DISTRICT

COOLING
BEST
PRACTICE
GUIDE
FIRST EDITION
Published to inform, connect
and advance the global
district cooling industry

Westborough, Massachusetts, USA

DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements

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1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Overview and Structure of the Guide

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2. Why District Cooling?

2.1 Customer Benefits
2.1.1 Comfort
2.1.2 Convenience
2.1.3 Flexibility
2.1.4 Reliability
2.1.5 Cost-effectiveness
Fundamental cost advantages
Load diversity
Optimized operations
Advanced technologies
Better staff economies
Customer risk management
Cost comparison
Capital costs
Annual costs
2.2 Infrastructure Benefits
2.2.1 Peak power demand reduction
2.2.2 Reduction in government power sector costs
Capital costs of power capacity
Power sector operating costs
Total costs of electricity
Power utility recognition of district cooling benefits
2.3 Environmental Benefits
2.3.1 Energy efficiency
2.3.2 Climate change
2.3.3 Ozone depletion

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3. Business Development
3.1 District Cooling as a Utility Business
3.1.1 Engineering design
3.1.2 Organizational design
3.2 Marketing and Communications
3.2.1 Positioning
3.2.2 Customer value proposition
Value proposition summary
Building chiller system efficiency
Structuring the cost comparison
Communicating with prospective customers
3.3 Risk Management
3.3.1 Nature of district cooling company
3.3.2 Capital-intensiveness
3.3.3 Will visions be realized?
3.3.4 District cooling company risks
Stranded capital
Temporary chillers

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

Construction risks
Underground congestion
Community relations
General construction issues
Revenue generation risks
Inadequate chilled-water delivery
Delays in connecting buildings
Metering
Reduced building occupancy
3.4 Rate Structures
3.4.1 Capacity, consumption and connection rates
Capacity rates
Consumption rates
Connection charges
Regional rate examples
3.4.2 Rate structure recommendations
Capacity rates
Connection charges
Initial contract demand
Rate design to encourage optimal building design and operation
3.5 Performance Metrics

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4. Design Process and Key Issues

4.1 Load Estimation
4.1.1 Peak demand
4.1.2 Peak-day hourly load profile
4.1.3 Annual cooling load profile
4.2 Design Temperatures and Delta T
4.2.1 Delta T is a key parameter
4.2.2 Limitations on lower chilled-water supply temperature
Chiller efficiency
Evaporator freezeup
Thermal energy storage
4.2.3 Limitations on higher chilled-water return temperature
Dehumidification and coil performance
Heat exchanger approach temperature
4.2.4 Best practice recommendation
4.3 Master Planning
4.4 Permitting (Way Leaves)
4.5 Integration of District Cooling With Other Utility Infrastructure
4.5.1 Growth and infrastructure stresses
4.5.2 Paths for utility integration
Heat rejection
Desalination
Natural gas
The challenge of utility integration
4.6 Designing for Operations

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5. Building HVAC Design and Energy Transfer Stations (ETS)

5.1 Building System Compatibility
5.1.1 Cooling coil selection
5.1.2 Bypasses and three-way valves
5.1.3 Control-valve sizing and selection

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2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

5.1.4 Building pump control

5.1.5 Water treatment and heat-transfer effectiveness
5.1.6 Additional economic opportunities
5.2 System Performance Metrics at the ETS
5.3 Selecting Direct or Indirect ETS Connections
5.3.1 Direct connections
5.3.2 Indirect connections
5.4 Heat Exchanger Considerations
5.4.1 HEX temperature requirements
5.4.2 HEX pressure requirements
5.4.3 HEX redundancy requirements
5.4.4 HEX performance efficiency
5.4.5 Other HEX considerations
5.5 Control-Valve Considerations
5.5.1 Location and applications
5.5.2 Control-valve types and characteristics
Pressure-dependent control
Pressure-independent control
5.5.3 Control-valve sizing
5.5.4 Actuator sizing and selection
5.5.5 Quality and construction
5.6 ETS and Building Control Strategies
5.6.1 Supply-water temperature and reset
5.6.2 Supply-air temperature and reset at cooling coils
5.6.3 Building pump and ETS control-valve control
5.6.4 Capacity control after night setback
5.6.5 Staging multiple heat exchangers
5.7 Metering and Submetering
5.7.1 Introduction
5.7.2 Meter types
Dynamic meters
Static flow meters
5.7.3 Designing for meter installation and maintenance
5.7.4 Standards
5.7.5 Other equipment
5.7.6 Submetering
Meter reading
Conclusions about submetering
6. Chilled-Water Distribution Systems
6.1 Hydraulic Design
6.1.1 Hydraulic model
6.1.2 Customer loads and system diversity
6.1.3 Startup and growth
6.1.4 Piping layout
6.1.5 Delta T
6.1.6 Pipe sizing
6.2 Pumping Schemes
6.2.1 Variable primary flow
Special considerations for district cooling systems
Design considerations
When to use variable primary flow
6.2.2 Primary-secondary pumping

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

When to use primary-secondary pumping

6.2.3 Distributed pumping
6.2.4 Booster pumps
6.3 Pump and Pressure Control
6.3.1 Distribution pumps
6.3.2 Variable-frequency drives
6.3.3 Differential pressure control
6.3.4 Pump dispatch
6.3.5 System pressure control and thermal storage
6.4 Distribution System Materials and Components
6.4.1 Pipe materials
Welded-steel pipe
HDPE pipe
Ductile-iron pipe
GRP pipe
Pipe material selection summary
Steel pipe
HDPE pipe
Ductile-iron pipe
GRP pipe
6.4.2 Isolation valves
Valve chambers
Direct-buried isolation valves
Cost considerations
6.4.3 Branch connections/service line takeoffs
6.4.4 Insulation
Evaluating insulation requirements
Pre-insulated piping insulation considerations
6.4.5 Leak-detection systems
Sensor-wire leak detection
Acoustic leak detection
Software-based leak detection
7. Chilled-Water Plants
7.1 Chilled-Water Production Technologies
7.1.1 Compression chillers
Reciprocating
Rotary
Centrifugal
Centrifugal-chiller capacity control
Inlet guide vanes
Variable-speed drive (VSD)
Hot-gas bypass
Meeting low loads
7.1.2 Natural gas chillers
7.1.3 Absorption chillers
Pros and cons
Efficiency
Capacity derate
Capital costs
Equipment manufacturers
Operating costs
7.1.4 Engine-driven chillers

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

7.1.5 Combined heat and power (CHP)

7.1.6 Choosing chiller type in the Middle East
7.2 Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
7.2.1 Thermal energy storage (TES) types
Chilled-water thermal energy storage
Ice thermal energy storage
Low-temperature fluid thermal energy storage
7.2.2 Thermal energy storage benefits
Peak-load management
Energy efficiency
Capital avoidance
Operational flexibility
7.2.3 Thermal energy storage challenges
Sizing
Siting
Timing
7.3 Plant Configuration
7.3.1 Chiller sizing and configuration
7.3.2 Series-counterflow configuration
7.4 Major Chiller Components
7.4.1 Motors
Enclosure types
Standard motor enclosure costs
Inverter-duty premium
Motor efficiency
Motor physical size
Voltage options for chiller motors
7.4.2 Heat exchanger materials and design
7.5 Refrigerants
7.6 Heat Rejection
7.6.1 Overview of condenser cooling options
7.6.2 Optimum entering condenser-water temperature
7.6.3 Cooling tower considerations
Cooling tower sizing
Cooling tower basins
7.6.4 Condenser-water piping arrangement
7.7 Water Treatment
7.7.1 Water supply
Potable water
Treated sewage effluent
Seawater in a once-through arrangement
Seawater as tower makeup
Seawater treated using reverse osmosis or other desalination technologies
7.7.2 Treatment approaches
Chilled water
Treatment approach
Dosing and control
Condenser water
Treatment approach
Dosing and control
Legionella control
7.7.3 Zero liquid discharge
7.7.4 Service standards

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

7.8 Balance of Plant

7.8.1 Piping design for condenser water
7.8.2 Sidestream filters
7.8.3 Cooling tower basin sweepers
7.8.4 Transformer room cooling
7.8.5 Equipment access
7.8.6 Noise and vibration
7.9 Electrical Systems
7.9.1 Short-circuit study
7.9.2 Protective device coordination study
7.9.3 Arc flash hazard study

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8. Controls, Instrumentation and Metering

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definitions
8.3 Overview
8.3.1 Typical DCICS functions
8.3.2 General design factors
8.3.3 DCICS evaluation performance
8.4 Physical Model
8.4.1 Sites
8.4.2 Plants
8.4.3 Local plant I&C system
Local plant controllers
Field devices
Local operator interface terminals
Local workstations
8.4.4 Command centers
Data server
Historical server
Command center workstations
Terminal server
Other servers and workstations
8.5 Logical Model
8.5.1 Level 0
8.5.2 Level 1
8.5.3 Level 2
8.5.4 Level 3
8.5.5 Level 4
8.5.6 Level 5
8.6 Sample DCICS
8.7 Level 0 Best Practices
8.7.1 Point justification
8.7.2 Criteria for device selection
8.7.3 Redundant Level 0 equipment
8.7.4 Local instrumentation
8.7.5 Localized overrides for each controlled component
8.7.6 Good installation practices
8.8 Level 1 Best Practices
8.8.1 Level 1 field instrumentation
8.8.2 I/O modules and racks
8.8.3 Onboard chiller controllers
8.8.4 Variable-frequency drives

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

8.8.5 Energy monitoring equipment

8.8.6 Metering and submetering
8.8.7 Redundant Level 1 field instrumentation
8.8.8 Level 1 network best practice considerations
8.8.9 Level 1 data considerations
8.9 Levels 0 & 1 Choosing Points to Monitor and Control
8.9.1 Example equipment segments
Primary-secondary systems
Variable primary systems
Chiller evaporators
Condenser-water systems
Cooling towers
Centrifugal chiller condensers
Constant-speed pumps
Variable-speed pumps
Heat exchangers
8.9.2 Level 0 vs. Level 1 field instrumentation
8.10 Level 2 Best Practices
8.10.1 Types of controllers
8.10.2 Selection criteria
8.10.3 Distributing controllers
8.10.4 Controller redundancy
8.10.5 Critical data integrity
8.10.6 Time-of-day synchronization between controllers
8.10.7 Controller power requirements
8.11 Level 3 Best Practices
8.11.1 Connecting local OITs to local controllers
8.11.2 Displaying metering data on local OITs
8.11.3 Environment
8.11.4 Local OIT power requirements
8.12 Level 4 Best Practices
8.13 Networking Best Practice Considerations
8.13.1 DCICS network categories
8.13.2 Level 2+ network infrastructure
Fiber optics
Wireless
Internet
8.13.3 Remote control vs. manning individual plants
8.13.4 Sophistication
8.13.5 Performance
8.13.6 Security
8.13.7 Physical network topologies
8.13.8 Network monitoring via OPC
8.13.9 Network bridging and controller pass-through
8.13.10 DCICS network and Level 4 equipment ownership
8.13.11 DCICS Level 2+ network component power requirements
8.14 Control Functions
8.15 Human-Machine Interface Functionality
8.16 Standardization
8.17 Standard Design Documents
8.18 Standard Testing Documents

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

9. Procurement and Project Delivery

9.1 Design/Bid/Build (DBB)
9.2 Engineer/Procure/Construct (EPC)
9.3 Packaged Plants

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10. Commissioning

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Appendix
A Abbreviations and Definitions
B Conversion Factors
C Arc Flash

A-1
B-1
C-1

Tables
Table 2-1
Table 2-2
Table 3-1
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
Table 5-3
Table 5-4
Table 5-5
Table 6-1
Table 6-2
Table 7-1
Table 7-2
Table 7-3
Table 7-4
Table 7-5
Table 7-6
Table 7-7
Table 7-8
Table 7-9
Table 7-10
Table 7-11
Table 7-12
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 8-3
Table 8-4
Table 8-5
Table 8-6
Table 8-7
Table 8-8
Table 9-1

Figures
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5

Combined-cycle power plant operation cost factors

Conversion of fuel prices in US$ per barrel oil equivalent (BOE) to US$ per MMBtu
Summary of customer value
Typical coil (and delta T) performance as entering-water temperature varies
Sample heat exchanger differences with colder supply-water temperature and common building-side
conditions
Tonnage capacity per heat exchanger
Recommended maximum chloride content (ppm)
Control-valve applications and control points
Impact of delta T on 990 mm (36) pipe capacity
Impact of delta T on capacity of 1000 hp pump set
Summary of packaged chiller types and capacities (ARI conditions)
Impact of delta T in operation on chilled-water storage capacity
Inputs to series-counterflow example
Performance results for series-counterflow example
Example dimensions and weights of motor types
Corrosion resistance and performance of condenser tube material options
Refrigerant phaseout schedule (Montreal Protocol, Copenhagen Amendment, MOP-19 adjustment)
Inputs to low condenser flow example
Performance results for low condenser flow example (3 gpm/ton vs. 2.3 gpm/ton)
Recommended monthly tests
Corrosion-coupon standards
Performance characteristics of sand filters vs. cyclone separators
PLC vs. DCS pros and cons
Level 0 best practice specifications
Energy meter best practice specifications
Key to instrument tagging symbols
Function identifier key
Level 0 vs. Level 1 field instrumentation selection criteria
Level 4 componentry best practice tips
DCICS network categories
Example detailed outline of Owners Requirements Documents (ORDs) for engineer/procure/construct
(EPC) procurement

Peak power demand reductions with district cooling

World oil prices during the past 10 years
Oil prices in US$ per MMBtu
Projected impact of oil price on price of delivered liquefied natural gas
Long-run marginal costs of delivered electricity from new combined-cycle plant at a range of fuel prices

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

2008 International District Energy Association. All rights reserved.

Figure 2-6
Figure 2-7
Figure 3-1
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-4
Figure 4-5
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-7
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-7
Figure 5-8
Figure 5-9
Figure 5-10
Figure 5-11
Figure 5-12
Figure 5-13
Figure 5-14
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
Figure 6-3
Figure 6-4
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-9
Figure 6-10
Figure 6-11
Figure 6-12
Figure 6-13
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-4
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-6
Figure 7-7
Figure 7-8
Figure 7-9
Figure 7-10
Figure 7-11
Figure 7-12
Figure 7-13

Example of time-of-day power rates compared with power demand, per New England Hourly
Electricity Price Index
Annual electric energy consumption savings with district cooling
Examples of Middle East district cooling rates
Design dry-bulb and mean-coincident wet-bulb temperatures for selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Design wet-bulb and mean-coincident dry-bulb temperatures for selected Middle East cities (ASHRAE
0.4% design point)
Example peak-day load profiles for various building types
Illustrative peak-day load profile for district cooling serving mixed building types
Illustrative district cooling annual load-duration curve
Effect of increased delta T on LMTD of cooling coils
Paths for potential utility integration
Expected coil performance over the design flow range for typical coil
Decoupled direct ETS connection
Simplified direct ETS connection
Indirect ETS connection (with combined HEX control valves)
Indirect ETS configuration (with dedicated HEX control valves)
Plate-and-frame heat exchanger installation
Plate-and-frame heat exchanger (courtesy Alfa Laval)
HEX surface area vs. "approach"
Importance of critical customer design
Pressure-dependent globe valve
Common control-valve characteristics
Pressure-independent control valve (courtesy Flow Control Industries)
Submetering system via fixed wireless
Submetering system with an RF handheld terminal
Impact of delta T on hydraulic profile
Variable primary flow
Traditional primary-secondary system
All variable primary-secondary system
Distributed primary-secondary system
Thermal storage tank used for maintaining static pressure in system
Weld-end ball valve
Weld-end butterfly valve
Direct-buried valve with mechanical actuation
Direct-buried valve with hydraulic actuator
Sluice plate hot tap
Example of estimated average ground temperatures at various depths
Distribution system supply-water temperature rise for example system at part load
Single-effect absorption cycle (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Engine-based CHP with electric and absorption chillers (courtesy York/Johnson Controls)
Turbine-based CHP with electric and steam-turbine-drive chillers
Load-leveling potential with thermal energy storage
Lift in single and series-counterflow chillers
Enclosure premiums above open drip-proof
Inverter-duty motor cost premium
Motor efficiency
Refrigerant environmental impact comparison
Counterflow cooling tower
Crossflow cooling tower
Chiller and tower kW/ton vs. ECWT
Rate of power change for chillers and cooling towers

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DISTRICT COOLING BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

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Figure 7-14
Figure 7-15
Figure 8-1
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4
Figure 8-5
Figure 8-6
Figure 8-7
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-9
Figure 8-10
Figure 8-11
Figure 8-12

Pumps dedicated to specific condensers

Condenser pumps with header
DCICS physical model
DCICS logical model
Sample DCICS system
Primary-secondary systems
Variable primary system instrumentation
Chiller evaporator supply and return instrumentation
Condenser-water system instrumentation
Cooling tower instrumentation
Chiller condenser supply and return instrumentation
Constant-speed pump instrumentation
Variable-speed pump instrumentation
Heat exchanger instrumentation

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