mm Solid stream nozzle (Qty 02)
Transmission coupling
V-ring seal
Assembly and balancing

35
7 each
10
12 each
10
6
N.A.

N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
2
N.A.
2

N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
40
N.A.
40

Total

Total (AU$)
35
14
20
24
50
6
40
189

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A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

Fig. 3. Schematic of experimental test rig.

b
C OB

AB

Va

AB

(15)

q
OB  OA2

(16)

This is the non-interference rotational speed for of the simple

reaction turbine for rotor. From Eq. (20) it is seen that for higher u,
b should be higher. So for b 360 , i.e. number of nozzles equal to
one, rotor will run at its fastest rotational speed, therefore as the
number of nozzles increases the non-interference angular velocity
decreases.

p
2p
b p; b ; b ; .

where

OB R d and OA R

(17)

From geometry we have

AB

q
2R  dd

b b  ArccosR  d
C OB
R

(18)

(19)

So from Eqs. (15), (18) and (19), we have

b  ArccosRd
u  Va pR
2R  dd

Fig. 4. Flow through split pipe turbine.

(20)

6. Self-governing reaction turbine

The problem of jet interference can be utilized to our benet for
preventing the run-away of the rotor at no-load condition which is
a common draw-back of a reaction turbine. By adding a simple
speed damper at both the ends of the nozzle as shown in Fig. 7 and
by controlling the size of the damper we can control the maximum
run-away speed at no-load conditions. So as soon as turbine runs at
slightly higher speed then desired jet will hit the dampers and slow
down the turbine.

Fig. 5. Schematic of rotor with velocities indicated.

A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

413

Experimental results

100
90

Power loss (W)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Rotational Speed (rpm)

(At 50kPa) Overall frictional losses (friction at lip seal)
(At 40kPa) Overall frictional losses (friction at lip seal)
Fig. 6. Interference of rotor and jet.

(At 30kPa) Overall frictional losses (friction at lip seal)

(At 20kPa) Overall frictional losses (friction at lip seal)
Windage loss + mechanical friction

7. Performance characteristics
Several experiments were carried out to determine the most
exact data; the overall performance of the turbine was consistent
all the time. The theoretical performance characteristics were
predicted using the governing equation with the required inputs;
the experimental k-factor was used for the theoretical modeling.

7.1. Power loss

The power losses (friction and electric) in the DC motor (generator) and the windage losses (air drag) at different rotational
speeds were measured using a simple experimental procedure. To
measure the power loss in the DC motor (generator), power was
supplied to the DC motor (turbine not connected) using a DC power
supply (capacity 1.8 kVA) while the voltage, current and the speed
were measured. The product of the voltage and current at a specic
speed gives the power consumed/power losses in the DC motor.
Similarly, the turbine windage losses were measured using the
same procedure, but this time with the turbine attached to the DC
motor, the difference between the results from this test and the
previous test (losses in DC motor) gives the actual windage losses.

Mechanical frictional loss in DC motor only

Fig. 8. Overall power loss.

As the split pipe turbine is of disc shape the windage losses are very
small compared to the other losses and the power output.
The frictional losses at the interface of lip seal and entry port
under different pressures were measured using the same procedure. This time the turbine nozzles were blocked, then water was
allowed to enter the turbine and the pressure was maintained
constant at certain value so that the lip seal will be pushed against
the entry port. Now the turbine was allowed to rotate at different
speeds by supplying the power to the DC motor. Voltage, current
and speed were measured and all these test results have been
presented in graphical format in Fig. 8.

7.2. Power output

Measured power outputs from the turbine at different speeds
are shown as graph in Figs. 9 and 10. The theoretical results were
computed using the experimental k-factor ranging from 0.22 to
0.26 at different heads for the split pipe turbine under

30

250

25

200

20

150

15

100

10

50

Flow rate (L/sec)

Mechanical Power (W)

Experimental and Theoretical results

300

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Fig. 7. Self-governing rotor.

Exprimental Power 30kPa

Theoratical Power 30kpa

Exprimental Flow rate 30kPa

Theoratical Flow rate 30kPa

Fig. 9. Experimental and theoretical results for 30 kPa (approx. 3 m head).

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A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

Experimental and Theoretical results

30

15
10
5

Mechanical
Efficiency (%)

20

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

25

50

20

40
30

15

20

10

10

0
0

0
0

30

60

Flowrate (L/sec)

25

Flow rate (L/sec)

Mechanical Power (W)

Experimental and Theoretical results

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

200

1400

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Exprimental Power 40kPa

Theoratical Power 40kpa

Exprimental Flow rate 40kPa

Theoratical Flow rate 40kPa

Exprimental Efficiency 30kPa

Exprimental Efficiency 40kPa
Exprimental Flow rate 40kPa
Exprimental Flow rate 30kPa

Theoratical Efficiency 30kpa

Theoratical Efficiency 40kpa
Theoratical Flow rate 40kPa
Theoratical Flow rate 30kPa

Fig. 10. Experimental and theoretical results for 40 kPa (approx. 4 m head).
Fig. 12. Experimental and theoretical results for 30 kPa and 40 kPa (approx. 3 m and
4 m heads).

consideration. The theoretical results and the experimental results

show close comparison, which indicates that the experimental results are reliable. The actual power output curve does not follow the
theoretical curve beyond 700 rpm because of interference between
the jet and the turbine (Figs. 9 and 10).
It can be seen from Fig. 11 that the maximum power point tends
to shift towards right on the graph as the operating head increases,
i.e. as operating head increases the rotational speed of turbine increases causing the maximum power point move to higher speed.
7.3. Efciency
It can be seen from Fig. 12 that theoretical and experimental
efciency curves go hand in hand till 600 rpm then the experimental efciency curve shows a slight deviation from theory till the
turbine speed reaches the interference speed of around 700 rpm
beyond which the experimental efciency drops far below the
theory.
While measuring the power output head was kept constant and
the load was varied from full load to no-load, corresponding speed,
mass ow rate and power output from the DC motor were
measured.
Power losses in the system which were measured in previous
tests were added to the electrical output from the DC motor to get
the estimated mechanical power output. Based on the estimated
mechanical power outputs, the estimated mechanical efciencies
were calculated. The power inputs to the system were calculated as
the product of mass ow rate (kg/s), head (m) and gravity (m/s2) [8].

Fig. 13 shows the maximum power condition and the maximum

efciency conditions for constant head appear at considerably
different speeds. The efciency curves lag back about 100 rpm from
the power curves, but still the optimum operating condition where
the power curve intersects the efciency curve is very close to the
best performances in either conditions. Depending upon the
owners requirement the turbine can be operated either at maximum power condition to get the faster recovery of the capital investment or could be operated at maximum efciency condition to
make best use of the available resource.
8. Conclusion
Valuable information about the performance characteristics of
the simple reaction turbine was collected through the experiments.
It was seen that mass ow rate increased due to the centrifugal
suction effect at higher rotational speed. Air drag was measured to
be very small as the rotor has a disc shape body; the major losses
were due to friction at the lip seal and the uid frictional losses in
the turbine. The viscous losses k-factor are seen to remain in
between 0.22 and 0.26 for the optimum power output conditions.
The maximum mechanical efciency is very high as compared to
the simplicity of the turbine manufacturing. It was seen that the
interference of jet with the turbine caused large power loss, as is

600

30
25

400

20

300

15

200

10

100

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Power 20 kPa
Flow Rate 20 kPa
Power 30 kPa
Flow rate 30 kPa

Power 40 kPa
Flow rate 40 kPa
Power 50 kPa
Flow Rate 50 kPa

Fig. 11. Power and mass ow rate at different speed.

0
1400

600

60

500

50

400

40
300

30
200

20

Power (W)

500

Flow rate (L/sec)

Estimated Mechanical
Power (W)

Experimental Results

Mechanical efficiency (%)

Experimental Results
70

100

10
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Rotational Speed (rpm)

Efficiency 20 kPa
Power 20kPa

Efficiency 30 kPa
Power 30kPa

Efficiency 50 kPa

Efficiency 40 kPa

Power 50Kpa

Power 40kPa

Fig. 13. Estimated mechanical efciency and mechanical power out at different heads.

A. Date, A. Akbarzadeh / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 409415

discussed in Section 4 this disadvantage can be used to govern the

turbine with addition of speed dampers.
In summary the test results showed that split pipe turbine has
a great potential to be used as and cheaper alternative for harnessing the low head water sources for remote area power supply.
Further optimization of the split pipe turbine needs to be done to
gure out the real potential of this turbine. Split pipe turbine is
a very simple to manufacture hydro electric machine from locally
available materials and skills, to support the local power
requirements.
9. Future work
Cross-pipe turbine which is introduced in this paper will be
tested and the results will be analyzed to generate the performance
curves. These performance results will be compared with the split
pipe turbine.
Optimized split pipe turbine design is in the process of being
manufactured, this new model will have a exibility to change the
nozzle exit area simply by changing the nozzle inserts. This will
allow us to test the turbine for different exit area conguration at
a given turbine radius.

415

Possible use of animal feed troughs (made from recycle plastic)

will be analyzed, that will include strength and cost analysis. The
use of feed troughs will further simplify manufacturing process.
The availability of feed troughs in the remote areas or villages needs
to be studied.
References
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reaction water turbine. In: 43rd ANZSES conference, 2005, Dunedin, New
Zealand.
[2] Shepherd DennisG. Principles of turbomachinery. MacMillan Company; 1956.
[3] Saha UK, Rajkumar MJ. On the performance analysis of Savonius rotor with
twisted blades. Renew Energy 2006;31(11):177688.
[4] Menet J-L. A double-step Savonius rotor for local production of electricity:
a design study. Renew Energy 2004;29(11):184362.
[5] Whiteland J. Suggested improvements in the construction of Barkers mill. J
Franklin Inst 1832;14(2):736.
[6] Quek S. Development of high head reaction turbine. Final year project report.
Melbourne: RMIT University; 2001.
[7] Akbarzadeh A, Dixon C, Johnson P. Parametric analysis of a simple reaction
water turbine and its application for power production from low head reservoirs. In: Fluids engineering division summer meeting. New Orleans, Louisiana,
USA: ASME; 2001.
[8] Daugherty RL, Ingersoll AC. Fluid mechanics with engineering applications.
McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1954.