The Shannon index has been a popular diversity index in the ecological literature, where it is also

known as Shannon's diversity index, the ShannonWiener index,[citation needed]the Shannon

Weaver index and the Shannon entropy. The measure was originally proposed by Claude
Shannon to quantify the entropy (uncertainty or information content) in strings of text.[5] The idea is
that the more different letters there are, and the more equal their proportional abundances in the
string of interest, the more difficult it is to correctly predict which letter will be the next one in the
string. The Shannon entropy quantifies the uncertainty (entropy or degree of surprise) associated
with this prediction. It is most often calculated as follows:

where pi is the proportion of characters belonging to the ith type of letter in the string of interest.
In ecology, pi is often the proportion of individuals belonging to the ith species in the dataset of
interest. Then the Shannon entropy quantifies the uncertainty in predicting the species identity of
an individual that is taken at random from the dataset.
Although the equation is here written with natural logarithms, the base of the logarithm used
when calculating the Shannon entropy can be chosen freely. Shannon himself discussed
logarithm bases 2, 10 and e, and these have since become the most popular bases in
applications that use the Shannon entropy. Each log base corresponds to a different
measurement unit, which have been called binary digits (bits), decimal digits (decits) and natural
digits (nats) for the bases 2, 10 and e, respectively. Comparing Shannon entropy values that
were originally calculated with different log bases requires converting them to the same log
base: change from the base a to base b is obtained with multiplication by logba.[5]
It has been shown that the Shannon index is based on the weighted geometric mean of the
proportional abundances of the types, and that it equals the logarithm of true diversity as
calculated with q = 1:[3]

This can also be written

which equals

Since the sum of the pi values equals unity by definition, the denominator equals the
weighted geometric mean of the pi values, with the pi values themselves being used
as the weights (exponents in the equation). The term within the parentheses hence
equals true diversity 1D, and H' equals ln(1D).[1][3][4]
When all types in the dataset of interest are equally common, all pi values equal 1

/ R, and the Shannon index hence takes the value ln(R). The more unequal the
abundances of the types, the larger the weighted geometric mean of the pi values,
and the smaller the corresponding Shannon entropy. If practically all abundance is
concentrated to one type, and the other types are very rare (even if there are many
of them), Shannon entropy approaches zero. When there is only one type in the
dataset, Shannon entropy exactly equals zero (there is no uncertainty in predicting
the type of the next randomly chosen entity).

Rnyi entropy[edit]
The Rnyi entropy is a generalization of the Shannon entropy to other values
of q than unity. It can be expressed:

which equals

This means that taking the logarithm of true diversity based on any value
of q gives the Rnyi entropy corresponding to the same value of q.

Simpson index[edit]
The Simpson index was introduced in 1949 by Edward H. Simpson to
measure the degree of concentration when individuals are classified into
types.[6] The same index was rediscovered by Orris C. Herfindahl in
1950.[7] The square root of the index had already been introduced in 1945
by the economist Albert O. Hirschman.[8] As a result, the same measure is
usually known as the Simpson index in ecology, and as the Herfindahl
index or the HerfindahlHirschman index (HHI) in economics.
The measure equals the probability that two entities taken at random from
the dataset of interest represent the same type.[6] It equals:

This also equals the weighted arithmetic mean of the proportional

abundances pi of the types of interest, with the proportional
abundances themselves being used as the weights.[1] Proportional
abundances are by definition constrained to values between zero and
unity, but their weighted arithmetic mean, and hence 1/R, which is
reached when all types are equally abundant.
By comparing the equation used to calculate with the equations used
to calculate true diversity, it can be seen that 1/ equals 2D, i.e. true
diversity as calculated with q = 2. The original Simpson's index hence
equals the corresponding basic sum.[2]
The interpretation of as the probability that two entities taken at
random from the dataset of interest represent the same type assumes
that the first entity is replaced to the dataset before taking the second
entity. If the dataset is very large, sampling without replacement gives
approximately the same result, but in small datasets the difference can
be substantial. If the dataset is small, and sampling without
replacement is assumed, the probability of obtaining the same type with
both random draws is:

where ni is the number of entities belonging to the ith type and N is

the total number of entities in the dataset.[6] This form of the
Simpson index is also known as the HunterGaston index in
microbiology.[9]
he term beta diversity (-diversity) was introduced by R. H. Whittaker[1] together with the
terms alpha diversity (-diversity) and gamma diversity (-diversity). The idea was that the
total species diversity in a landscape () is determined by two different things, the mean species
diversity at the habitat level () and the differentiation among habitats (). Whittaker proposed
several ways of quantifying differentiation, and subsequent generations of ecologists have invented
more. As a result, the definition of beta diversity has become quite contentious.[2][3] Some use beta
diversity as a broad umbrella term that can refer to any of several indices related to compositional
heterogeneity.[4][5][6] Others argue that such broad usage should be avoided because it leads to

confusion. Instead, they propose that the term beta diversity be used to refer to one phenomenon
only (true beta diversity), and that other formulations be referred to by other names.[2][3][7][8][9][10]
Contents
[hide]

1Beta diversity in the strict sense (True beta diversity)

2Other things the term 'beta diversity' can refer to
o 2.1Absolute species turnover
o 2.2Whittaker's species turnover
o 2.3Proportional species turnover
o 2.4Compositional dissimilarity
3See also
4References

Beta diversity in the strict sense (True beta diversity)[edit]

Gamma diversity and alpha diversity can be calculated directly from species inventory data.[2][11] The
simplest of Whittaker's original definitions of beta diversity is
= /
Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape and alpha diversity is the mean
species diversity per habitat. Because the limits among habitats and landscapes are diffuse and to
some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any
inventory dataset and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided
into subunits. Then gamma diversity is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity
the mean species diversity per subunit. Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be
if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the
same, but the subunits shared no species.[2][7]

Other things the term 'beta diversity' can refer to[edit]

Absolute species turnover[edit]
Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative
components.[12][13] Then the beta component of diversity becomes
A = -
This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit
within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the
subunits in the dataset.[2]
When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated with the
following equation:

[14]

where, S1= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S2= the total number of
species recorded in the second community, and c= the number of species common to both
communities.

Whittaker's species turnover[edit]

If absolute species turnover is divided by alpha diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies how
many times the species composition changes completely among the subunits of the dataset. This
measure was proposed by Whittaker,[15] so it has been called Whittaker's species turnover.[2] It is
calculated as
W = ( - )/ = / - 1
When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this equals the onecomplement of the Srensen similarity index.[2][16]

Proportional species turnover[edit]

If absolute species turnover is divided by gamma diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies
what proportion of the species diversity in the dataset is not contained in an average subunit.[2] It is
calculated as
P = ( - )/ = 1 - /
When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this measure as ranged to the
interval [0, 1] equals the one-complement of the Jaccard similarity index.[2]

Compositional dissimilarity[edit]
Traditionally beta diversity has been used as an umbrella term, and then any of the numerous
available measures of compositional dissimilarity can be thought of as a measure of beta
diversity.[4] Because the different indices quantify different aspects of the data, they can give very
different values for the same data set, and can change in opposite ways when dataset properties are
changed. The values of some indices may be comparable, whereas comparing the values of other
indices can be misleading and lead to erroneous conclusions.[2]

See also[edit]

Alpha diversity

Gamma diversity

Global biodiversity

Diversity index

Dark diversity