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Table of Content
1 INTRODUCTION. 3
1.1 THE FAILURE OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS .3
1.2 ORIGIN OF MATTER WAVES ...3
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1 Introduction
1.1 The failure of classical mechanics
Bohrs theory of atoms proposed in 1913 was able to account for the basic laws of
the theory of thermal radiation and spectroscopy, yet the explanation about the obtained
spectra was not sufficient. Classical physics was able to calculate the brightness of
spectra but could not account for their origin. Quantum physicson the other hand was
able to explain the essence of spectra but could not calculate the brightness of the spectra.
Bohr concluded that both the theories should be harnessed to extend the areas
where they more or less coincide. Bohr rejected the classical views on electron motion
and introduced the concept of electron orbiting the nucleus the same way that the earth
moves round the sun. His theory gave the correct explanation for the photons origin in
atom but its process remained unanswered and did not follow any of its postulate.
Bohrs theory was a tremendous leap (step forward) in understanding atomic
world yet its limitations had to be broken down with the aid of quantum tool, which
emerged very soon in the form of dual nature concept.
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For example, radio receivers pick up radio waves alone; scintillation counters
detect gamma rays and so on. Therefore, matter waves should also be detectable by an
appropriate detector. However, to understand why they remain obscure, we should
consider the wavelength of the matter waves proposed by de Broglie,
h
mv
Let us consider three objects of different scale in mass and dimensions; (a)the
planet(earth), (b)human body and (c)an electron, to understand the secret of why matter
waves are imperceptible.
a) For planet earth: The mass of the earth is 6x1027 and its velocity of orbital motion
(around the sun is 3x106 cm/sec approx). Then its de Broglie wavelength is
6.6 x10 27
h
=
= 36 x10 61 cm
27
6
mv 6 x10 x3x10
This value is extremely small and no existing instrument can record something that small.
b) Let us calculate the wavelength of a human, whose weight is 50x103gm, moving with
a speed of 85 cm per sec. From de Broglies wavelength formula,
6.6 x10 27
= 1.38 x10 33 cm
3
56 x10 x85
6.6 x10 27
= 10 7 cm
7
27
6 x10 x10
This corresponds to the wavelength of x-rays and is detectable with the principle of
diffraction.
Hence the presence of matter waves at the nano scale dimensional particle is
traceable and so the presence of nanoparticle could be analyzed in terms of de Broglie
wavelength. The detection of matter waves confirms the presence of moving particle say
electron which ultimately decides the conductivity in nano devices. Hence de Broglie
concept got its significance at the nano dimensions.
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With this brief introduction, let us start the discussion on the first module of our course.
E = h
(1)
(3)
or,
p = h/
This gives the relation between wave and particle nature of photons. Hence Louis
de Broglie proposed that, all moving particles have wave nature and the wavelength is
given by,
= h / p = h / mv
From photons this duality nature was extended to sub atomic particles such as
electrons and protons which follow the quantum mechanical laws for its behaviour.
These particles (matter) exhibitboth particle and wavebehaviorssimultaneously.
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Thus, de Broglie related the particle and wave natures of matter by providing a
relation between the particle properties; mass and velocity and its wave property viz.
wavelength. From the example discussed about the de Broglie wavelength associated
with planet earth, human being and an electron, it can be seen that de Broglie wavelength
reduces with the mass. The wavelength is length in space over which there is probability
of finding the particle at a given instant. Therefore, we can say that with the increase of
mass, the matter prefers particle nature.
Louis de Broglies review: If it is possible for the radiation to have the dual
nature, then it should also be possible for particles like electron to exhibit wave properties
under suitable conditions. In support to his view, he quoted three main points
* Nature is symmetrical
* There is a close parallelism between mechanics and geometrical optics
* The stable orbits for electron as proposed by Bohr.
Different forms of de Broglie wavelength:
h
h
=
p mv
h
Relating wavelength and kinetic energy, =
2m E k
Relating wavelength and momentum =
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Thus, the particles (matter) with velocity v have the wave nature associated with
it. This is resulted in wave mechanics an insight tool, which helpsin understanding and
predicting the particle nature of matter at the atomic scale as well as in its higher
dimension say nanodimension.
The evidence for matter waves was provided by several experiments. Few to be
mentioned are
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3.1 Concept
There exists a fundamental limit in the accuracy of measuring variables such as position,
energy, momentum and angular momentum which describes the behavior of microphysical system.
3.2 Statement
Heisenberg principle can be stated as A particular pair of physical entities can
determined precisely and simultaneously only with a minimum tolerance of the order of
p x
E t
J
where, p momentum, x- position, E- energy, t- time, J- angular momentum, and angular position.
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Thus, uncertainty principle is the valley point or the limit of classical dynamics,
beyond which the quantum nature (duality nature) has to be employed to the particles
when the dimension of the system shrinks (from macro to atomic).
Few notable applications of uncertainty principles are
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position, momentum, energy and so on. It is nothing but the representation of a matter
wave. A particular system is said to be real if it could be represented by a wave function.
The wave function is represented by the Greek letter and is defined as
(x,y,z,t) = (x,y,z) e-iwt.
Although, it is complex in nature due to the imaginary part, the probability function,
which is given by its square, is real.The probability of finding a particle in a volume dV
is mathematically represented as
dV
dV =1, the function is said to normalized and the existence of the particle is made
sure within the volume dV. The wave function is orthogonal i.e. product of two wave
functions, i (x) and j (x) vanishes integrated in space.
i.e. i ( x) *j ( x) = 0 ,
ij
Ervin Schrdinger
which includes the kinetic and potential energy of the system and the position dependent
potential as,
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2 +
2m
( E V ) = 0
h2
where m mass of the particle, total energy E and potential energy V. This equation
describes the behavior of any real microscopic system. For a free particle, this equation
can be written as
2 +
2m
( E ) = 0
h2
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SatyendraNath Bose
Albert Einstein
5.3 Concepts
A system which has particles of identical and indistinguishable in nature is not
restricted by Paulis exclusion principle. These particles are termed as bosons and are
represented by symmetric wave function. The spin of bosons is either zero or one (eg.
Mesons, Helium nuclei etc.,).
Suppose, if a system has n i number of particles arranged in the g i (where g i refers
to the degeneracy of each energy level) quantum states then the total possible ways of
distributing is (n i +g i -1)! Then, the possible number of distinct arrangement is
(ni + g i 1)!
n!( g i 1)!
This could be extended for many number of available energy states and it is summed as
P=
i
(ni + g i 1)!
ni !( g i 1)!
The maximum value of P is obtained by finding its first order differential maxima
i.e., d (ln P)=0
By applying Stirlings approximation and solving we get the expression for the
number of particles occupying the n i state is given as,
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ni =
(e
i
( + Ei )
) 1
Where =1/kT
5.4 Inferences
Enric Fermi
Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac mathematically defined the statistics independently,
even though Fermi proposed it earlier than Dirac.
Fermi-Dirac distribution assumes that, the particles are identical and
indistinguishable yet obeys Paulis exclusion principle. Their spin is half integral which
leads the intrinsic probability of g i to be 2. These particles are said to posses antisymmetry wave function.
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gi!
( g i ni )!
i.e., first particle has g i position to occupy, and then second particle has (g i -1) position to
occupy and so on.
Thus by extending it to the more number of energy levels E1, E2, E3 The
maximum probability distribution is
P=
i
g i!
ni ( g i ni )!
The maxima is obtained by taking d(ln P) =0. Also for most probable distribution
ni = total particles in the system and ni Ei = U , the total energy of the system. On
i
ni =
[e
i
( + Ei )
+ 1]
where=1/kT.
Though the inter-molecular forces are neglected, the individual particles are
not independent as it requires symmetry wave function.
The quantum statistics are applicable to systems like metals, liquid helium
etc.,
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6 Solved problems
1. A bird of mass 250 g flies with a velocity of 75 m/sec for a direction of 10 min.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with the bird. Reason out why the
bird does not explicitly show the wave nature.
Answer:
The de Broglie wavelength is given by,
h
=
mv
6.62 x 10 34
(250 x 10 3 x 75)
= 3.53 x 10 35 m
Reason:
The length of the wave is much smaller than the dimensions of the bird. Hence
it wave nature is not explicit.
2. Given that the mass of the neutron as 1.674 x 10-27 kg of the Plancks constant
h=6.60 x 10-34 J sec. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for the same of energy
20 eV.
Answer:
The de Broglie wavelength in terms of energy is given by,
=
=
h
=
mv
h
2mE
E = 20eV = 20 x 1.6 x 10 19 J
6.62 x 10 34
(2 x 1.67 x 10 27 x 20 x 1.6 x 10 19 )
= 6.19 x 10 12 m
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3. Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 21C with the Energy = kT.
Answer:
The de Broglie wavelength is
h
=
mv
2mE
2mkT
34
h = 6.62 x 10 J . sec
; where E = kT
m = 1.67 x 10 27 kg
k = 1.38 x 10 23 J
K
T = 27 C = (273 + 21) = 294 K
6.62 x 10 34
(2 x 1.67 x 10 27 x 1.38 x 10 23 x 294)
= 1.7 A
4. Calculate the momentum of an e- possessing de Broglie wavelength6.6x10-11m.
Answer:
The de Broglie wavelength
h
=
p
(or )
p=
6.62 x 10 34
6.6 x 10 11
= 1 x 10 23 kg.m sec
5. A bullet of mass 18 gm takes 1 sec to reach its target board. Find the probability
of missing the target. Consider that the shots are fired accurately.
Answer:
According to uncertainty principle,
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E. t = ; E energy, t time
& y.p = ; y position, p momentum
=
p
2m(E )
2 m( t )
t
=
2m
ht
4m
6.625 x 10 27
= 5.41 x 10 15 m
4 (3.14 x 18)
6. If suppose a proton move as a speed of 2x106 m/s and if we could measure its
speed with an accuracy of 60%. What is the uncertainty in determining the
position of the same?
Answer:
x =
=
= 0.5259 x 10 13 m
21
Px 2 x 2.00712 x 10
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7 References
1. Richard Liboff, Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 4th edition, Addison Wesley,
2002.
2. David J Griffith, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd edition, Benjamin
Cummings, 2004.
3. EliahuZaarur, PhinikReuven, Schaum's Outline of Quantum Mechanics,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
4. Stephen Gasiorowicz, Quantum Physics, 3rd edition, Wiley Publishing, 2003.
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