Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Finite element analysis of residual stress distribution in a thick plate

joined using two-pole tandem electro-gas welding
Se-Yun Hwang, Yooil Kim, Jang-Hyun Lee
Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Inha University, 100, Inha-Ro, Nam-Gu, Incheon, South Korea

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 28 March 2015
Received in revised form
22 September 2015
Accepted 23 September 2015
Available online 26 September 2015
Keywords:
Thermo-elasto-plastic stress analysis
Finite element analysis
Welding residual stress
Welding heat source
X-ray diffraction
Electro-gas welding

a b s t r a c t
A computational approach considering moving heat sources was introduced to predict the residual stress
distribution produced by electro-gas welding (EGW) joints. Considering the two-pole tandem of EGW, a
nite element analysis (FEA) was suggested to evaluate the thermal behavior of EGW applied to a joint of
ultra-thick plates. Based on a thermo-mechanical FEA, the proles of the residual stresses are investigated
for EH40 thermo-mechanical control process (TMCP) steel plates with a thickness of 80 mm. In order to
simulate the weaving motion of two weldment poles, a quasi-steady heat ux model is introduced based
on Goldaks double ellipsoidal heat source model. The X-ray diffraction methods were used to measure the
residual stress eld on the surface treated by chemical polishing. The residual stress proles determined
by the FEA and measurement showed quite good agreement, as regards the values both peaks and of the
prole. Residual stresses relieved by post-weld treatments, particularly by ultrasonic peening and toe
grinding, is also presented.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Recently, the major shipyards have begun using thermosmechanically controlled ultra-thick plates with thicknesses of more
than 70 mm and yield strengths of approximately 460 MPa, in order
to meet the strength requirements near the upper deck and hatch
coaming area of very large container carriers. These ships transport containers from 10,000 to 18,000 twenty-foot equivalent units
(TEU) (Park et al., 2007; Han et al., 2009). The shear strakes or deck
plates of a large container carrier and FPSO vessels are fabricated
by joining the ultra-thick plates. Traditionally, welding processes
such as submerged arc welding (SAW) and ux-cored arc welding
(FCAW) are preferred for welding these thick plates. FCAW is used
more widely in many shipyards, particularly for butt welds during
the erection procedure and for vertical butt welds during the joining process of the side shell. FCAW has some benets over other
processes in that it is relatively easy to automate and requires less
heat input, both of which are key parameters for improving productivity during the fabrication process of large merchant ships.
FCAW always entails a relatively large number of welding deposits,
normally more than 15, for the thick-sectioned plates, eventually

Corresponding author. Fax: +82 32 864 5850.

E-mail addresses: seyun.hwang@gmail.com (S.-Y. Hwang), yooilkim@inha.ac.kr
(Y. Kim), jh lee@inha.ac.kr (J.-H. Lee).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.09.037
0924-0136/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

leading to low productivity. EGW is considered to be an alternative

process that may replace the traditional FCAW process due to its
higher welding speed and better efciency.
Electro-gas welding (EGW) is a continuous vertical position arc
welding process in which an arc is struck between a consumable
electrode and the work piece. EGW entails higher heat input than
other welding processes such as SAW or FCAW because it requires
only one or two layers of thick weld bead. The high heat input
can induce a larger tensile residual stress at the weld toe, leading
to reduced fatigue strength. Therefore, the shipping classication
society began to focus on the fatigue strength of a thick section
weldment, (thickness of more than 65 mm), because of the undesirable consequences induced by the applied welding process (Bang
et al., 2009). Some authors claim that deeper investigations need to
be undertaken in terms of the residual stress and fatigue strength
between thick-sectioned welded joints fabricated by the FCAW and
EGW processes (Teng and Chang, 2004).
As a result of the advantages and disadvantages of both processes, a hybrid FCAW and EGW process, wherein, the two
processes are combined, and the tandem EGW process, wherein
the two electrodes are positioned in a row, have been proposed
as shown in Fig. 1 (Sasaki et al., 2004). Welding-induced residual stress and its adverse effects on fatigue strength are still in
question for these newly proposed welding processes. Therefore, a
detailed investigation of the distribution of residual stress through

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Table 1
Chemical composition of EH40 (wt%).
C

Si

Mn

Ni

0.08

0.03

1.56

0.009

0.0013

0.01

Table 2
Mechanical properties of EH40.
Steel

Thickness (mm)

EH40 80

Yield Strength
(MPa)

Tensile Strength
(MPa)

Elongation (%)

470

582

25

Table 3
Welding conditions of tandem EGW.
Welding conditions

Electrode number

Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Speed (cm/min)
Heat input (kJ/mm)
Total heat input (kJ/mm)

1
380
42
2.8
34.47
68.95

2
380
42
2.8
34.47

2. Material and welding conditions

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of two-electrode EGW (Sasaki et al., 2004).

advanced numerical analysis and a reliable measurement technique are required.

In this study, a numerical analysis procedure for a threedimensional (3-D) nonlinear elasto-plastic nite element analysis
that targets the prediction of the residual stress distribution of a
butt-welded joint made by a tandem EGW process was developed.
In addition, the actual residual stress induced by the local heatup and cool-down processes was measured, and the results are
compared with the results from numerical analysis.
What distinguishes a numerical simulation of the tandem EGW
from other traditional methods such as gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) and FCAW is the vertical motion and weaving of the
welding electrodes of EGW, which is the main source of the larger
volume molten pool formation. A numerical simulation of the traditional welding process typically only considers the transverse
steady movement of the electrode, but some transient motion of the
electrode in the tandem EGW process creates difculties. Because
the difculties are linked to the large heat input of the weaving electrodes, previous numerical studies have been limited to
the two-dimensional simulation (Bang et al., 2009). In the present
study, X-Ray diffraction (XRD) was used to measure the distribution
of weld residual stresses on the surface of a butt-welded joint joined
by tandem EGW. For validation, the measured residual stress eld
was compared with the numerical analysis results, and the complicated motion of the welding electrode with high heat input was
considered. The commercial nite element program MSC.Marc was
used in the analysis.

The material used in this study is TMCP EH40 steel, which is

less susceptible to thermal cycling during the welding process.
Fig. 2 shows the weld condition and Fig. 3 shows the test specimens cut from welded plates. Table 1 and Table 2 summarize the
chemical composition and mechanical properties of the material,
respectively.
The specimen was fabricated according to a welding process currently practiced in shipyards. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the
two plates prior to being joined together, along with the detailed
groove shape. The tandem EGW process was applied to the vertically arranged plates, with two electrodes moving upward with a
weaving motion to generate a molten pool with a larger volume.
The shape of the molten pool normally depends on factors including the welding current, speed, weaving motion, and root gap of the
groove. The size of the plates was 1250 2400 mm with a thickness of 80 mm, and the root gap of the V-groove was 10 mm with
an angle of 20 .
Table 3 lists the welding conditions of the tandem EGW as
applied to specimen fabrication. The same values of electric current,
voltage, and speed were applied to both electrodes.
3. Residual stress measurement
Residual stresses remain after welding due to non-uniform thermal cycling during the welding process. The local heat-up tends
to generate a stress eld during the heat-up process, and the
stress can easily reach the yield strength locally due to the lower
yield strength at elevated temperatures. This process can leave a
nonuniform permanent plastic strain eld (Joshi et al., 2010). After
cool-down, the induced permanent plastic strain eld acts as an
internal restraint and causes an elastic stress eld, which is called
the residual stress. The thermal cycle leaves not only a residual
stress eld but also a change in mechanical properties depending
on the thermal cycle history at a given location. Several different types of residual stress measurement techniques can be used,
such as the hole-drilling method, X-ray diffraction (XRD), neutron
diffraction, ultrasonic methods, the Barkhausen noise method, and
magnetic methods. XRD and the neutron diffraction method are
non-destructive methods using radiation based on the volume difference between the normal and distorted alignment of lattices of
the material (Price et al., 2008). XRD, which is one of the most

S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

351

Fig. 2. Conguration of the V-groove.

Fig. 3. EGW specimens.

Fig. 4. Measurement of the variations in lattice spacing from the diffraction angle.

accurate methods, was used in the present study to measure the

residual stresses on the surface of the welded specimen. XRD takes
advantage of the fact that the microscopic structure of the material
is determined by the orientation of the grains. As shown in Fig. 4,
the changed distance between the lattices is reected by the change
in the angle of the diffracted X-ray beam. The relationship between
the two is given by Braggs law (Chun et al., 2007):
2 d sin = n

(1)

where d is the lattice distance,  is the angle of the incident and

diffracted X-rays, and  is the wavelength of the X-rays. Once the

lattice distance is calculated from Eq. (1), the strain can be obtained
accordingly.
Using XRD technique, longitudinal residual stresses (stresses
parallel to weld direction) were measured on the top surface of the
specimens. Fig. 5 shows the measured stress distributions on the
raw specimens without any surface polishing. Compressive (negative) peak stresses were found in the HAZ while there would be
a peak tensile stress in the arc welding process. It can be supposed that the stress prole on the surface was distorted by the
surface roughness due to the external forces produced by welding
equipment and subsequent works.

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S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

Fig. 5. Measured residual stress distribution with respect to the distance from the weld toe before the chemical polishing.

Table 4
Surface treatment by chemical polishing.

Thickness

Before treatment

After treatment

81 mm

80.7 mm

Surface

Therefore, a clean surface condition without rust and mechanical noise was required for accurate measurements, and then the
light grinding or polishing was necessary to produce a better surface. The scales/oxides on the surface of the weld joints were
removed using chemical etching without disrupting the residual
stresses. Table 4 shows the surface status of the treated specimens.
The residual stress distribution was also measured for the specimens under different conditions. The specimens were prepared
with and without toe treatments to check the residual stress
redistribution characteristics according to the different toe treatment techniques, such as toe grinding (TG) and ultrasonic peening
(UP). These toe treatment techniques are benecial to the fatigue
strength but sometimes the toe treatment also changes the residual stress distribution near a specimens surface. This can affect
surface crack formation during its initiation phase. Fig. 6 shows the
surface residual stress distributions of the as-welded, toe ground,
and ultrasonic peened specimens, respectively. In the case of the
as-welded specimen, the welding residual stress reached 300 MPa
at the location of the weld toe, and decreased gradually as it moved
away from the weld down to the zero level. In contrast, in case of
the toe treated specimen, the welding residual stresses began with
negative or near-zero values at the weld toe and converged to a zero
level with respect to the distance from the weld toe. The stresses
plotted in Fig. 6 are transverse stresses; i.e., components normal to
the weld line.

Fig. 6. Measured residual stress distribution with respect to the distance from the
weld toe after the chemical polishing.

4. Finite element model of EGW

4.1. FEA procedure
Due to the high heat input used in the EGW process, the extreme
spatial local temperature variation along with the highly nonlinear material behavior tends to induce non-uniform expansion and
contraction of the material, eventually leading to welding residual stress after cool-down. The numerical analysis for the residual
stress prediction of the EGW process was composed of two consecutive analysis procedures: nonlinear transient heat transfer
analysis and nonlinear stress analysis. The output of the former
is the input of the latter as a forcing term. A stepwise incremental
approach using the NewtonRaphson method was adopted for the
iteration at every computational step due to the nonlinear nature
of both the heat transfer and stress analysis. Table 5 summarizes
the entire analysis procedure.
Because the EGW welding process entails the weaving of two
arc-generating electrodes moving upward, the numerical analysis
should be able to consider the vertical upward welding mechanism. Fig. 7 shows the analysis model with the boundary conditions
imposed on the model. The bottom of the model was fully xed and
the symmetric condition was imposed along the back side of the
weld line. The sliding copper shoe, which was used to rapidly absorb

S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

353

Fig. 7. FEA model of tandem EGW.

Fig. 8. Weaving heat source simplied by quasi-steady heat ux.

the high temperatures induced by the high input of the EGW, was
modeled realistically with a mechanical contact condition against
the specimen. Because the complicated thermal contact behavior
between the sliding copper shoe and the specimen is difcult to
model, it was assumed that the heat transfer into the sliding copper
shoe occurred without resistance. To minimize the CPU time during
the analysis, the mesh size was controlled in such a way that the ne
mesh with a 5 mm length was applied to both the base materials
near the weld line and the sliding copper shoe. An increasing mesh
size was applied gradually to the region away from the weld line.
The size of the entire FE model was 320 mm long, 630 mm wide, and
80 mm thick. The length and width of the model was chosen so that
the residual stress distribution would not be affected signicantly

by the removal of the material in numerical analysis. Eight node

isoparameteric hexahedron elements were used, and the number
of nodes and elements are 7031 and 5784, respectively.
4.2. Heat input model
The most important modeling feature in a 3-D welding simulation is the heat input into the system. The heat input by the moving
heat source has two main mechanisms: the heat ux induced by
the arc generated between the base metal and welding electrode,
and the heat generation induced by the molten pool. A moving
heat source was modeled by Rosenthal (1941) for the rst time,
but the spatial distribution of the heat source was not considered

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S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

Fig. 9. Double ellipsoidal heat source model.

Fig. 10. Temperature-dependent stress-strain curve of EH40 TMCP.

(Kim et al., 2000). The spatial distribution of the heat source might
be modeled by using the Gaussian surface heat ux model or the
double ellipsoidal heat source model (Nguyen, 2004). The latter
provides a better representation of the real physics in the case of
a moving arc for a butt weld (Kim et al., 2000). The weaving characteristics of the moving heat source should be considered in the
numerical simulation of the EGW process. In this study, a quasisteady movement of the heat source was assumed, as shown in
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9 shows the double ellipsoidal heat source model used in this
study. The heat source distribution combines two different ellipses,
i.e. one in the front quadrant of the heat source and the other in
the rear quadrant (Goldak et al., 1984). The power densities of the
double-ellipsoid heat source, qf (x, y, z) and qr (x, y, z), describing

heat ux distributions inside the front and rear quadrant of the heat
source can be expressed by the following equations.
qf (x, y, z) =

3 f f Q 3x2 3y2 3z2

e a2 e b2 e c2
abc f  

(2)

3 fr Q 3x2 3y2 3z2

e a2 e b2 e c2
abc r  

(3)

qr (x, y, z) =

Q =V I

(4)

where qf and qr represent the weld ux rates per unit volume for
the front and rear weld pools, respectively, a, b, cf , and cr denote the
geometric parameters dening the size and shape of the ellipses of
heat ux shown in Fig. 9. Q is the heat power,  is the efciency, V

S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

355

Fig. 11. Temperature-dependent mechanical and thermal properties of EH40 TMCP.

Fig. 12. FZ and HAZ observed by microstructure inspection.

is the voltage, and I is the current. The fractional factors ff and fr are
dened as given by Eq. (5). It is assumed that the total energy input
rate Q splits into fractions ff and fr in the front and the rear quadrant
of the heat ux deposited; then, ff + fr = 2 (Joshi et al., 2013).
ff =

2
2
, fr =
1 + cf /cr
1 + cr /cf

(5)

The efciency () is a quantity that represents the ratio of the power
transferred from the arc to the base metal to the entire power generated by the arc. The efciency is difcult to estimate due to the
dependence on the welding conditions and molten depth, so an
assumed value of 0.65 was used in the analysis (Armentani et al.,
2007). The geometrical parameters a, b, cf , and cr were adjusted to

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S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

Fig. 13. Heat ux distributions of two welding electrodes in FEA.

Fig. 14. Simulated temperature distribution at welding process.

consider the effect of the weaving motion of the welding electrode

in a quasi-steady manner.
The cool-down of the specimen during and after welding
through convective and radiative heat loss on the specimens
surface was considered by imposing the corresponding boundary conditions on the surfaces. For convective heat transfer into
the surroundings, the natural convection boundary condition was
applied to the surface exposed to air. Rykalin (1974) introduced
the complex lm coefcient, wherein the temperature-dependent
convection effect and the radiation effect are combined as shown
in Eq. (6). In the present study, the emissivity (r ) was assumed to

be 0.9, and the lm coefcient (h) was set to be a function of temperature. The heat ux losses on the surfaces of the welded plate
due to the convection and radiation are given by:
h = 24.1 104 r T 1.41

(6)

4.3. Material properties

Because a material experiences considerable temperature
variations during the welding process, temperature-dependent
mechanical and thermal properties were considered in the analysis. Fig. 10 shows the temperature-dependent stress-strain curves

S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

357

Fig. 15. History of temperature at the inspection locations.

of EH40 TMCP material. The curves were assumed based on multilinear isotropic hardening properties suggested by Chang and Teng
(2003) and Masubuchi (1980). A nonlinear isotropic hardening
model with a von Mises yield criterion was applied for the plastic
behavior of the base metal. The mechanical and thermal properties
of the weld metal were assumed to be the same as those of the base
metal. The material properties of the sliding copper shoe were set
to be those of copper (Simon et al., 1992) Fig. 11.
5. Result of nite element analysis
5.1. Temperature distribution
As it is shown in Section 4.2, the heat source model is dened
by a function of position and time together with a number of
parameters, which affect the heat ux distribution. The param-

eters of the heat source is essential in the prediction of the

two most important zones, fusion zone (FZ) and heat affected
zone (HAZ) associated with the temperature distribution and the
residual stresses. To calculate the distribution of heat uxes, the
heat source parameters were determined through an approximate relationship between the weld pool length and energy
input suggested by Wahab and Painter (1997) and Gery et al.
(2005).
The variation of the parameters of the heat source in the FEA
changes the temperature distribution therefore inuences the FZ
and HAZ zones. The FZ and HAZ calculated by FEA were compared
with them observed from the cross section of the specimen perpendicular to the welding direction. Thus, the validity of the parameters
was checked by examining the microstructural distribution of the
cross section of the weldment, which enables a reverse expectation
of the temperature distribution. Fig. 12 shows the metallographic

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Fig. 16. FZ and HAZ estimated from the temperature distribution of FEA.

Fig. 17. Transverse stress distribution on the specimens top surface.

section over which the microstructure was examined to observe

the HAZ and FZ.
The parameters were calibrated in an iterative manner. The
Gaussian parameters describing the heat source were then adjusted
iteratively until the simulated temperature produced the FZ and
HAZ contour same as that shown in a macrograph of the test piece
in Fig. 12. The parameters of the heat source are summarized in
Table 6. Thereafter, the heat ux of electrodes was dened by the
parameters. Fig. 13 shows the heat ux distribution generated by

the two welding electrodes running in parallel during the welding

process.
Fig. 14 shows the snapshots of temperature distribution calculated by FEA during the welding process and Fig. 15 shows the
thermal cycles at six locations depicted in Fig. 14. The maximum
temperature inside the fusion zone is above 3000 C, and temperatures of approximately 1800 C and 800 C were observed at
locations 15 and 30 mm away from the fusion line, respectively.
The location 30 mm away from the fusion line is considered to be

S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

359

Fig. 18. Transverse stress distribution on the specimens bottom surface.

Fig. 19. Stress distribution along the specimens depth.

the heat-affected zone. The area of FZ and HAZ were determined

from the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 16. The predicted
HAZ is shown as a series of contours between 850 and 1800 C The
contours of the FZ and HAZ shows a good agreement with those of
observed in the welding specimen shown in Fig. 12.
5.2. Residual stress distribution
Figs. 1719 show the residual stress distribution in a specimen welded by using the tandem EGW process. The calculated
transverse stress component on the top surface of the specimen with respect to the distance from the weld toe, shown in
Fig. 17, is in good agreement with the measured values. The residual stress decayed rapidly as it moved away from the weld toe,
decreasing to the compressive stress of 200 MPa, and then con-

verged to zero. The sliding copper shoe, which was arranged

on the top surface of the specimen, did not affect the signication effect on the residual stress distribution. Fig. 18 shows that
the correspondence between the measured and calculated values is also good on the bottom surface of the specimen with a
similar distribution pattern, compared to those on the top surface. The different trends between the measured and calculated
stresses near a location 100 mm away from the weld toe might be
due to the effect of thermal contact between the specimen and
sliding copper shoe, which was modeled based on the assumption that the contact between the two materials is perfect. The
ceramic backing material, which was not modeled in the numerical analysis, might have acted as a heat absorber. In addition,
the dependence of the measurement accuracy of the XRD method
might have contributed as a source of the discrepancy. Fig. 19

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S.-Y. Hwang et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 229 (2016) 349360

Table 5
Summary of numerical analysis of EGW.
Geometry

Welding Condition

Room temperature: 20 C (Natural convection)

Tandem two weld pass

Material Properties

Mechanical property: Isotropic

Heat transfer property: Isotropic
Plasticity: von-Mises yield Criterion

Based on the experimental and numerical results, it can be

deduced that the present FEA approach is a feasible method to
predict the welding residual stress for various EGW joints with different welding conditions. Furthermore, the developed approach
will potentially be helpful to predict the HAZ in an EGW joint
involved in a practical steel structure. It is discussed that the developed approach not only successfully captured the parameters of
heat input but also can be used as a prediction method for the
residual stresses induced by EGW.

Size of model: 320 630 80(mm)

Bevel angle, Root gap: 20 , 10 mm
Element type: 8-node hexahedron
Numbers of nodes: 7031
Numbers of elements: 5784

Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Special Education Program
for Offshore Plants of the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy
Affairs (MOTIE) of the Korean government, and by an Inha University research grant. The authors gratefully acknowledge this
support.

Heat Source Model of EGW Vertical welding direction

Heat source: Quasi static heat source (Double
ellipsoidal model)
Convection: Natural convection coefcient
Coupled analysis: Thermal-structure
Iterative procedure: Full NewtonRaphson
Large strain: Updated Lagrangian

Analysis Option

References

Table 6
Parameters of heat source for FEA.
a

cf

cr

ff

fr

25 mm

25 mm

10 mm

10 mm

shows the stress distribution with respect to the specimens thickness direction. The larger tensile stresses are present near the
mid-thickness area for both transverse and longitudinal stress components.
6. Conclusion
3-D nite element model of tandem EGW was developed to
simulate the temperature eld, and the residual stress distribution induced by the tandem EGW process. Meanwhile, the residual
stresses computed by FE model were veried by the experiment.
In the simulation, a quasi-steady-state heat source based on a double ellipsoidal heat source model was used to consider the heat
input of two electrodes of EGW. Although a relatively simple heat
source model was used to calculate the residual stress eld induced
by EGW, and a good prediction was obtained in the present work.
The proposed process was evaluated by a comparison between the
measured and calculated residual stress distributions. The overall
correspondence between the results is good, but some discrepancy
is observed, because of surface condition of the specimens affected
by ceramic backing material and sliding copper shoe.
Before the residual stress measurements, the scales/oxides on
the surface of the weld joints were removed using chemical polishing. The residual stress characteristics of the EGW specimens were
evaluated by XRD measurements of the residual stresses for the
toe-treated specimen and the ultrasonic peened specimen. Longitudinal tensile residual stress was much higher than the yield
strength. A typical feature of welding residual stress in the EGW
joint was that the region with high tensile stress was large, which
was similar with that induced by other arc welding processes such
as FCAW and CO2 welding.

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