To p i c

Sequences
and Series

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Describe the basic concepts of series, sequences, as well as convergent

and divergent series;

2.

Explain how to solve problems involving arithmetic and geometric

progressions or series;
3.
Illustrate the Binomial Theorem; such as to expand (a + b)n where n
is a positive integer and to expand (1 + x)n , where n is a rational
number and |x| < 1;

4.

Demonstrate how to use binomial expansion for approximation; and

5.

Construct real-world examples where this topic can be applied.

INTRODUCTION
In the lower secondary school, students had learned pattern of numbers such as
odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7...) and even numbers (2, 4, 6, 8...). In this chapter, you will
lead your students to learn more about patterns of numbers.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
This topic will guide you on how to teach sequence and series. We will start with
an introduction to sequences and series. Next, you will learn about the use of
explicit or recursive formula for a sequence to find successive terms, finding the
next value in a sequence, convergence or divergence of a series, and arithmetic
and geometric sequences.

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SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Lastly, you will learn about The Binomial Theorem. Some examples and exercises
are given throughout this topic for you to practise the concepts covered.
Before we go further, can you give at least three reasons why students should
learn about this topic? How can this knowledge be applied in a real-life situation?
You may look this up in the Internet and share it with your peers in myVLE.

6.1

INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES AND

SERIES

Do you know what a sequence is? A sequence is a set of listed numbers. These
numbers are known as terms and they have a common characteristic. The first
number is known as the first term, the second number as the second term, and so
on.
Let us consider the following sequences;
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ........ is a sequence of positive odd numbers.
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ...... is a sequence of a positive even numbers.
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .......is a sequence of a non-negative integers.
The terms in a sequence are normally represented using alphabets such as a1 , c 1
or T1 , which is the first term. a 2 , c 2 ,T 2 represents the second term and so on.
Thus the sequences above can be represented as follows:

a1 , a 2 , a 3 , ........

or

c 1 , c 2 , c 3 , ..., c n or

These are the three common variables used to

represent the terms in a sequence. In fact, any other
variables can also be used.

T1 , T 2 , T 3 , ...,T n
For example, if the sequence consists of positive odd numbers, the first term is
a1 = 1, the second term, a2 = 3, the third term, a3 = 5 and so on.

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101

The sum of the numbers in a sequence is known as a series. Therefore, from the
previous sequences, we will have the series as follows:
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + ......... is a series of a positive odd numbers.
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + ...... is a series of a positive even numbers.
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ..... is a series of a positive integers.
From the first series above we can consider the sum of the first n terms:
The sum of the first three terms = a1 + a2 + a3 = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9.
or,
The sum of the first five terms

= a1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a 5
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25

A sigma notation is used to represent the summation of numbers in a series.

A variable, S with a subscript i, is used to represent the sum of the first n terms.
xn is the term

n is the term number

Thus, the summation above can also be written as follows:

The sum of the first three terms, S 3 =

i =1

1+3+5

or,
The sum of the first five terms, S 5 =

a1 + a 2 + a 3

i i
=
1

= 9

= a1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a 5
= 1+3+5+7+9
= 25

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Example 6.1:
Given the series; 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + ...... + n, find:
(a)

The fourth term

(b)

The sum of the first six terms

Solution:
(a)

The fourth term, a 4 = 4.

(b)

The sum of the first six terms

S 6 = a n = a1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4 + a 5 + a 6
n =1

Example 6.2:
Find the sum

= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21

2n 1
n =0

Solution:
Since i begins from 0 to 3, we have the summation of the first four terms instead
of just three terms.
[2(0) 1] + [2(1) 1] + [2(2) 1] + [2(3) 1]

2n 1
= n =0

1+1+3+5=8

Example 6.3:
Find the first four terms and the sum for the sequence c 1 , c 2 , c 3 , ........ if

c n = 3 n + 7.

Solution:
Write down the first four terms as follows:
The first term,

c 1 = 3(1) + 7 = 3 + 7 = 10

The second term, c 2 = 3(2) + 7 = 6 + 7 = 13

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The third term,

c 3 = 3(3) + 7 = 9 + 7 = 16

The fourth term,

c 4 = 3(4) + 7 = 12 + 7 = 19

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103

Thus, the first four terms of the sequence are 10, 13, 16, 19.
The sum of the first four terms =

ci i
=1

= c1 +c2 +c3 +c4

= 10 + 13 + 16 + 19
= 58

Example 6.4:
Write down the first five terms of the sequence defined as follows:

a1 = 2, a 2 = 3, a n = a n -1 + a n -2 + 1
Solution:
The first two terms are already given. We can use the general formula given to
find the next three terms as follows:
When n =
3;
When n =
4;

a 3 = a 2 + a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a4 = a3 + a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a 5 = a 4 + a 3 = 8 + 5 = 13.

When n =
5;
The first five terms of the sequence are 2, 3, 5, 8, 13.

6.1.1

Use of Explicit or Recursive Formula to Find

Successive Terms for a Sequence

For any given sequence, we can try to find a general representation of its terms.
We can solve such problems by constructing a table and trying to observe any
patterns, or rules on how those terms in the sequence are obtained.

Let us consider the following examples.

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Example 6.5:
Write in notation form, the general representation of the sum of the first n terms
in the sequence:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,

Solution:
i

a i Term

Polar

2 1 1

2 2 1

2 3 1

2 4 1

2 5 1

an

2 n 1

We construct the table above. The value of i is written in the first column. The
terms of the sequence are written accordingly in the second column. The third
column in the table is very important. We try to observe a specific rule or
polar/ pattern on how these terms are obtained.
Thus, the general representation, i.e. the n

th

term of the sequence is 2n 1.

Hence, the sum of the first n terms of the sequence is 2 i 1 .

i =1

Example 6.6:
Write in notation form, the general representation of the sum of the first n terms
in the sequence:
1, 4, 9, 16, 25,

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105

Solution:
By constructing the following table, we try to observe any suitable pattern how
terms are obtained.
i

a i Term

Polar

12

22

32

16

42

25

52

..
n

an

Thus, the general representation, i.e. the n

n2
th

term of the sequence is n .

Hence, the sum of the first n terms of the sequence is

i 2
.

6.1.2

i =1

Convergence or Divergence of a Series

In mathematics, when we talk about convergence, it is defined as the property or

manner of approaching a limit such as a point, a line, a function or a value.
Whereas, divergence is defined as the property or manner which fails to
approach a limit.
(Source: The free dictionary.com)
Before we discuss the convergence or divergence of any given series, let us
consider an infinite series. An infinite series is written as below:

S = u 1 + u 2 + u 3 + ........ + u n + ...........
i.e. the sum of the n terms of an infinite sequence.

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To consider the convergence of such a series, i.e. whether it adds up to a finite

quantity, we will introduce some definitions. Firstly, let us assume that the series
th

is finite (approaching a limit) and define the n partial sum of the series as the
sum of the first n terms:

S n = sum of n terms = u 1 + u 2 + u 3 + ........ + u n

Then the infinite series can be regarded as this n
infinity, i.e.

th

partial sum as n tends to

S = sum to infinity = lim S n

If S = lim S = l, a definite value, then we say that the series converges to the
n

value l. Otherwise, the series is divergent.

Using the sigma notation, we write:

Sn =

ur r =
1

S =

ur r =
1

Clearly, whether or not a series converges depends on the terms u r and also on
their relation to each other, i.e. in
test for convergence.

ur 1

. This last quantity appears in the ratio

One way of testing for convergence, of course, is to investigate the limit of the n
partial sum directly.
Example 6.7:
Investigate the convergence of the geometric series

S = a + ar + ar

+ ar

+ ........ + ar

n -1

+ .........

th

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107

Solution:
We have:

S n = a + ar + ar

S =

a 1$r n

+ ........ + ar

a
1 r

1$r

n -1

Now, 1 < r < 1, where r 0 as n , so

lim S n =

1r

Thus, the sum to infinity of the geometric series is

S =

1r
n

where r < 1 . On the other hand, if r 1 then r as n and so the

series is divergent.
Example 6.8:
Show that the infinite arithmetic series

S =a +

+ d + a + 2d + .......

diverges for any value of the common difference, d.

Solution:
We
have:

Sn = a +
=

2a

+ d +

+ 2d + ........ +

n 1 d

Now, as n , S n , for any value of d,

lim S =
n

+ n 1 d

And therefore the arithmetic series is divergent.

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You have now looked at how to define whether a series is convergent or

divergent. Besides the examples given above, you may also demonstrate this
knowledge with your students using this method shared by Khan Academy.
View the video (or encourage your students to view the video) here:
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/integralcalculus/sequences_series_ approx_calc/seq-conv-diverg/v/convergentand-divergent-sequences

6.1.3

Tests for Convergence

As noted in the previous section, if we can write the general form for S n , then we
can find lim S and check the convergence directly, but this is not always
n

possible. Fortunately, a number of different tests have been developed to

determine whether a series converges by considering its general form.
Before we even start to discuss the convergence of a series, we must first check
that lim u 0 , because if this is not so then the series cannot converge.
n

Assuming the series converges, then from:

u n S n S n 1
we have;

lim S S

0 lim u

n n

So, if the series converges, lim u 0 .

n

However, the converse is not true, i.e. lim u 0 , which does not imply that the
n

series converges.
Having verified that lim u 0 , we can continue to apply the tests for
n

convergence given as follows.

First, write the general form for S n .
(a)

In studying the convergence of a series, it is only the infinite tail which is

important not an initial infinite number of terms.

(b)

Some of the tests given below apply only to series whose terms all
eventually become positive.

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SEQUENCES AND SERIES

109

The various types of tests for convergence are stated below:

(a)

The Comparison Test

This is essentially a generalisation of the method we used for the harmonic
series as follows:
The n

th

partial sum of the harmonic series:

1
2

1
3

1
4

..........

1
n

........

Is

Sn

1
2

1
3

..........

1
n

Suppose we wish to study the convergence of the series of positive terms:

u 1 u 2 ......... u n ........

Then in the comparison test we compare this with a known series. Thus, let

v 1 v 2 ......... v n ..........

be a known standard series. Then if u r cv r , c = a constant and V

is convergent, then so is U. If u r cv r and V diverges, then so does U.
This test is intuitively obvious.
Example 6.9:
Apply the comparison test to the series
(i)

(ii)

1
2

1
2!
1
4

1
3!

........

1
6

.........

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Solution:
(i)

As standard series take the geometric series

1
2

1
2

...........

Clearly, u r 1 r and we know that V converges because its common

ratio is less than 1, and so U also converges.
(ii)

1
2

Take

1
4

series.

1
6

.......... .

1
2

1
3

1
4

.......... , the harmonic

Then u r v r and since V diverges, so does U.

2
(b)

Altering Series
In this particular case of an alternating series, such as:
1

1
2

1
3

1
4

.........

where the signs alternate, there is a very simple test for convergence.
Thus, let
S = u1

all u i

u2 + u3

u 4 + ..........

0 . Then if

lim u n 0 and u n u n 1 for all n N

(N a certain finite number) then the series converges.

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(c)

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

111

The Ratio Test

This useful test, the ratio test, deals with the positive values of the ratio of
successive terms.
For the series

u 1 u 2 u 3 ....... u n ........

let lim u n 1 = L
n
un
Then the series is Divergent if L > 1
Convergent if L < 1
And if L = 1, the test fails and we have to find some other test, for example,
the comparison test.
Example 6.10:
Examine the convergence of the following series using the ratio test:
1

1
2!

1
3!

2
1

(iii) 1

1
2

(i)

(ii)

1
4!

2
2!

2
3!

2
4!

1
3

1
4

1
5

.........

2
5!

.........

..........

Solution:
(i)

We have u

n!

n21

n 1 !

so,

lim

u n 1 u n

lim n

1 !

n!

lim

Therefore, the series converges.

n 1

0 1

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(ii)

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

2
1

2
2!

23
3!

u n 1

lim

24 25
4!
5!

......... we have u

n!

so

lim
n

un

n 1

lim 2

n!

n 1 ! 2

1
0 1
n 1

Therefore, the series converges.

(iii)

have u n

1
2

For the series 1

1
3

1
4
2

1
5

.......... we

so

lim

u n 1

lim

Therefore, in this case the ratio test is inconclusive. However, it is

possible to extend the method used for the harmonic series to prove
that the above series converges and in fact, more generally, the series
1

1
2
p

1
3

1
4

1
5

........

Converges if p > 1 and diverges if p 1 . This series provides a good

standard series for use in a comparison test.

6.2

SEQUENCES

It is hoped that by now your students are able to understand sequences and
series. This will help them a lot in grasping the subsequent sections. Now we will
move on to arithmetic and geometric sequences.

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6.2.1

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

113

Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences

The two simplest sequences to work with are arithmetic and geometric
sequences.
An arithmetic sequence goes from one term to the next by always adding (or
subtracting) the same value. For instance, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17,... and 8, 5, 2, -1, -4,... is an
arithmetic sequence, since you add 4 and subtract 3, respectively, in each step.
A geometric sequence goes from one term to the next by always multiplying (or
dividing) by the same value. So 1, 3, 9, 27, 81,... and 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2,.1,

.. is a
2
geometric sequence , since we multiply by 3 and divide by 2, respectively, in each
step.
The number added (or subtracted) at each stage of an arithmetic sequence is
called the common difference d, because if we subtract (find the difference of)
successive terms, we will always get this common value.

d = a 2 a1 = a 3 a 2
The number multiplied (or divided) at each stage of a geometric sequence is
called the common ratio r, because if we divide (find the ratio of) successive
terms, we will always get this common value.

r=

a1

a2

Consider the following examples:

Example 6.11:
Find the common difference and the next term of the following sequence:
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ...

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Solution:
To find the common difference, we have to subtract a pair of terms. It does not
matter which pair we choose, as long as they are successive terms:
16 13 = 3
13 10 = 3
10 7
=
37 4 =
34 1 =
3
The difference is always 3, so d = 3. Then, the next term is 16 + 3 = 19.
Example 6.12:
Find the common ratio and the sixth term of the following sequence: 2, 4, 8, 16,
32,
Solution:
4 8 16 32
r 2
The sixth term is, T 6 ar

n 1

2 2 6$1 2 2 64

For arithmetic sequences, the common difference is d, and the first term a1 is
often referred to simply as a. Since you obtain the next term by adding the
common difference, the value of a 2 is just a + d.
The third term is a 3 = (a + d) + d = a + 2d.
The fourth term is a 4 = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d.
Following this pattern, the n-th term will be T n = a n = a + (n 1)d.
For geometric sequences, the common ratio is r, and the first term a1 is often
referred to simply as a. Since you get the next term by multiplying the common
ratio, the value of a 2 is just ar.

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The third term is a 3 = r(ar) = ar

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

115

The fourth term is a 4 = r ar 2 ar 3

Following this pattern, the n-th term will have the form T n a n ar

n 1

Example 6.13:
Find the eighth term and the n-th-term of the following sequence:

, 1, 2, 4, 8, ...

Solution:
The differences do not match: 2 1 = 1, but 4 2 = 2. So, this is not an arithmetic
sequence.
On the other hand, the ratios are the same: 2 1 = 2, 4 2 = 2, 8 4 = 2. So this is
a geometric sequence with common ratio r = 2 and a =

To find the tenth and n-th terms, we can just plug it into the formula:

1
2

n 1

n 1

a8
2
2 8$1
128 64
2
2
2
Example 6.14:
Find the n-th term and the first three terms of the arithmetic sequence with a 6 = 5
and d =

Solution:
The n-th term is of the form T n a n = a + (n 1)d. In this case, that gives us

a6 = a + (6 1)

= 5. Solving, we get a = .
2

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SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Then:

a1 , a 2
2
2

3
3
1, a 3 1
, and a n ( n 1)
2
2
2
2
2

Example 6.15:
Find the n-th term and the first three terms of the arithmetic sequence having
a 4 = 93 and a8 = 65.
Solution:
Since a 4 and a 8 are four places apart, we know from the definition of an
arithmetic sequence that a 8 = a 4 + 4d. Then:
65 = 93 + 4d
28 = 4d
7 = d
Also, a 4 = a + (4 1)d, so:
93
= a + 3(7)
93 + 21 = a
114
= a
Then a1 = 114, a 2 = 114 7 = 107, a 3 = 107 7 = 100, and a n = 114 + (n 1)(7)
Example 6.16:
Find the n

th

th

and 18 terms of the geometric sequence with a 5

and a12 160 .

Solution:
These two terms are 12 5 = 7 places apart; so, from the definition of a geometric
7
sequence, we know that a12 (a5 ) (r ) . Then:
7

160 (r )
4
128 r

2 r

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SEQUENCES AND SERIES

117

Since a 5 ar , then:
4

a (2 ) 16a

64

Then a n

6.2.2

64

2 n$1 and a18

64

217 10240

Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. In an arithmetic series,

the difference between one term and the next is constant. In other words, we just
add the same value each timeinfinitely. For example:

In general, we could write an arithmetic series like this:

{a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...}
Where:
(a)

a is the first term; and

(b)

d is the difference between the terms (called the common difference).

Source: http://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/sequences-sumsarithmetic.html
We can write the arithmetic formula as follows:

The formula for the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence, starting with n = 1, is:

a
i 1

n
a1 a n

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The sum is, in effect, n times the average of the first and last terms. This sum of
the first n terms is called the n-th partial sum.
Example 6.17:
th

Find the 40

partial sum of a n n 1
2

Solution:
The 40th partial sum is the sum of the first forty terms. The first few terms are:

a1

a 2

a 3

2 1 2
3 1

The terms have a common difference d =

, so this is an arithmetic sequence.

3
1
The last term in the partial sum will be a 40 a1 40 1d 39
Then, plugging this into the formula, the 35th partial sum is:
35

40 i 1

n 35 3
i
n
2 1

37

37 35
2 2

2 2 2

We can also derive another formula of the sum of the first n terms of an
arithmetic series as follows:
Let S n be the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series. The sum of an
arithmetic series from the first to the last term can be written as follows:

S n a a d

a 2d a 3d

.......

a n 1 d

(1)

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119

And the sum of an arithmetic series from the last term to the first term can be
written as follows:

S n a n 1 d a n-2 d

a n-3 d

........... a

(2)

Add equation (1) to equation (2) above and we will obtain the sum of an
arithmetic series as follows:
2S n 2a n 1 d

2a n-1 d ............. until the n

th

term

2 S n n 2a n-1 d

S n

2a n 1 d

Example 6.18:
Find the sum of the first 20 terms of an arithmetic sequence: 1, 3, 5, 7, ..
Solution:
The first term is a = 1, and d = 3 1 = 2, substitute into the formula

S n

2a n 1 d 2 1 20 1 (2) 10 2
2

19 2 400 S 20

Example 6.19:
If the first term of an arithmetic sequence is 2 and the last term i.e. the fifth term is
10. Find the sum of the first 5 terms.
Solution:
Use the formula:

i 11 ai

Thus S 5

a1 an S 5 a1 a 2 a 3 a 4 a 5

2 10 30

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Example 6.20:
Given an arithmetic sequence 2, 5, 8, 11,.. Find the 15 terms and the sum of the
first 15 terms.
Solution:
We identify and get a = 2, d = 5 2 = 3, n = 15.
Use the formulas below and substitute the respective values of a, d and n.

a n a n 1 d 2 15 1 3 2 (14)(3) 2 42 44 a15
S n

15

15

2a n 1 d 2 2 15 1 3 4 42 15(23) 345 S

Example 6.21:
Given an arithmetic sequence 10, 5, 0, 5, 10, .
Find the eighth term and the sum of the first ten terms.
Solution:
We identify the value of a, a = 10, and d = 5 10 = 5
Use respective formulas and substitute the values of a, d and n:

a n a (n 1)(d ) 10 (8 1)(5) 10 35 25 a8
S n

2a n 1 d 2 10 10 1 5 5 20 45 125 S
2

Example 6.22
Given an arithmetic sequence 19, 22, 25, . Find:
(a)

S4

(b)

S 100

10

15

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SEQUENCES AND SERIES

121

Solution:
We have a = 19, d = 22 19 = 3,
(a)

S n

(b)

S 100

6.2.3

2a n 1 d 2 19 4 1 (3) 2 38 3(3) 2(47) 94 S

100

2(19) (100 1)(3) 50 38 99(3) 50(335) 16750

Geometric Series

A geometric series is the sum of a geometric sequence. A geometric sequence is a

sequence whereby every term is obtained when the previous term is multiplied
by the common ratio, r.
Take for instance, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32. 2 is the first term, multiplied by 2 becomes 4;
the second term, 4 multiplied by 2 becomes 8; the third term, 8 multiplied by 2
becomes 16; the fourth term, 16 multiplied by 2 becomes 32; the fifth and the last
term.

The common ratio is obtained by the following formula:

a n 1

. Thus, from

the above example we can calculate the common ratio r as follows:

4

16

32

Hence, in general we can write the geometric

2
4
8
16
progression as follows:

a,

ar, ar

, ar

, ..........., ar

Therefore the nth term of a geometric sequence is

n- 1

n 1
n

If we would like to find the 20th term of the example above then we just
substitute the values of a = 2, r = 2, and n = 20 into the formula as follows:

T 20 a 20

2 2 20$1 2 2

19

1048576

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We write down the geometric series from the first term to the n

S n a

ar ar

ar

........... ar

n -1

th

term as follows:

........

(1)

Then we multiply equation (1) by 2 to obtain equation (2) below:

rS n ar ar

ar

ar

........... ar

.........

(2)

Subtract equation (1) with equation (2) and we obtain the following:

S n rS n
S n 1

= a ar

= a 1 r

(3)

n
"1 r #
S =a
where r 1
Example 6.23:
Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the geometric series below:
1 1 1 .
2
4
8

(a)

(b)

4 + 8 + 16 + 32 +..

Solution:
12
11

(a)

14
12

18
14
2

1 1 2 10

S 10

(b)

1023 1024

511 1 1 2 1 2

16

32

16

1023
512
512

= a

1 1 2#0

= 4

(-1023)

= (4)(1023) = 4092

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

123

Example 6.24:
Given a geometric sequence 3, 9, 27, 81, . Find the fifth term and the sum of the
first five terms.
Solution:

9 27 81
For the question, get: a = 3, r 3 , and n = 5
4

The fifth term T 5 a 5 3 3 5$1 3 3 3 x 81 243

1 1$3#

The sum of the first five terms = S 3

$22

3 x 121 363

Example 6.25:
Given a geometric sequence 3, 9, 27, 81, .., 2187. How many terms are there in
the sequence?
Solution:

9 27 81
We obtain a = 3, r 3 and the last term, T n 2187
Using the formula: T n ar

n 1

2187 3 3 n$1

;
;

T n 3 3 n$1
2187

n 1

taking log on both sides of the equal sign:

log(729) n 1 log 3

log 729
log 3

Hence, the last term is n = 6 + 1 = 7. i.e. 2187 is the 7th term of the sequence.

124

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Example 6.26:
Given a geometric sequence: 1, (1.05), 1.05 2 ,

1.05 3 ,

Find the ninth term and the sum of the first nine terms.
Solution:
We identify and get:

1.05 2
1.05 3 1.05
1.05 2
T 9 1 1.05 9$1 1.05 8 1.4475 (4 decimal places)

S 1

1 1$1.05#

0.551328216

11.027 (3 decimal places)

Example 6.27:
What is the smallest term that can be taken from the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, . so that
its sum will be greater than 1000?
Solution:
We identify and get:
3 9 27
a = 1, r 3

1$3

1000

3n 1 2000

;
;

3 n 1

1000

3 2001

taking log on both sides of the equal sign:

n log 3 log 2001

log 2001
log(3)

n > 6.9191, thus the smallest term is 7.

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

125

Example 6.28:
The sum of the first three terms of a geometric sequence is 117 and the sum of the
next three terms is 4

. Find the third term of the geometric sequence.

Solution:
We consider the problem as follows:
( T1 T 2 T 3 ) 117

T 4 T 5

1 - r

117 (1)

S a
.. (2)
117 4
6
1- r6
1 364

T 6

Divide equation (2) by equation (1):

1 r 6 364
3 1 r 3 117

351

1 r 3

364 1
351
3

13

351

27

1 r 3 1 r 3
364 1 r 3

364

351

r 3

27

Now we find the first term, a and the third term,T 3 :

1
Substitute r

into equation (1):

1
3

2
a 1
117
3
27

78

27

117

a 78

26

81
2

The third term, T 3 ar 81

126

TOPIC 6

6.2.4

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

The Sum to Infinity of a Convergence Geometric

Series

An infinite series is a series whereby the number of terms is unlimited and

uncountable.
For example:
(a)

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ..

(b)

In a case of

1
2

1
4

1
8

...............

r < 1 -1 < r < 1 , the sum to infinity for the first n terms of

a geometric series is given as follows:

ar ar

........ ar

n- 1

a 1 r n

The sum of a geometric series, S n

1r

ar
1r

1r

When n approaches an infinity, n , r

0 .

Thus the sum to infinity of a geometric series, S =

1 r

S is a finite number and it is known as the sum to infinity.

While in the case of r > 1

r < - 1, r > 1 ,

the sum of the first n terms for

a geometric series is given as follows:

a r 1
n

ar

r 1

r 1

r 1

When n approaches infinity n , r therefore S

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

127

Hence, in this case when S , the sum to infinity of its geometric series does
not exist.
Let us consider the following examples.
Example 6.29:
In the following geometric series, determine the sum to infinity if it exists.
(a)

8, 2,

(b)

2, 2.2, 2.42,

Solution:
(a)

We identify and get, a = 8, r

8
Since 1 r 1 , then S exists.
4

(b)

a
1 r

8
1

10

We identify and get, a = 2, r

2.2

1.1

Since r > 1, then S does not exist.

Example 6.30:
The sum to infinity of a geometric series is 8. If the second term of this series is 2,
find the sum of the first six terms.
Solution:
Given that T 2

ar
and

S
a

= 2
= 2........................................ (1)

1r

= 8

= 8........................................ (2)

128

TOPIC 6

2 1 :

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

8
2

a ar
1- r
a 1 4
ar
1r
1

r r

4
2

1 4 r 4 r 2
2

4r 4r 1 0

2r 12 0
Thus, r

1
2

Substituting the value of r

into (1), we have:

1
2
a=4
a 1 r 6
S 6

1r

4 ;11

<
1

4 1
64
1

63 63
7 64 8

Example 6.31:
Given that an infinite geometric series with all its terms are positive and having a
sum to infinity. The ratio of sum of the first four terms to the sum of the first two
terms is 13: 9.
(a)

Find the common ratio of the geometric series.

(b)

If the third term is 2

, find the value of the sum to infinity.

TOPIC 6

Solution:
(a)

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

13

S4

13

S2

a 1 r 4 13 1 r 2

1 r

1 r

13

1 r 4 1 r 2
13

1 r 2 1 r 2 1 r 2
2

13
9

r
r

(b)

Since all the terms are positive then r

Given,
3

T 3 2

ar

2 2
8 3
3
Thus,

8 9
a 6

13

1
or

129

By using the formula sum to infinity, S

a
1 r

6
2

18

130

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Example 6.32:
Express the decimal number 0.3333.. in a fraction form.
Solution:
We write down the decimal number as follows:
0.3333

3
10

3
100

3
1000

..........

This give us an infinite geometric series.

We obtain a

Then, S

and r

10

a
1 r

100
10
3
10

10

10

10

Therefore, 0.3333. can be expressed in a fraction form as

6.3

BINOMIAL THEOREM

I am sure you are now more familiar with sequences and series. Let us move on
to Binomial Theorem. Do you know what the expression of the Binomial
Theorem is? The formal expression of the Binomial Theorem is as follows:
For variables x and y and positive integer of n, then

x y n

x y

x n$k y k ; where

n 1

n 2

y ......

k ! n k !

n 1
nC k

x y

n 1

x y

( normally known as binomial

coefficient)

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

131

Recall that the factorial notation n! means the product of all the whole
numbers between 1 and n; so, for instance, 6! = 123456. Then the notation

10
7

(often pronounced as ten choose seven) means:

10

x7

10!
10! 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x 10
10 7 ! 7! 3 ! 7! 1 x 2 x 3 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6

One more thing to be considered here is that, the relationship of the value of k
with respect to any term in the expansion. We noticed that for the first term, the
value of k = 0, for the second term the value of k = 1, for the third term the
value of k = 2, and so on.
Thus in general we can have the formula as follows:

k = (no. of term) 1
So for the first term, k = 1 1 = 0;
For the second term, k = 2 1 = 1;
For the third term, k = 3 1 = 2;
For the ten term, k = 10 1 = 9.
Finally we also note that, in any expansion, there is one more term than the
number in the power. For instance:

x y 2 x

2 xy y (Second power: three terms)

x y 3 x

3 x y 3 xy y (Third power: four terms)

x y 4 x

4x y 6 x y 4 xy y

(Fourth power: five terms)

132

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Let us consider the following examples:

Example 6.33:
Expand x y 5 by using:
(a)

Algebraic expansion

(b)

Binomial theorem

Solution:
(a)

Expanding x y 5 by using an algebraic expansion:

2

Consider the factor of x y 2 x 2xy y

Thus,

x y 5 x y x y 2 x y 2 x y x 2 2xy y 2 x 2 2xy y 2
x y x 4 4 x 3 y 6 x 2 y 2 4 xy 3 y 4
5

x 5x y 10x y 10x y 5xy y

(b)

Expanding x y 5 by using a binomial theorem:

0 1
5

2 3 4
3

x 5x y 10x y 10x y 5xy y

We noticed that we have the same expansion for both methods of expansion i.e.
5

the first term is x , the second term is 5x y , the third term is 10x y , the fourth
2

term is 10x y , the fifth term is 5xy and the last and the sixth term is y .

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

133

We also noticed that the number of terms in the expansion is equal to (n + 1) i.e.
The number of terms in the expansion = n + 1
Thus if n = 5, then the number of terms in the expansion = 5 + 1 = 6 terms.
Example 6.34:
Expand 2 x y 4 by using the binomial theorem.
Solution:

2x y 4
3

2 x 4 y 0

2 x 3 y 1

2 x 2 y 2

2 x 1 y

2x 0 y 4
4

16x 32x y 24x y 8 xy y

We noticed that since n = 4, there are 4 + 1 = 5 terms in the expansion.

Example 6.35:
5

Find the coefcient of x y in the expansion of x y 7 .

Solution:
To solve this example we do not expand the entire expansion of the expression.
Instead, we just calculate the specific and the relevant term only. To find the
relevance term we have to consider the general term in the formula of the
binomial theorem, i.e.

n k

k
Since the value of n will be known from the power of the given expansion, we
need to find the correct and specific value of k for the required term. To find the
value of k we consider the following steps:
We can focus on the exponent of x or on the exponent of y that is equivalent.
Let us say we focus on the exponent of x:

7 k

134

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

By comparing the exponent of x only (i.e. if other components associated with x

can be ignored, for example its coefficient) on both sides of the equivalent sign we
will have:
7 k=5

thus k = 7 5 = 2

Now if we focus on the exponent of y and we will obtain the following:

k

y y

By comparing the exponent of y only (i.e. if other component associated with y

can be ignored, for example its coefficient) on both sides of the equivalent sign we
will have:

k=2
Next we substitute these values of n = 7 and k = 2 into the general formula as
follows:

n k

k 2
5

Hence the coefficient of x y is 21.

Example 6.36:
Given 2 x 3 y 11 , use the Binomial Theorem to find:
(a)

The eight term

(b)

The coefficient of x y

Solution:
(a)

To find the eight terms we get the value of k and apply the formula as
follows:

k = 8 1 = 7; n = 11.

n k

11

 k 7

TOPIC 6

(b)

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

135

By focusing on the exponent of x and neglecting its coefcient 2, thus we

will obtain the following:

11 - k

Next we compare the power of x on both sides of the equivalent sign:

11 k = 5

k = 11 5 = 6

For discussion, we can also obtain the value of k by focusing on the

exponent of y and neglecting its coefficient (-3) and thus obtaining the
following:
k

y y

k = 6.

Substitute the values n = 11 and k = 6 into the formula below:

11

x n$k y k

2x 5 3 y 6 462 32x 5 729 y 6 10777536 x 5 y

6
5

Therefore, the coefcient of x y

is 10777536.

Example 6.37:
Find the middle term in the expansion of 4 x y 8 .
Solution:
Since this binomial is to the power 8, there will be nine terms in the expansion,
which makes the fifth term the middle one.
So we will insert 4x, y, and 8 into the Binomial Theorem, and also use the
number 5 1 = 4 as the value of k. Thus, we have:

x n$k y k

4x 4 y 4 70 256x 4 y 4 17920x 4 y 4

136

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Example 6.38:

Find the term of a 3b 15 from the expansion of 3a b 3 8

Solution:
We get n = 8, and next we need to find the value of k as follows:

8-k

Thus

6.3.1

8 k=3

k=8 3=5

x n$k y k
3a 3 b 3 5 56 27a 3 b 15 1512a 3b 15
5

Binomial Theorem for Infinite Series

If n is not positive integer (negative integers or rational indices), then;

1 + x n = 1 +

nx +

1
2!

x +

n n

n 2
3!

x + .........

The expansion is an infinite series of ascending powers of x.

The expansion is only valid if 1 < x < 1.
Example 6.39:
Expand 1 2 x $3 in ascending powers of x.
Solution:

1 2x $3 =

1 + 3 2 x +

3 4

2x 2 +

3 4 5

= 1 + 6x + 6 4 x 2 10 8x 3 + ..........
2

= 1 + 6 x + 24 x + 80x + ............
The expansion is valid if 1 < 2x < 1

< x <

2x 3 + ......

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

137

Example 6.40:
Expand 1 x 2 in ascending powers of x
Solution:

1 x 2

= 1

= 1+

1 1
2 2

2!

1 1 3
2 2 2

x ........

x x +
x + ...........
2
8
16

The expansion is valid if 1 < x < 1.

Example 6.41:
3

Expand 1 x 3 in ascending powers of x, as far as the term in x .

By substituting x = 0.08 in the above expansion, estimate
decimal places.
Solution:

1 x 3

= 1

= 1

1 2
3 3

1.08 =

1 0.08 3

81
3

1.08 correct to 5

x ..........

2!

We use this expansion to estimate

3

1 2 5
3 3 3

x .............

1.08 as follows:

= 1 +

0.08 0.08 2 +
9

= 1.02598716
= 1.02599 (5 decimal places)

81

0.08 3

138

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

A sequence is a set of listed numbers. These numbers are known as terms

and they have a common characteristic. The first number is known as the
first term, the second number as the second term, and so on.

An arithmetic sequence goes from one term to the next by always adding (or
subtracting) the same value. For instance, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17,... and 8, 5, 2, -1, -4,...
is an arithmetic sequence, since you add 4 and subtract 3, respectively, in
each step.

A geometric sequence goes from one term to the next by always multiplying
(or dividing) by the same value. So 1, 3, 9, 27, 81,... and 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1,

2
is a geometric sequence , since we multiply by 3 and divide by 2,
respectively, in each step.
The number added (or subtracted) at each stage of an arithmetic sequence is
called the common difference d, because if we subtract (find the difference
of) successive terms, we will always get this common value.

An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. A geometric series

is the sum of a geometric sequence.

A geometric sequence is a sequence whereby every term is obtained when

the previous term is multiplied by the common ratio, r.

An infinite series is a series whereby the number of terms is unlimited and

uncountable.
For example:
(a)

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ..

(b)

1 1 1 ...............
2
4
8

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

139

The formal expression of the Binomial Theorem is as follows:

For variables x and y and positive integer of n, then;

x y n

x y

x n$k y k ; Where

n 1

n 2

y ......

k ! n k !

n 1

x y

n Ck

(normally known as binomial coefficient)

Alternating Series

Ratio Test

Common Difference

Sequence

Common Ratio

Series

Comparison Test

Sigma Notation

Convergent

Sum of an Arithmetic Series

Counter

Sum of a Geometric Series

Divergent

Sum to Infinity

Partial Sum of the Series

Summation

Pattern or Rule or Pola

Term

n 1

x y

140

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Arsmah Ibrahim, Hamidah Maidinsah, Cheema, H. K., & Nor Maizan Aziz.
(2001). Matematik diskret. Kuala Lumpur: Mc-GrawHill.
Eng. W. K., Hamdan Abdul Maad, & Zubaidah Abdul Wahab. (1999). Business
mathematics. Shah Alam: Pusat Pendidikan Lanjutan ITM.
Wan Endut, W. J., & Mahmood, J. (1992). Matematik perniagaan. Kuala Lumpur:
DBP.

Convergence or Divergence of a Series

1.

Find the sequence of the n

the sequence:

th

partial sums for the following series, i.e.

S 1 , S 2 , S 3 , ............
If possible, find a formula for S and thus evaluate lim S
n

(a)

1 1 1 1 .......
2
2
2
2
2

(b)

1 + 1
3
3

(c)

1+3+5+7+.

1 + ..........
3
3

(d)

1 1

(e)

1 1 1 ...........
2!
3!
4!

1 1 1 ............
2
3
4

TOPIC 6

2.

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

141

th

Obtain a formula for the n partial sum S n for the following series
and hence, investigate their convergence (or otherwise).
(a)

4 4 4 ...........
3
3
3
3
2

3.

(b)

6 2 + 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + ..

(c)

1 2 2

(d)

............

x x .............
22
3 2
2

State, without proof, which of the following series are convergent

or divergent. Write down the n

th

term of each series.

(a)

1 + 1 1 + 1 1 +

(b)

1.01 1.012

(c)

.99 2 .99 3 .99 4 ...........

(d)

1 1 1
.............
53
50
51
52

(e)

1 2 3 4 ...........
2
3
4
5

(f)

1 .2 .2 2

(g)

1 1 + 1 1 + ............
40
50
60
70

1.013 ............

.2 3

..........

(h)

44
4

............
3 2
2 3 3
2 3
4 4

142

4.

TOPIC 6

Find the n

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

th

term of the following series and test for convergence.

(a)

1+1+1+1+

(b)

1 2 + 3 4 + 5 + .

(c)

1 2 .9 3 .9 2

(d)

(e)

1 2 .95 3 .95 2

(f)

1 3 5 ............
2
4
6

(g)

(h)

1 +
2

1.

.............

1 ............
3

4 .9 3

.............

+ ............

1 3 1 5 1 7 .............
2 4
3 6
4 8

Binomial Theorem
1.

Expand x 2 3 6 by using the binomial theorem and simplify all the

terms in your expansion.

2.

Expand

2 x 5 y 7

by using the binomial theorem and simplify all

the terms in your expansion.

3.

What is the fourth term in the expansion of 3 x 2 10 ?

4.

Find the tenth term in the expansion of x 3 12 .

TOPIC 6

5.

6.

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

143

Use the binomial theorem to find the following:

5

(a)

The coefficient of x in the expansion of x 2 12

(b)

The coefficient of y 10 in the expansion of 2 y 2 7

7

Find the coefficient of a b in the expansion of:

(a)

a b 11

(b)

a 2b 11

(c)

3a b 11
8

2 y
in the expansion of 2 x 3 6

7.

Find the term that consists of x y

8.

Expand 2 x 3 y 2 5 and simplify.

9.

Use the Binomial Theorem to expand each binomial and express the
result in simplified form.
(a)

2 x 3 1 4

(b)

2a b 6
3

10.

Expand and simplify 3

by using the Binomial Theorem.

6

11.

Find the middle term in the expansion of 2 x

and the coefficient of

x y .
12.

The first three terms of the expansion 1 ax n is 1 + x

(a)

The value of a and n where n is not a positive integer.

x . Find

(b)

The coefficient of x of the expansion.

144

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Determine the first three terms in the expansion of 1 a n

13.

in

ascending powers of a, where n is not an integer. Hence, use the expansion to

find the
value 0.92 3 correct to 3 decimal places.
14.

Expand 1 x $2 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 . Hence

estimate

15.

correct to three decimal places.

0.9

Express 1 x $ 2 and 2 x 5 as a series in ascending powers of x as far as

2

the term in x . Hence, show that if the powers are greater, than 2 can be
21$ x5
2
ignored. Then
= 32 64 x + 52x .
16.

(a)

Expand 1 x 3 and 1 2 x $ 2 in ascending powers of x as far as the

term in x 3 .
Hence, find the expansion of

(b)
17.

1$23

up to the term in x .

State the range of x so that the expansion is valid.

Expand 2 4x $3

in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x .

State the range of x so that the expansion is valid.

18.

Write down the first four terms in the expansion of 4 5x $2 in

ascending powers of x and state the range of x so that the expansion is valid.

19.

Expand
for

20.

1 3x

in ascending powers of x up to x

. State the value of x

which the expansion is valid.

Expand 1 x 4 3 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 8 .

Hence estimate

1.0016 correct to 5 decimal places.

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

145

Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions

1.

2.

Find:
th

(a)

The 15 term.

(b)

The sum of the first 15 terms for the following sequences:

(i)

12, 17, 22, .

(ii)

4, 10, 16,

Find the number of terms in the following sequences:

(a)

5, 11, 17, .., 83

(b)

4, 8, 12, , 40
th

th

3.

The 5 and the 13 terms of an arithmetic sequence are 25 and 65

respectively. Find the first term and the common difference of the
arithmetic sequence.

4.

An arithmetic sequence is given as follows:

20, 15, 10, ., 175

(a)

Find the number of terms in the sequence.

(b)

Find the sum of the last 20 terms.

5.

Find the minimum number of terms that must be taken from the sequence
3, 5, 7, 9, .. so that the sum is more than 439.

6.

The sum of the first five terms of an arithmetic sequence is 40 and the sum
of its first ten terms is 155. What is this arithmetic sequence?

146

7.

8.

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

The sum of the first 20 terms of an arithmetic sequence is 840. If the

common difference is 4, find:
(a)

The first term

(b)

The sum of the first 30 terms

The first term of an arithmetic sequence is -5 and the last term is 40. If the
common difference is 3, find:
(a)

The number of terms in the sequence

(b)

The sum of all the terms in the sequence

9.

How many terms of the progression 50, 46, 42, must be taken for the
sum to be equal to 0?

10.

The sum of the first 10 terms of an arithmetic sequence is 255 and the sum
th

of the next 5 terms is 315. Find the 7 term of the arithmetic sequence.
11.

A geometric sequence is given as follows:

3, 6, 12, 24,.
(a)

Find the common ratio of the sequence.

(b)

Find the ninth term of the sequence.

12.

Find the number of terms of a geometric sequence 6, 12, 24, .., 1536.

13.

Find:
th

(a)

The 12 term

(b)

The sum of the first 12 terms

for the following sequences

(a)

1, 6, 36,

(b)

7, -14, 28,

TOPIC 6

rd

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

147

th

14.

The 3 and 8 terms of a geometric sequence are 18 and 4374

respectively. Find the first term and the common ratio of the geometric
sequence.

15.

The sum of the first three terms of a geometric progression is 21. The third
term exceeds the second term by 6. Find its common ratio if it is positive.

16.

The sum of the first two terms of a geometric sequence is 4 and the sum of
15
the first four terms is
. Find the common ratio if it is positive.

17.

If the second term and the fourth term of a geometric progression are 5 and
respectively, find the seventh term if all the terms in a progression are

4
positive.
18.

Find the minimum number of terms that must be taken from the
sequence 6, 12, 24, 48, so that the sum is more than 1500.

19.

The seventh term of a geometric sequence exceeds the fifth term by 36. Find
the sum of the first ten terms if the common ratio is 2.

20.

The sum of the first 4 terms of a geometric sequence is 300 and the sum of
the next 4 terms is 24300. Find the 3

rd

term of the geometric sequence.

Infinity of an Infinite Geometric Series

1.

Determine the sum to infinity of the following geometric sequences if it

exist.
(a)

(b)

3
7,

, ,
, ............
6 12
49

343

, .........

(c)

3,

27

, .............

148

2.

TOPIC 6

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

The sum to infinity of a geometric series is 15. If the second term of

this series is 3

3.

, find the sum of the first ten terms.

Given that an infinite geometric series, with all its terms being positive
and having a sum to infinity. The ratio of the sum of the first 3 terms to the
sum of the first 6 terms is 64: 65. Find the common ratio of the series.
Find the
sum to infinity of the series if the second term is

4.

Express the decimal number 0.6666 .. in fraction form.

5.

Given that an infinite geometric series with all its terms being positive
and having a sum to infinity. The ratio of the sum of the first 2 terms to the
sum of the first 4 terms is 7 : 11. Find the common ratio of the series.
Find the
sum to infinity of the series if the fourth term is

6.

Express the following decimal numbers in a fractional form:

(a)

0.8888..

(b)

0.1666..

7.

The first three terms of a geometric series a 5, x, 0.8. Find the value of x and
the sum to infinity.

8.

Find the difference between the sum of the first ten terms and the sum to
infinity of the geometric series 8, 4, 2, 1, .