Digital Signal Processing

Soma Biswas
Department of Electrical Engineering
IISc, Bangalore
E-mail: soma.biswas@ee.iisc.ernet.in

Structures for Discrete-Time Systems

A LTI system with rational system function ->i/p and o/p sequences satisfy
a linear constant coefficient difference equation
System function is Z-transform of impulse response
These systems can be represented by structures consisting of an interconnection
of basic operations of addition, multiplication by a constant and delay

Implementation using a recursive algorithm

Similar procedure can be applied to more general case of N-th order difference
equation
But there are other alternatives for implementing a particular system
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Digital Signal Processing - Lecture 9

Block Diagram Representation

Implementation -> iteratively evaluating a recursive formulae obtained from a
difference equation ->requires delayed values of o/p, i/p and intermediate
sequence values
Requirements:
Storage of past sequence values
Multiplication of delayed sequence by coeff.
Adding the resulting products
Basic elements: adders, multipliers, memory

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Example
Second Order difference equation

Block diagram representation: depicts the complexity of the associated

computational algorithm, steps of the algorithm and amount of hardware
required to realize the system

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Generalization to higher order difference equation

A block diagram can be modified in

many ways without changing the
overall system function
Each rearrangement represents a
different algorithm for implementing
the same system

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Rearrangement of block diagram

Can be viewed as cascade of 2 systems
First -> computation of v[n] from x[n]
Second -> computation of y[n] from v[n]

Each system is LTI system, the order in

which they are cascaded can e reversed
Without affecting the overall system fn
Assumed M=N
If M ~=N, some of the coeff would be 0

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Difference between the 2 representations

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Difference between the 2 representations

Option 1: Zeros implemented first, followed by poles

Option 2: Poles implemented first, followed by zeros
Theoretically, order does not affect the overall system function
If implemented using finite precision arithmetic, there can e significant difference
between the 2 systems
No. of delay elements: 1 and 2 needs
(N+M) delay elements
Minimum no. of delay required: Max(M,N)
Canonic Form Representation ->

Option 1: Direct Form 1 implementation (since

Direct realization of the difference equation)
Option 2: Direct Form 2 or Canonic Direct Form

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Example
LTI system with system function
b0 = 1, b1=2, a1=+1.5, a2=-0.9
Form 1-> 3 delays, Form 2-> 2 delays

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Signal Flow Graph Representation

Alternate representation of constant coefficient difference equation

Same as block diagram, except for a few notational differences
It is a network of directed branches that connect at nodes
Each node is associated with a node value wk[n]
Value at a node is the sum of the outputs of all the branches entering the node
Source nodes: no entering branches -> represent injection of external input into
the graph
Sink node: have only entering branches -> used to extract o/p from a graph

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Example

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Basic Structures for IIR Systems

Different commonly used equivalent flow graph structures

Choice depends on computational complexity
Eg Structures with fewest constant multipliers and delay branches are desirable
Since multiplication is usually a time-consuming and costly operation in digital hardware
and each delay element means a memory register
Few multiplication -> increase in speed
Few delay elements -> reduction in memory requirements
Direct Form 1 & 2

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Example

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Cascade Form
Factor numerator and denominator polynomials
Real poles/zeros

Complex conjugate
poles/zeros

Cascade of first and second order systems

Desirable to implement using minimum storage and computation
Combine pairs of real factors and complex conjugate pairs into second order
factors

Assumed: M<=N, and real poles and zeros have been combined in pairs
Odd no of real poles -> one coeff b2k would be zero
Each second order factors implemented using direct form II structure
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Contd.

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Example

If M=N, and N=even, direct form 1 and II requires (2N+1) multipliers, and
cascade form requires 5N/2 multipliers
6th order system, cascade form = 15 multipliers, direct form = 13 multipliers
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Parallel Form
Rational system function can be written as a partial fraction expansion

Parallel combination of first and second order IIR systems, with Np simply scaled
delay paths
Alternately, grouping real poles in pairs

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Contd.
M=N=6

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Example

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Transposed Form
Theory of signal flow graphs provides many procedures for transforming such
graphs into different forms while keeping the system function unchanged
Flow graph reversal or transposition leads to a system of transposed system
structures.
Transposition of a flow graph
reverse the directions of all branches
Keep branch transmittances same
Reversing the role of i/p and o/p

y[n] delayed and then multiplied by a

y[n] multiplied and then delayed
Since these can be interchanged, by inspection
original and transposed system have same
system function
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Example

Different ways to compute the o/p samples from the i/p samples
Can use z-transform, compute H(z) and show that they are equivalent

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FIR Systems

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Linear Phase FIR Systems

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