Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Structures
STRUCTURES ASSESSMENT
Version 1.0
Issued December 2009
Owner:
Authorised by:
Richard Hitch
Chief Engineer Civil
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This document was prepared for use on the RailCorp Network only.
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Page 1 of 83
Engineering Manual
TMC 305
TMC 305
Document control
Revision
Date of Approval
1.0
December, 2009
Summary of change
First issue as a RailCorp document. Section on structural
appreciation is based on training material; sections on assessment
of steel, concrete, masonry and timber structures, and selecting
repair actions are from TMC 302.
Current Revision
Control
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Summary of change
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Structures Assessment
TMC 305
Contents
Chapter 1
C1-1
C1-2
C1-3
C1-4
C1-5
General....................................................................................................................................... 5
Purpose....................................................................................................................................... 5
Context........................................................................................................................................ 5
References.................................................................................................................................. 5
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Competencies............................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 4
C4-1
C4-2
C4-3
C4-4
C4-5
C4-6
C4-7
C4-8
Chapter 5
C5-1
C5-2
Chapter 6
C6-1
C6-2
C6-3
C6-4
Chapter 7
C7-1
C7-2
C7-3
C7-4
Chapter 8
C8-1
C8-2
C8-3
Chapter 9
C9-1
C9-2
C9-3
C9-4
C9-5
C9-6
C9-7
C9-8
C9-9
C9-10
C9-11
C9-12
C9-13
Chapter 10
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 9
Loads on Structures.................................................................................................................... 9
Load Rating............................................................................................................................... 15
Structural Drawings................................................................................................................... 18
Bearings .................................................................................................................................... 18
Deterioration of concrete........................................................................................................... 24
Causes of deterioration............................................................................................................. 33
Causes of deterioration............................................................................................................. 37
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 41
Engineering assessments......................................................................................................... 44
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Structures Assessment
C10-1
C10-2
C10-3
Chapter 11
C11-1
C11-2
C11-3
C11-4
C11-5
C11-6
C11-7
TMC 305
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 79
How to Certify............................................................................................................................ 79
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 81
How to Certify............................................................................................................................ 83
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Chapter 1 General
C1-1
Purpose
This Manual details the requirements for the assessment and certification of structures.
Assessment includes the evaluation of defects and the selection of appropriate repair methods and
repair materials for the rectification of defects.
Certification includes determination that a structure is safe for trains after the detailed structures
examination and that a structure is safe for trains after maintenance work on the structure that
affects or may affect track system integrity.
Relevant engineering background to structures repair procedures is included in the Manual to
assist those responsible for selecting the appropriate repair action.
C1-2
Context
The manual is part of RailCorp's engineering standards and procedures publications.
More specifically, it is part of the Civil Engineering suite that comprises standards, installation and
maintenance manuals and specifications.
Manuals contain requirements, processes and guidelines for the management of structures,
geotechnical and right of way assets and for carrying out examination, construction, installation and
maintenance activities.
The manual is written for the persons undertaking installation and maintenance activities.
It also contains management requirements for Civil Maintenance Engineers and Team Managers
needing to know what they are required to do to manage transom installation on their area, and
project managers needing to know what they are required to do to manage the renewal activity
their teams are undertaking.
C1-3
C1-4
References
AS 1214 - 1983 Hot-dip galvanized coatings on threaded fasteners (ISO metric coarse thread
series)
AS 1252 - 1996 High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structural
engineering
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AS 1580.501.1 - 1994 (withdrawn) Paints and related materials Methods of test Soluble lead
content
AS 1554.1 - 2004 Structural steel welding Welding of steel structures
AS 3678 - 1996 Structural steel Hot-rolled plates, floorplates and slabs
AS 3679.1 - 1996 Structural steel Hot-rolled bars and sections
AS 3679.2 - 1996 Structural steel Welded I sections
TMC 001 - Civil Technical Competencies & Engineering Authority
TMC 110 - Structures Service Schedules
TMC 202 Track Fundamentals
TMC 211 Track Geometry & Stability
TMC 301 Structures Examination
TMC 302 - Structures Repair
RailCorp SMS-06-GD-0228 System Guide Hazardous Materials
Department of Transport (UK) Departmental Advice Note BA 16/84 - The Assessment of Highway
Bridges and Structures
Department of Transport (UK) Departmental Standard BD 21/84 - The Assessment of Highway
Bridges and Structures
National Co-operative Highway Research Program Report 271 - Guideline for Evaluation and
Repair of Damaged Steel Bridge Members
Welding Technology Institute of Australia (WTIA) Technical Note 11 - Commentary on the
structural steel welding Standard AS 1554
C1-5
Tension:
Compression:
Flexural Strength:
Shear Force:
Alkali Aggregate
Reaction:
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Chapter 3 Competencies
NOTE: These competencies may enable activities to be carried out in other manuals. For a
comprehensive list of all activities that are covered by a given competency see Engineering Manual
TMC 001 Civil Technical Competencies and Engineering Authority.
To carry out this work
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
AND
Structures assessment
(To be developed)
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Introduction
This section provides information about the basic loadings that a structure is subjected to and how
the structure responds as load is applied.
It does not provide any in-depth discussion of design loadings or structural analysis.
C4-2
Loads on Structures
C4-2.1
Dead Loads
Dead loads are permanent loads on a structure. Dead loads include the weight of the following:
the structure components
permanent attachments such as the track, overhead wiring structures (OHWS), protection
screens, traffic barriers, walkways.
C4-2.2
Live Loads
Live loads are temporary loads imposed on a structure. Live loads include:
rail vehicles on an underbridge
earth pressure
wind
flood
braking
earthquake
collision
C4-3
Structural Behaviour
C4-3.1
Tension
Bending
Shearing
Torsion
Buckling.
C4-3.1.1
Compression
When the component is loaded, the length is shortened and the member is in compression.
C4-3.1.2
Tension
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When the component is loaded, the length is extended and the member is in tension.
C4-3.1.3
Reactions at supports
Remember Newtons law: for every action (load), there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Example
Reactions for dead loads on bridges:
If W is the total weight of the bridge deck of a single span bridge, the reaction is W/2 at each of the
2 abutments.
Reactions change as the train moves over the bridge, but reaction at Abutment 1 plus the reaction
C4-3.1.4
Bending
Loads on a bridge superstructure cause it to bend resulting in a deflection. The bottom of the
superstructure extends and is in tension. The top of the superstructure shortens and is in
compression. Refer to Figure 1.
A single span bridge responds to load by deflecting. The further out from the abutment the greater
the deflection, until the midpoint of the span is reached. It is here that the deflection is greatest.
For a bridge with 2 spans and the superstructure continuous over the pier, then the load on the
bridge causes deflection in both spans, with the same effect as in Figure 1, but causes the reverse
effect over the pier. Hence over the pier, the top of the superstructure is in tension and the
underside is in compression. Refer to Figure 2.
This type of structural action results in bending stress. The maximum bending stress occurs at
mid-span and over the pier.
Note that rail underbridges are generally not continuous at piers and act as separate single spans.
The tension and compression must be carried by the material steel, concrete or timber. If either
are too high for the particular beam, the beam will fail in tension (fracture) or compression
(crushing).
Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. The main reinforcing steel is placed in the
tension area.
Steel is strong in tension and compression.
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Deck
Bearings
Girder
Abutment (Support)
Pile/s
Compression
Deck
Deflection
Support
Tension
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Deck
Girder
Pile
Headstock
Abutment (Support)
Pier/Pile
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TMC 305
Shearing
Shear is the vertical force at support points piers and abutments. Refer to figure 3.
There is a tendency for the beam to fail by the shearing action of reaction and loads.
The maximum shear loading occurs near the pier. This is the reason for the use of headstocks.
Headstocks spread the load from the deck over a greater area, hence dissipating its intensity.
Weight of train
Shear force
Headstock
Abutment
Reaction
Pier/Pile
C4-3.1.6
Torsion
Torsion, or twisting, can be caused by application of eccentric (off-centre) loads.
C4-3.1.7
Buckling
When the load on a compression member is continuously increased, the member at some point will
suddenly displace sideways and fail by bending. This is known as buckling.
Examples of buckling are:
Crushing a can is a buckling failure. The load is increased until the walls of the cylinder fail in
buckling.
Buckling of top chord of a truss with inadequate or no bracing when subject to a high
compression load.
Buckling is not caused by a material failure. It is related to the load and physical properties of the
member.
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The load at which buckling occurs can be increased by providing lateral support to the member. If
the member is restrained laterally at mid-length, the free length of the member is reduced and the
buckling load is increased e.g. lateral brace between the two trusses of a bridge to prevent buckling
of top chord.
Webs of steel beams are usually thin so they are prone to buckling. Web stiffeners are added to
prevent buckling.
C4-4
C4-5
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in a location of the bridge or structure that is subject to large loading reversals (e.g. the bottom
chord of a steel truss at mid-span with flame-cut holes for drainage).
C4-6
Load Rating
Load rating is a design process for determining the safe load capacity of a bridge. The initial rating
of a bridge is the design load. The rating changes over the life of the asset due to deterioration of
its components.
C4-6.1
Underbridges
Over the years, design loads have changed as design codes have developed. Underbridge design
Cooper E (imperial)
Cooper metric M
300-A-12
300LA.
Most bridges have been designed to older design codes and do not necessarily comply with the
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The 300-A-12 also includes a single axle load of 360 kN. The single axle load is not applied
concurrently with other vertical railway live loading.
1974 Australian and New Zealand Railway Conferences (ANZRC), Railway Bridge Design
Manual (Metric Cooper M)
The ANZRC Metric Cooper M loading is an approximate metrication of the American Railway
Engineering Association, Iron and Steel Structures, Concrete Structures and Foundations, Cooper
E loading, which was imperial. The maximum design live load in the state railway systems was
AREA E 60. This was approximately metricated to ANZRC M 267 that was usually rounded off to M
270.
The ANZRC gave the recommended design load as M 250 as shown in Figure 8.
200LA (M180)
300LA (M270)
350LA (M315)
Sidings
C4-6.2
300LA (M270)
180LA (M162)
Overbridges
For overbridges, design loads are specified in terms of T or R loading (see Figure 17). Newer
bridges would carry the B-double truck configuration and would be rated as carrying the T44 load.
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Older bridges are rated using the rigid truck configuration and are nominally in the range R20 to
R30.
The R vehicle is a rigid truck with the same configuration as the prime mover portion (first 3 axles)
of the T vehicle and the numerical portion is the vehicles weight in tonnes.
Standard
T44
Vehicle
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
Axle Loads
(Tonnes)
1800
4.9
3700
1200
Variable
1200
3000-8000
To produce maximum loading
R20
Vehicle
4.0
8.0
8.0
C4-6.3
Footbridges
For footbridges, design loads are specified in terms of a uniformly distributed load i.e. the load per
square metre of loaded area.
The design load for rail footbridges is 5 kPa i.e. 5 kN per m2.
5 kN/m
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C4-7
TMC 305
Structural Drawings
Reference should be made to the drawings for a structure. These will provide details of the
structure, components, connections, bearings, foundations etc.
For modern structures, these drawings are usually well laid out with details and sections being
easy to find read and interpret.
Unfortunately for structures that were designed many years ago, the drawings can be very difficult
to read as at that time they tried to minimise the number of sheets by including as much information
as possible on each sheet.
Older drawings may not contain important information such as design loads or as-built details such
as founding depth of piles.
C4-8
Bearings
C4-8.1
Functions of bearings
Bearings are a critical part of a bridge. If they do not operate as intended, structural damage may
occur to the bridge.
Bearings provide both a support function for and a resisting function to the range of loads applied
to a bridge.
They provide support for vertical loads and horizontal lateral loads:
Dead loads
Live loads, including dynamic effects
Impact loads from vehicles and ships
Wind loads
Flood loads, including debris and stream flow
Loads caused by track superelevation centrifugal force.
They provide resistance to longitudinal horizontal loads and horizontal loads:
Earth pressure loads transmitted from abutment earth pressure moves the abutment and
applies a force to the bearing as the girder will move
Braking effects of live loads braking load is transferred to the abutment through the fixed
bearing.
They also resist other effects:
shrinkage and creep of concrete (shortening) are similar to thermal contraction but permanent
differential settlement of supports may cause excessive rotation of the bearing
mining subsidence may cause excessive rotation of the bearing
earthquake loads may generate forces in excess of the bearing capacity.
A bearing has to withstand the following types of movements:
Rotation
Longitudinal movements
Transverse movements.
When a girder bends under load, the bearing must be able to accommodate the rotation caused by
the deflection of the girder. How the bearing rotates depends on the type of bearing used.
It is essential that movements can occur at expansion bearings. Loss of movement is likely to
cause damage to the superstructure and substructure. Expansion bearings must have sufficient
capacity for the expected movement.
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As loads are applied to bridge spans, each span either slides, shears or rolls on the bearing.
All longitudinal loads go to the fixed bearings.
Transverse loads are usually resisted at piers and abutments.
C4-8.2
Types of bearings
The types of bearings used for RailCorp bridges are:
Sliding
Rocker
Roller
Elastomeric rubber
C4-8.3
Accumulation of dirt
Lack of lubrication
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C5-1.1
General
The main indicators of deterioration of steel or iron structures are section loss, cracking, loss of
protective coating, deformation of members and loose or missing connections.
Other factors to be taken into consideration may include the age of the structure, vulnerability to
impact, location of the defect and importance of affected member(s).
The main modes of deterioration in steel, cast iron and wrought iron members are:
breakdown of the corrosion protection system
corrosion of exposed surfaces or at interfaces with concrete or steel
loose or missing connectors
impact damage
buckling of members
fatigue cracking
cracking of welds
delamination (wrought iron)
Of the above modes, corrosion is the most prevalent factor affecting steel structures. In assessing
the significance of the corrosion it is necessary to determine its extent, severity and location. This
significance may vary from superficial surface corrosion only through to an exceedent condition
resulting in a loss of load carrying capacity and even possible failure.
Cracking of welds or members, buckling and impact damage are other defects that can lead to
sudden collapse or a reduction of load carrying capacity. Cracks in tension flanges must always be
regarded as serious and requiring urgent action.
C5-1.2
Corrosion
The majority of steel and iron deterioration results from the breakdown or loss of the protective
system. Without adequate protection, steel and iron are vulnerable to corrosion and hence loss of
section.
Corrosion may be prevented by any of the following systems:
durable protective barriers such as painting, encasing in concrete or galvanising to prevent
oxygen and moisture reaching the steel;
inhibitive primers which hold off attack on the steel substrate;
provision of sacrificial anodes such as zinc rich paints or galvanising;
provision of cathodic protection by use of an external current to suppress the anodic reaction.
This process is also used for concrete bridges for arresting corrosion in reinforcement.
The protective system usually adopted for bridges is painting or galvanising, however the loss or
partial loss of either of these systems will see the onset of deterioration. The accumulation of debris
around bearings, on flanges or the base of the substructure will further hasten the corrosion
process by providing a moist environment. It is therefore important for these areas in particular to
be regularly examined and cleaned.
C5-1.3
Impact damage
The next most common cause of deterioration of steel and iron members comes as a consequence
of impact loading. Steel trestles are particularly vulnerable to major deformation or even failure
from train or vehicle impacts. The bottom flange of girders, bracings and cross girders are also
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exposed to risk of impact from high vehicles or protruding loads. Damage can include scraping,
shearing of bolts or rivets, buckling of members, loss of protective barrier and notching (which can
lead to crack propagation).
C5-1.4
Fatigue cracking
Repetitive loading cycles and or overstressing of steel and iron members can eventually lead to
fatigue cracking. A continuation of the loading cycle can result in the propagation of cracks and
finally failure. Fatigue cracking is usually initiated at high stress concentration points such as bolt
and rivet holes, welds, re-entrant corners, change of sections or areas of restraint.
C5-1.5
C5-2
Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important matter in any assessment of damage is to establish if the
strength and stability of the structure are adversely affected. Where safety of a
structure is in question, professional advice should be sought immediately for the
protection of the structure as well as its users against further damage, collapse or
injury.
C5-2.1
General
To successfully repair a deteriorated steel structure it is essential to identify the cause, extent and
rate of deterioration and whether or not the cause is still active.
A step by step procedure for assessing deterioration is given below. This procedure includes a
number of simple tests that can be easily carried out on site. It is not essential to carry out all the
tests and judgement should be used in applying the tests according to the severity of the problem
at hand.
It is also recognised that resources for carrying out these tests may not be available and detailed
investigation may have to be entrusted to specialist firms or consulting engineers who have
appropriate expertise to establish the causes of deterioration and advise on what repair action
should be taken.
C5-2.2
Assessment procedures
Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage or deterioration will require
track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility
authorities (Gas, Electricity, Telecom, Water Board), worksite protection, special equipment
(ladders, cherry pickers) and any special safety measures.
Study previous investigation and repair reports available, if any. Examine the condition of the
past repairs to determine whether they have been successful or if the deterioration is growing
worse.
Carry out a visual inspection of the structure and, if necessary, use hand magnifiers, binoculars
and telephoto photography to record the type and extent of deterioration. Estimate the crack
widths. If possible, ascertain the obvious causes of deterioration such as corrosion, poor
drainage, environmental conditions, accidental damage etc.
Ascertain if the cracks are "live", that is, their width changes under thermal or structural loading.
This can be detected with a mechanical strain gauge held on gauge discs glued to the steel
surface. Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately the load is changed (eg.
under traffic passing over a bridge). Cracks due to thermal movement move when the
temperature of the element alters. Measurements made three or four times a day should
establish whether a crack is live or not.
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Observe members under load and note any excessive movement in members or fastenings.
Check for section loss using ultrasonic thickness meter to measure section thickness.
Check thickness of paint using dry film thickness gauge.
C5-2.3
Ultrasonic testing
Acoustic emission
Thermal imaging.
C5-2.4
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C6-1.1
General
The main indicators of deterioration of concrete and masonry structures are corrosion of the steel
reinforcement, spalling, cracking, fretting and loss of mortar at joints.
Other factors to be taken into consideration may include the age of the structure, vulnerability to
chemical attack, vulnerability to impact and foundation movements.
Concrete members deteriorate in service in the following ways:
weathering or spalling at exposed faces, resulting from erosion, poor quality concrete, chemical
action, water action, corrosion of reinforcement, insufficient cover to rebars, crushing at bearing
surfaces and drumminess;
cracking from loading changes, including settlement;
mechanical damage, especially from road or rail vehicles.
Common defects that occur in concrete structures and therefore require checking during
examination are as follows:
corrosion of reinforcement, with subsequent cracking and spalling
scaling cement render breaking away
delamination
leaching and water penetration
rust stains
honeycombing or other construction deficiencies
fire damage
dampness
leaking joints
breaking up of existing repairs
shattering and crushing of bearing pads
C6-1.2
Corrosion
The major failure mode in concrete structures is corrosion of the reinforcement. The product of this
corrosion has a volume many times larger than the parent metal. This results in a build up of
internal pressure that leads to de-bonding, cracking and eventual spalling. When a crack develops
the rate of deterioration accelerates and this can lead to defects such as leaching, water
penetration and rust staining.
Corrosion can be caused by many means ranging from construction deficiencies to mechanical
weathering or chemical action. All of these threaten the protective barrier the concrete provides for
the reinforcement. Once this process has been initiated and the reinforcement protection is lost, the
rate of deterioration is accelerated dramatically. The physical properties of the concrete,
environmental conditions, concrete cover and other design or construction practices will all
influence the rate of deterioration.
C6-1.3
Other factors
Other factors that cause concrete structures to deteriorate include:
impact loading
overload
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foundation movements
seizure of bearings
differential thermal strains
freeze/thaw cycles
general wear and abrasion
leaching
chemical attack (carbonation, chloride contamination, sulphate attack and alkali aggregate
reactivity).
C6-2
Deterioration of concrete
C6-2.1
C6-2.2
Causes of deterioration
The main causes of deterioration of concrete are summarised below:
C6-2.2.1
Corrosion of reinforcement
Rusting or corrosion of reinforcement is one of the major causes of deterioration of reinforced
concrete. Corrosion involves a combination of processes, mainly carbonation and chloride
contamination, leading to de-passivation of steel and its subsequent corrosion by electrolytic
reaction.
In theory, the steel reinforcement is protected from corrosion by a film of oxide that is stable in the
alkaline environment of the surrounding concrete. The alkalinity is provided by the free calcium
hydroxide (lime) present in the Portland cement. The process of corrosion is initiated by de
passivation of the steel, i.e., breakdown of the protective oxide layer due to degradation of the
alkaline environment. The alkalinity in concrete may be reduced by either of the following causes:
Leaching out of the free lime by water if the concrete is porous.
Carbonation: Penetration into the concrete of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. The
carbon dioxide dissolves in the pore water of the concrete and reacts with the free calcium
hydroxide to form neutral calcium carbonate. This reaction progressively lowers the alkalinity of
concrete and results in removal of the passive oxide layer from the steel. The carbonation rate
is very dependent on the concrete quality. Concrete with high water/cement and high porosity
carbonates very rapidly.
Chloride contamination: The chlorides can come from a number of sources including
contaminated aggregates, admixtures such as calcium chloride and exposure to sea water, salt
spray or saline water. The chlorides in the pore water within the concrete form an electrolyte
and the chloride ions locally de-passivate the steel reinforcement by breaking down the
protective oxide layer even in highly alkaline concrete.
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The steel corrosion process is usually slow but always progressive. The products of corrosion
occupy a volume greater than the parent metal. This volume increase generates high internal
pressures that cause debonding, cracking and eventually spalling of the concrete.
C6-2.2.2
Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is initiated by sulphates that may be present in ground water or are formed by
penetration into concrete of sulphur dioxide from the air, particularly in areas of industrial pollution.
The sulphates react with calcium hydroxide to form gypsum (CaSO4) that subsequently reacts with
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) of the cement to form a swelling sulpho-aluminate substance known as
ettringite. Concrete affected by sulphate attack expands, initiating cracking and spalling that
provides access to reinforcing steel for the very aggressive sulphate ions and results in corrosion of
the steel.
C6-2.2.3
C6-2.2.4
C6-2.2.5
C6-2.2.6
Impact forces
Impact damage can be caused in concrete structures by:
Collision of, or glancing blows from, motor vehicles against piers, abutments, parapets and
walls.
Derailment of trains.
Overheight vehicles striking against the underside of a bridge superstructure.
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Impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapid flowing streams against a bridge structure.
This type of damage generally causes cracking and spalling of concrete with or without exposure of
reinforcing steel. Severe impact may also result in rupture or fracture of members and collapse of
the structure.
Impact damage should be repaired promptly before the reinforcement has started to rust and
before the damaged surfaces are affected by carbonation or contamination.
C6-2.2.7
Overloading
Overloading of bridge structures may occur due to vehicles with above legal limit weight, increase
in train loads since the construction of bridges, extremes of temperature causing excessive
movements, high temperature differentials within the structure, high winds, excessive build up of
road metal or ballast on the deck or build up of flood debris against the structure. Overloading can
cause cracking of concrete members. Excessive overloading may result in fracture of members
and collapse of bridge. Cracks that have formed as a result of accidental overload will tend to be
very fine after the load has been removed and often need no treatment. Cracks wider than 0.3 mm
may need to be sealed.
For increased train loads, the strength of all components of the bridges should be assessed by
structural calculations.
C6-2.2.8
Faulty construction
Faulty construction is one of the most common causes of early deterioration of concrete.
Common construction faults include:
Formwork not cleaned out properly (pieces of timber, nails and debris embedded in finished
concrete)
Formwork not made watertight (honeycombed concrete due to loss of cement grout)
Inadequate compaction (voids in concrete)
Over compaction (laitance on top surface leading to scaling)
Lack of sufficient concrete cover to steel either by failure to fix the reinforcement correctly or due
to poor design
Inadequate and insufficient curing.
C6-2.2.9
Deterioration at joints
Joints in concrete structures are specially vulnerable to deterioration for several reasons:
They can be difficult to construct and the concrete at a joint may lack compaction
They may act as paths for the entry of salty water or carbon dioxide
They may fail to work as joints forcing the concrete to crack at an adjacent plane of weakness
(eg at the end of dowels or at the fin of a waterstop)
They may not be intended to be active joints (eg construction joints) but may subsequently
become active without having any provision for sealing.
These faults will eventually result in rusting of reinforcement after the concrete has become
carbonated. If repair action is taken quickly, before the reinforcement has started to corrode, it is
possible to prevent or greatly reduce the extent of damage from these causes.
C6-3
C6-3.1
General
Maintenance on prestressed concrete bridges is generally carried out when repairs are needed.
Such repairs could be initiated by:
Damage from overloading, impact, etc.
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Cracks in concrete.
Ground movements
Due to the high compressive stresses applied longitudinally, the girder should never develop
transverse cracking (cracks normal to longitudinal axis of bridge) and the concrete may tend to
spall explosively if subjected to severe disturbance. Therefore, any transverse cracking should be
the subject of further investigation and care should be taken during any repairs or modifications to
the girder.
The tendons are enclosed in steel ducts, located in the webs and filled with grout. The strands
C6-3.2
Symptom
Remarks
Overload
Ship impact
Derailment
(minor)
Fire
Durability
Spalling Concrete
Concrete Cracks
End blocks
bursting
Girder webs
Top and
bottom slabs
Shrinkage
No great consequence.
Derailment
Not serious.
Flexure
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Other causes
C6-4
TMC 305
Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important matter in any assessment of damage is to establish if the
strength and stability of the structure are adversely affected. Where safety of a
structure is in question, professional advice should be sought immediately for
the protection of the structure as well as its users against further damage,
collapse or injury (see Fig.6).
Warning
Even the most basic joint depends on the concrete cover for its strength.
Before removing any concrete from a load bearing structure carefully
consider whether the concrete you propose to remove is providing
essential support for the structure.
If it could be, support the structure first.
C6-4.1
General
To successfully repair a deteriorated concrete structure it is essential to identify the cause, extent
and rate of deterioration of concrete and whether or not the cause is still active.
A step by step procedure for assessing deterioration is given below. This procedure includes a
number of simple tests that can be easily carried out on site. It is not essential to carry out all the
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tests and judgement should be used in applying the tests according to the severity of the problem
at hand.
It is also recognised that resources for carrying out these tests may not be available and detailed
investigation may have to be entrusted to specialist firms or consulting engineers who have
appropriate expertise to establish the causes of deterioration and advise on what repair action
should be taken.
C6-4.2
Assessment procedures
Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage or deterioration will require
track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility
authorities (Gas, Electricity, Telecom, Water Board), worksite protection, special equipment
(ladders, cherry pickers) and any special safety measures.
Study previous investigation and repair reports available, if any. Examine the condition of the
past repairs to determine whether they have been successful or if the deterioration is growing
worse.
Carry out a visual inspection of the structure and, if necessary, use hand magnifiers, binoculars
and telephoto photography to record the type and extent of deterioration. Estimate the crack
widths. If possible, ascertain the obvious causes of deterioration such as reinforcement
corrosion, poor drainage, environmental conditions, accidental damage etc.
Examine for hollowness and delaminations by tapping with a hammer, medium size spanner or
a steel rod. Use chain-drags on slabs. Assess and mark out suspected areas of hollowness and
delamination.
Ascertain if the cracks are "live", that is, their width changes under thermal or structural loading.
This can be detected with a mechanical strain gauge held on gauge discs glued to the concrete
surface. Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately the load is changed (eg.
under traffic passing over a bridge). Cracks due to thermal movement move when the
temperature of the element alters. Measurements made three or four times a day should
establish whether a crack is live or not.
Estimate the concrete cover to reinforcement using electromagnetic cover meters or by actual
measurement where concrete is broken and reinforcement is exposed. Check if the cover
provided is adequate for the exposure conditions, or is as per drawings (if the drawings are
available).
Testing for carbonation:
Break off small pieces of concrete from different areas of the structure using a hammer and cold
chisel and test freshly exposed concrete surfaces by spraying with 2 percent solution of
phenolphthalein in alcohol. This pH indicator solution will change colour according to the alkalinity
of the concrete. The solution remains pink and is easily visible on concrete that has retained its
alkalinity but becomes colourless on concrete that has lost its alkalinity by carbonation. The test will
thus indicate the depth to which the concrete has been carbonated from the surface.
Testing for chloride contamination:
To determine the chloride content of concrete, samples are obtained by drilling holes in the
concrete and collecting the dust produced (NB. if there is any surface salt built up, it must be
removed before drilling). The dust samples are collected at a range of different depths, eg. 0
10 mm, 10-25 mm, 25-50 mm and so on to determine how the chloride content changes with depth
from the surface. It also helps to establish whether the chloride was present in the concrete when it
was cast, or whether it penetrated the concrete from the surroundings (see Fig.7).
The concrete samples are treated with acid to dissolve the cement and the chloride content is
determined by titration against silver nitrate.
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C6-4.3
C6-4.4
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There are also other more complex and advanced methods for repairing concrete such as cathodic
protection, chloride removal and re-alkalisation. These should only be entrusted to organisations
specialising in this work and are not covered in this Manual.
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C7-1.1
General
Masonry or stone is rarely used as a construction material for modern structures, except for facing
or ornamentation. However, many structures within RailCorps network were built from masonry
construction and are still in service, owing to the general longevity of the material. Most
deterioration can be attributed to weathering, migration of water, impact damage and foundation
movements.
Common defects that occur in masonry structures and therefore require checking during
examination are as follows:
loose, drummy or missing blocks
fretting of blocks and mortar joints
splitting or cracking of blocks and or mortar
cracking due to subsidence or relative movements
mortar loss
scrapes and spalls from impact
water penetration and leaching
C7-1.2
Causes of deterioration
Many different factors lead to the deterioration and development of defects in masonry structures.
Most of these are very slow acting and require repeated occurrence.
Seasonal expansion and contraction causes repeated volume changes that lead to the
development of seams and fine cracks. These may grow over time to a size that allows other
factors to contribute to further deterioration. Frost and freezing in these cracks, seams or even in
pores can split or spall blocks. Plant stems and roots growing in cracks or crevices can exert a
wedging force and further split open blocks or mortar.
Plants such as lichen and ivy will chemically attack masonry surfaces in the process of attaching
themselves.
Abrasion also leads to deterioration of masonry and this may be due to water or wind borne
particles.
Fretting of bricks, blocks and mortar can be caused by the loss of the connecting or binding agents
via leaching through the structure. The water can either be drawn up from the footings and backfill
by capillary action or leak down through the fill.
Gases or solids dissolved in water can chemically attack the masonry. Some of these may dissolve
the cementing material between the blocks and lead to mortar loss.
C7-1.3
Cracking
Differential settlement of parts of the structure or subsidence of foundations can lead to extensive
and sometimes severe cracking. It is important to distinguish those cracks that relate to the stability
and load carrying capacity of the structure from those that do not. Cracking or movement is
especially significant if it is recent in origin and is still active.
The major factors affecting the stability of a masonry arch bridge are summarised below:
differential settlement across an abutment or pier. This may cause longitudinal cracks along an
arch ring, indicating that the arch has broken up into separate rings;
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movement or settlement of the foundations of an abutment or pier. This may cause lateral
cracks across an arch ring and settlement in the deck, indicating that the arch has broken up
into separate segments.
settlement at the sides of an abutment or pier. This may cause diagonal cracks starting near the
side of the arch at the springing and extending to the centre of the arch at the crown.
flexibility of the arch ring. This may cause cracks in the spandrel walls near the quarter points.
outward movement of the spandrel walls due to the lateral pressure of the fill, particularly if the
live loads can travel close to the parapet. This may cause longitudinal cracking near the edge of
the arch.
movement of the wingwalls. This may cause cracking and if adjacent to the deck, loss of the
surface material.
C7-2
Causes of deterioration
The principal causes of deterioration of masonry structures are:
C7-2.1
Ground movement
All masonry structures are vulnerable to cracking from excessive or differential settlement of the
foundations. Ground movements may be caused by:
variations in soil compressibility due to changes in groundwater levels or site drainage;
C7-2.2
Thermal movement
Fluctuations in temperature may set up stresses in walls restrained at both ends that are sufficient
to cause fracture or distortion of the wall. Movement of bridge superstructure elements, eg. steel
girders, concrete beams and slabs can crack the supporting masonry if sliding bearings have not
been provided or if the bearings have corroded and "seized".
C7-2.3
Sulphate attack
Cement-based mortars may be attacked by sulphates derived from clay bricks themselves or from
sulphate bearing soils. The attack is gradual and occurs only when the masonry remains wet for
long periods. Sulphate attack causes expansion of the jointing mortar that may result in spalling of
the brick edges, progressive cracking and deformation of the masonry.
If the wall is rendered, sulphate attack will produce horizontal cracking of the rendering. Later, the
rendering becomes hollow and more badly cracked and portions may fall away.
Suspected sulphate attack can be confirmed by chemical tests.
C7-2.4
Expansion on wetting
Clay bricks undergo a slight "growth" after leaving the kiln, resulting in expansion of brickwork. In
load bearing walls vertical expansion rarely causes problems, but horizontal expansion can give
rise to movement and vertical cracking of brickwork. These cracks often occur at or near the quoins
of short returns, at setbacks or changes in height or thickness of walls.
The bulk of the expansion and movement will occur quite early in the life of the structure but can
continue for up to 20 years.
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Another cause of outward movement of masonry and cracking is the swelling of materials used as
hardcore or filling behind the walls. Some shales and clays used as fill may swell when wetted and
cause outward movement of walls.
C7-2.5
C7-2.6
Unsound materials
Occasionally, masonry suffers damage because of unsoundness of the mortar or of the bricks
themselves. For example, the presence of imperfectly slaked lime in a mortar can produce effects
ranging from minor pitting of the mortar to general expansion with deformation and cracking of the
masonry. Similarly, unslaked nodules of lime in clay bricks may cause "blowing" or spalling of
brickwork when first wetted.
Weak mortars are often porous; they are damaged by frost and flowing water, become friable and
are easily eroded. The weakness may be due to low cement content or to unsuitable sand in the
mortar mix, or occasionally it is caused by dirty mixing water.
C7-2.7
Salts
Salts in masonry may be derived from the bricks or stones themselves, from mortar, from soil in
contact with the masonry or from sea water.
Salts in clay bricks or mortar produce an efflorescence that although unsightly is usually temporary
and harmless to bricks.
Salts dissolved in ground water penetrate masonry from the foundations and backfill by capillary
action or leak down from the fill materials above. When water reaches the face of the wall in
contact with air, it evaporates away leaving behind the dissolved salts that crystallise just below the
surface of the wall. The pressure developed due to crystallisation is sufficient to spall the surface
layer of the masonry units. If this process continues unchecked for a length of time, considerable
loss of material may occur. The deterioration is more pronounced in lime mortar joints that are
more porous than brick or stone, draw more water and therefore fret more easily.
Masonry abutments and piers built in coastal water streams suffer damage by ingress of salts from
the sea water. The continuous cycles of wetting and drying in the tidal zone cause disintegration of
the masonry surface by formation of salt crystals within its pores and subsequent eroding away of
the disintegrated material by tides.
C7-2.8
Abrasion
Water borne abrasive materials may abrade soft masonry. This can be particularly significant if the
base flow of the watercourse is permitted to run along the faces of piers, abutments or walls.
C7-2.9
Impact force
Impact damage can be caused to masonry structures by:
collision of or glancing blows from motor vehicles against masonry abutments, piers, wingwalls
and retaining walls;
derailment of trains;
overheight vehicles striking against the intrados of masonry arches;
impact of heavy floating logs carried by rapidly flowing streams against a bridge structure.
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Impact damage must be investigated immediately to check if the strength and stability of the
structure are affected and repairs should be organised accordingly.
C7-2.10
Overloading
Overloading of masonry structures may occur due to the following:
road and rail vehicles above the legal weight limit;
increased road traffic or train loads since the original construction;
excessive build up of road metal or ballast on the deck of a bridge;
build up of flood debris against a structure;
excessive hydraulic pressures behind abutments and retaining walls due to lack of drainage;
use of heavy machinery on a station platform causing failure of the platform wall.
Overloading can cause cracking of the structure. Excessive overloads may even cause collapse.
C7-2.11
C7-3
C7-3.1
C7-4
Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important thing in any assessment of damage or deterioration is to
establish that the strength and stability of the structure are not affected.
Where safety of a structure is in question, professional advice should be
sought immediately for protecting the structure as well as its users against
further damage, collapse or injury.
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C7-4.1
TMC 305
General
Before any repairs are initiated, it is essential to identify the cause and extent of the damage and
whether or not the cause is still active.
C7-4.2
Assessment procedure
Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage would require track closure,
power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility authorities,
flagmen, special equipment for access and health and safety measures;
If the damage is old and has been repaired before, study previous investigation and repair
reports if available. Examine the condition of the past repairs and determine if they have been
successful or if the deterioration is growing worse;
Carry out a visual inspection of the structure. If necessary, use hand magnifiers, binoculars and
telephoto photography to assess and record the type and extent of damage or deterioration;
Assess the possible causes for deterioration or damage (refer C17.1 "Causes of Deterioration");
Map the location, direction and extent of cracks. Examine if the cracks zig-zag through the joints
or run through the masonry units. Measure the width of cracks;
Ascertain if the cracks are moving by fixing strain gauges across them at suitable locations.
Cracks that are due to applied load will move immediately when the load is changed (e.g. under
traffic passing over a bridge). Cracks may also move under temperature variations.
Measurements should be made with and without traffic loads and for 4 or 5 times in a day to
establish whether a crack is live or not;
Check if any distortions have occurred in the load bearing elements such as walls, abutments
and piers as well as retaining structures;
Check verticality with a plumb line and measure any out-of-plumb distortion;
Check bulging in both horizontal and vertical directions using a 3 metre long hardwood straight
edge;
Assess the effect of these distortions on the strength and stability of the structure using
appropriate structural analysis methods;
Examine the bearing areas under steel, concrete and timber beams and concrete slabs
supported on top of the masonry walls, abutments and piers. Examine the extent of corrosion of
steel bearings or deterioration of other slip joints provided. Look for cracks in the masonry
immediately under the bearings. Also ensure that there has not been a significant loss of
support to the superstructure;
If there are signs of efflorescence, leaching and percolation of water through masonry, assess
the deterioration of masonry units and jointing mortar by fretting. Investigate if the earthfill
behind abutments and retaining walls and fills between spandrel walls of the arches are
properly drained. Check if the weep holes (if provided) are functioning. Dry weep holes indicate
they may be blocked;
Examine the substructures that are located in waterways for damage by abrasion, salts or
marine organisms above the low tide mark. Check if there is a significant loss of section (more
than 15%) and jointing mortar;
Check the structure for deterioration by growth of vegetation in joints, near foundations and behind
retaining walls and abutments.
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C8-1.1
General
The main indicator of deterioration of timber members is the section loss caused by one or more
outside agents including biological attack (fungi, termites and borers), weathering, fire and impact
damage.
Timber generally does not deteriorate significantly in service without being attacked by some
outside agent. This can take the form of a biological attack or non-biological deterioration.
In general, timber deteriorates in one of five ways:
fungi and insect attack (termites or borers)
weathering at exposed surfaces
decay or rot
fire
mechanical damage from impact.
Of the above categories, decay and insect attack usually cause deterioration inside a member and
are therefore the most difficult to accurately measure.
The most common defects that occur in timber structures and therefore require checking during
examination are as follows:
decay
troughing or bulging (indicates internal decay)
insect infestation
weathering - abrasion, cracks, shakes, checks and splits
loss of section due to fire
vehicle impact damage
crushing
loose or missing bolts/connections
corroded connections
The main indicator of deterioration of timber members is the section loss caused by one or more of
the outside agents.
C8-2
Causes of deterioration
C8-2.1
Biological attack
Timber structures and their individual components are vulnerable to biological attack from fungi,
termites and marine borers.
Fungal attack is the main cause of deterioration in timber bridges, however certain conditions are
necessary for the development of fungi. These include:
a temperature range suitable to their life cycle
a moisture content suitable for their development
an adequate oxygen supply
a food supply on which they can grow (i.e. timber)
Fungi attacks both sapwood and heartwood (under favourable conditions) causing breakdown of
the wood substance and this is known as decay.
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There are several types of insects in Australia that attack timber, however the termite is the only
one that attacks seasoned heartwood. Termites work along the grain eating out large runways. In
the early stages much sound wood is left between the runways, however in the long term only the
thin outer layer of wood may remain.
Marine borers are of several types and the danger from these is dependent upon geography and
water salinity. Although borers attack different sections of piles (defending upon the type of borer),
the simple rule is to protect from below mud line to above high water level. Borers may make only a
few small holes on the surface and yet the pile interior may be practically eaten away.
C8-2.2
Non-biological deterioration
Timber is also vulnerable to non-biological deterioration from weathering, abrasion, fire, impact and
overload.
Weathering is the most common form of non-biological deterioration. Exposure to the elements can
lead to continual dimensional changes in the wood from repeated wetting/drying, or it may result in
drying and shrinkage. These processes can lead to cracks, shakes, checks, splits (particularly at
member ends or at bolted connections) or warping and loose connections.
Impact and overloading may result in damage to members such as shattered or injured timber,
sagging or buckled members, crushing or longitudinal cracking. The action of vehicles passing over
decking can cause abrasion and subsequent loss of section.
C8-3
Assessment of deterioration
IMPORTANT NOTE:
The most important matter in any assessment of damage is to establish if the
strength and stability of the structure are adversely affected. Where safety of a
structure is in question, professional advice should be sought immediately for
the protection of the structure as well as its users against further damage,
collapse or injury.
C8-3.1
General
To successfully repair a deteriorated timber structure it is essential to identify the cause, extent and
rate of deterioration and whether or not the cause is still active.
A step by step procedure for assessing deterioration is given below. This procedure includes a
number of simple tests that can be easily carried out on site. It is not essential to carry out all the
tests and judgement should be used in applying the tests according to the severity of the problem
at hand.
It is also recognised that resources for carrying out these tests may not be available and detailed
investigation may have to be entrusted to specialist firms or consulting engineers who have
appropriate expertise to establish the causes of deterioration and advise on what repair action
should be taken.
C8-3.2
Assessment procedures
Before proceeding, assess if detailed examination of the damage or deterioration will require
track closure, power outage, pedestrian and traffic restrictions, assistance from police and utility
authorities (Gas, Electricity, Telecom, Water Board), worksite protection, special equipment
(ladders, cherry pickers) and any special safety measures.
Study previous investigation and repair reports available, if any. Examine the condition of the
past repairs to determine whether they have been successful or if the deterioration is growing
worse.
Review the detailed examination report
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Carry out a visual inspection of the structure and confirm existence and extent of main defects.
If possible, ascertain the obvious causes of deterioration such as termites, environmental
conditions, accidental damage etc.
Hammer test and bore and probe members as necessary.
Observe members under load and note any excessive movement in members or fastenings. If
necessary, conduct deflection tests on girders.
C8-3.3
Ultrasonic
X-Rays.
C8-3.4
at all times. In such cases the strength and stability of the structure during repairs should be
checked by a structural engineer before commencing repairs. Also, load restrictions should be
Types of defects which can occur due to deterioration, e.g. pipes, troughs, crushing, loose bolts.
C8-3.5
Capacity Reduction
Assess the capacity reduction of girders and corbels using Figure 13 below.
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Introduction
The primary outcome of repairing a structure is an extension to its service life. It is most important
that the repair actions selected satisfy this outcome at a cost commensurate with the benefits
derived. Inappropriate repair action may actually reduce the life expectancy of a structure. It is also
possible that money spent on extensive and costly repairs will not extend the life of the structure
significantly and would be better put towards a new structure.
Where possible, life cycle costing principles should be applied to a structure to determine the most
appropriate course of action (maintenance, rehabilitation or replacement). The objective should be
to provide a serviceable structure at minimum annual cost.
If a life cycle costing analysis cannot be carried out, the next best thing is to determine the
appropriate repair action by applying a process of logical assessment to the structure as a whole.
Section C9-2 below presents a series of questions to be considered in the process of selecting
appropriate repair action.
C9-2
C9-2.1
C9-2.2
C9-2.3
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It should be confirmed that a standard repair procedure proposed is actually appropriate to the
defect. The engineering discussion accompanying each repair procedure will describe where the
procedure should and should not be used.
C9-2.4
C9-2.5
How significant will the repair be in extending the life of the structure?
The proposed repair may not provide value for money if the life of the structure is not extended
because of other factors.
Most steel structures have a finite life, governed by fatigue of the steelwork. It may not be
appropriate to spend large amounts of money on repairs if the structure is near the end of its
predicted fatigue life. Replacement is probably a better option.
In concrete structures, defects such as corrosion of reinforcement may not be apparent at the
present time, but the effects may show up in the form of concrete cracking and spalling in the
future. It may not be appropriate to spend money on repairing some localised defects if much more
extensive defects are likely to show up in the near future. Investigation by specialists into the
complete structure may be warranted, prior to undertaking costly repairs of concrete.
As another example, the benefits of repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges may not
be certain because the condition of the remainder of the steel section is usually not known. The
effort in repairing the bottom flange would be wasted if the top flange and web were also severely
corroded.
C9-2.6
Can the cost of the repair be justified on the basis of benefits derived?
The answer to this question will normally be evident from the answers to the preceding questions.
For some structures, there may be additional factors that influence the decision on whether to
implement a particular repair.
Taking advantage of planned track possessions may often be a significant factor in deciding
whether to implement a repair or not. In many repairs, particularly smaller ones, the cost of the
track possession is the major component. If the repair can be carried out under a possession
provided for other reasons, the actual cost of the repair drops significantly for the same benefit. A
repair that could not normally be justified on a cost/benefit basis may become cost effective as a
result.
C9-2.7
C9-2.8
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(e.g. damaged bracing members, stringers, cross girders, concrete components etc.) up to
complete replacement of major sub-components of the structure.
The decision will be based on time, cost and effectiveness of the repair compared to that of a
partial replacement. If the effectiveness or life expectancy of repairs or strengthening is limited,
then complete replacement of a member or sub-component may be a better option, particularly if
the cause of the defect can be eliminated at the same time.
C9-2.9
C9-3
C9-3.1
General
As stated in Section C9-2 above, it is necessary to determine the nature, severity, extent and
location of defects to determine appropriate repair actions. Most defects are initially detected by
visual inspection. The severity, extent and precise location are determined by subsequent
measurements and tests.
C9-3.2
C9-3.3
C9-3.4
C9-3.5
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information is useful in planning the long term maintenance and repair strategy for a concrete
structure.
Chapter 6 of this Manual deals with assessment of concrete, including test methods.
C9-4
Engineering assessments
As stated above, a detailed engineering assessment is normally necessary only when the
estimated total cost of repairs is more than 5% to 10% of the replacement cost of the structure. In
such cases, the cost of the investigation could be more than saved in the reduced extent of repair.
The purpose of the engineering assessment is to determine the appropriateness of the proposed
repair and the repair details. The assessment is to be based on:
the defects as measured and recorded during inspection;
TMC 302 Structures Repair provides some detailed assessment guidelines for specific repair
procedures. Refer to this Manual when determining the appropriate repair action.
C9-5
C9-6
Steel repairs
C9-6.1
C9-6.1.1
Methods of connection
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In addressing defects in steel structures resulting from steel corrosion, it is clearly not possible to
reinstate the steel to its original condition. Similarly, restoring physically damaged steel to its
original condition is often difficult. Most repairs therefore involve fitting new steel elements to
compensate for the reduction in strength or serviceability caused by the section loss.
The two standard methods of connecting new elements are welding and mechanical fastenings
(bolts etc.). Of the two, mechanical fastenings have less potential problems although welding is
usually easier and cheaper.
Mechanical fasteners have been adopted as the standard method in all steel repair procedures.
The two main potential problems with field welded connections are:
Connection by welding can only be permitted if satisfactory welds are proven to be achievable and
any effects on fatigue life are acceptable. Most standard repairs, detailed with bolted connections,
can be readily adapted for welded connections.
C9-6.1.2
Weldability of steel
While modern steels can be readily repaired by welding using appropriate procedures, the steels
found in older steel structures are often considered "not weldable" or very difficult to weld because
of their metallurgical properties. The high sulphur and phosphorous contents largely contribute to
the difficulty in welding.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to classify steels as weldable or "not weldable" based on their age.
From the 1940's to the 1960's, some imported steels were from plants producing steels designed to
be weldable, while others were from plants producing unweldable steels.
It is essential that, where a welded repair is proposed on steels
of unknown weldability, the steels be tested by a certified
laboratory to determine whether or not they are weldable by
normal welding procedures.
C9-6.1.3
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great as a new structure, it is best to avoid any repair actions that would adversely affect fatigue
life. This is particularly so if viable bolted connection alternatives are available.
Properly maintained riveted girder bridges with low stress levels
may never fail by fatigue. Repairs involving welded connections
on such bridges often set a finite fatigue life and so should be
avoided.
If a welded repair is proposed, it should always be accompanied by an engineering assessment of
the effect on the fatigue life of the component. The AREA Manual for Railway Engineering should
be used to assess the effects. The proposed welded repair should only be implemented if the
effects on fatigue life are acceptable.
C9-6.1.4
C9-6.2
C9-6.3
Repair materials
In the repair procedures, repair materials are referred to by their generic name. Specific brand and
material names of epoxies, paints etc. are usually avoided as availability may vary from time to
time and new, superior materials may become more appropriate. Lists of suitable material types
are given in C9-7, together with the specifications for standard repair materials such as steel and
high strength bolts.
Where new steel parts are to be fitted as part of the repair, it is generally recommended that those
parts be galvanised. Use of galvanised steel can reduce long term maintenance requirements and
minimise the amount of on-site painting required. Where the appearance of galvanised steel is not
acceptable and painting over galvanised surfaces is impractical, the steel parts may be painted
instead using a high quality paint system. Refer to TMC 302 steel repair sub-procedure C4.3 for
further information.
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Caution:
Corrosion protection systems such as Denso Tape wrapping and epoxy
filling may hide critical defects such as fatigue cracks. Such defects may
be difficult to detect during normal inspections and may result in collapse
of the structure.
Corrosion protection systems such as these should not be used on
fatigue-critical elements unless appropriate procedures to regularly check
for and detect cracks are implemented.
C9-7
C9-7.1
Steel
Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used for strengthening in repair shall be
grade 250 to AS 3678 and AS 3679.
Unless noted otherwise all steel sections and plates used in replacement members or elements
shall be grade 250 to AS 3678 and AS 3679.
Other steels specified for particular repairs are:
C9-7.2
Bisalloy 80.
Fasteners
High strength bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to AS1252 and shall be galvanised in
accordance with AS1214.
C9-7.3
C9-7.4
C9-7.5
C9-7.6
C9-7.7
C9-8
C9-8.1
Engineering Discussion
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Steel bridge elements including major components such as girders or truss members and minor
components such as bracing members are frequently damaged by vehicle impact. Once the
damage has been detected repair of the damaged components must be undertaken.
In order to ensure that the repair method adopted is cost effective and restores the required bridge
capacity, the following sequence of actions is required:
Inspection of damage
Assessment of damage
Selection of repair method
A range of repair methods is currently available. These are shown in Table 2 that compares
appropriateness of repair method with type of impact damage.
Many of the available repair methods are excluded for "Fracture Critical Members" (FCM's).
FCMs include tension flanges of girders and truss tension members.
Tension components of steel bridges include all portions of tension members and those portions of
flexural members subjected to tension stress. Any attachment having a length in the direction of the
tension stress greater than 100mm that is welded to a tension component of a FCM shall be
considered part of the tension component and therefore, shall be considered fracture critical.
Broad flange beam (BFB) spans over roadways are subject to a significant risk of fatigue and/or
brittle fracture if damaged by road vehicle impact and shall be considered fracture critical.
The majority of cases of impact damage encountered by RailCorp would be to FCM's.
The applicable range of repairs in most cases will therefore be reduced to full or partial
replacement of the damaged member, or flame straightening of the member followed by installation
of bolted cover plates to fully replace the damaged section.
C9-8.2
Sub-procedures required
Repairs to impact damage can involve all of the sub-procedures defined in TMC 302 Chapter 4.
Techniques associated with the following procedures from TMC 302 may also be appropriate with
minor modification, depending on the form of the impact damage:
Repairing flange corrosion in riveted girders
Repairing flange corrosion in rolled or welded girders
Repairing webs with localised corrosion
Repairing corroded bottom flanges of jack arch bridges
Repairing intermediate web stiffeners with localised corrosion
Repairing corrosion of bottom flange bracing connection
Intercepting fatigue cracks
Repairing corroded angle columns (temporary support available)
Repairing corroded 4-angle columns (no temporary support)
Replacing members or elements of riveted members.
C9-8.3
Inspection of damage
C9-8.3.1
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C9-8.3.2
C9-8.3.3
Monitoring of repairs
Follow up inspection of repairs shall be made on a regular basis. Members that have complete
restoration should be inspected with the same frequency as the complete bridge. Member repairs
where there is some doubt regarding strength and durability should be inspected at more frequent
intervals. Repairs to fracture critical members should receive close consideration with respect to
inspection frequency.
C9-8.4
Assessment of damage
C9-8.4.1
General
Preliminary assessment of damage shall be made during inspection of damage as described under
Section C9.8.3. Final assessment of damage shall involve at least one experienced engineer.
C9-8.4.2
C9-8.4.3
Caution
In general, crack repairs shall be made with bolted cover plates. If other
methods are used, such as welding or flame straightening, elements shall
be fully strengthened by adding new bolted cover plates. Enough new
material shall be added so that the damaged material can be neglected in
computing strength.
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C9-8.4.4
TMC 305
Primary members
Primary members can be classified as compression or tension members. Tensile areas of
members such as tensile portions of girders in bending are treated as tensile members. Many of
the limiting restrictions in this manual apply only to tension members.
Caution
C9-8.4.5
Secondary members
Secondary members are stressed because of deflection of primary members and/or are stressed
because of secondary loads such as wind and earthquake. Secondary members that carry
compression only shall be assessed and repaired in the same manner as primary compression
members. Tension secondary members may be repaired by flame straightening and hot
mechanical or cold mechanical straightening. Cracks can be repaired by straightening and welding
provided the steel is weldable. No limitation on maximum strain shall be placed on secondary
members, provided they can be straightened to allowable alignment.
C9-8.4.6
Straightening of FCMs
Any primary tension member may be straightened but all affected fatigue critical areas are to be
plated except those areas where straightening has been achieved without mechanical assistance.
Edge strain (amount of yielding) can be estimated from Table 1:
Maximum versines (2% yielding on edge)
Flange width mm
300
chord
600
chord
1200
chord
100
4.5
18
72
120
3.8
15
60
140
3.2
13
51
160
2.8
11
45
180
2.5
10
40
200
2.3
36
250
1.8
29
300
1.5
24
350
1.3
21
400
1.1
18
450
1.0
16
500
0.9
14
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S =
TMC 305
400wv
C 2
where
w
= flange width,
V = versine
C = chord (all in mm)
and the radius of curvature by
R=
L2
8v
where
L = chord length
V = versine (gap)
Sufficient area is to be added to compensate for the damaged section (in the unlikely event that the
damaged member/component happens to fracture). As a minimum, 50% additional area is to be
added. This minimum addition is based on the simple premise that if the member is initially
designed for a working stress of about 0.5 Fy, the straightened member element could be
neglected entirely and the maximum stress would not exceed Fy.
C9-8.4.7
C9-8.4.8
C9-8.4.9
C9-8.4.10
Cracks
Crack assessment must be preceded by a detailed inspection to locate the cracks and determine
their length and width, including visual inspection supplemented with magnetic particle, or dye
penetrant testing. Impact cracks are usually surface connected and ultrasonic testing is not
generally necessary. The stress and shock of impact will sometimes cause cracking well away from
the area of principal damage.
Look for spalling of paint or scale as an indication that some unusual strain has occurred at such
locations and use as a guideline for areas of detailed inspection. Visual examination is not to be
limited to these areas, however, since a crack may occur in areas that were shock loaded but were
not strained enough to spall the paint or scale. Visual inspection shall be supplemented with
magnetic particle inspection in suspect areas.
Particular attention should be given to the examination of the toes of butt and fillet welds in areas
subjected to damage as this is an area where cracks often occur.
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Field inspection for cracks is done by magnetic particle, dye penetrant and occasionally ultrasonic
inspection.
C9-8.5
C9-8.5.1
General
Repair solutions can be selected from the following range. A combination of repair procedures may
result in the best repair solution. Refer to Table 2 - Selection of repair method for impact damage.
Straightening procedures need to be done with care to prevent overstraightening (i.e. creating
bending in opposite direction) and damage from straightening forces and devices. Also distortions
due to yielding must not be confused with those due to restraints from other members.
Further information on the specific repair techniques relating to impact damage is contained in the
National Co-operative Highway Research Program Report 271.
C9-8.5.2
Flame straightening
This repair method does not significantly degrade steel properties, but is not generally effective
where yielding has exceeded about 1%. It may be considered for the repair of all bent members
with the following exceptions:
Do not flame straighten fracture critical members unless the flame-straightened area is fully
supplemented by bolted cover plates.
Do not attempt to flame straighten excessively wrinkled plates or plates with excessive kinks. It
is nearly impossible to flame straighten this type of damage.
C9-8.5.3
C9-8.5.4
C9-8.5.5
Welding
Welding may be used for several types of repair, including defect or crack repair, welding
replacement segments into place, and adding straightening plates by welding. Poorly executed
weld repairs in tensile areas can be very dangerous and in some instances may do more harm
than good. Fracture critical members shall not be repaired by welding unless fully strengthened by
additional bolted material.
The steels to be repair welded shall be weldable steels.
Do not weld members with low Charpy impact values unless plated in addition.
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C9-8.5.6
TMC 305
Bolting
Bolting may be used as a repair method or as a supplement to other repair methods. Replacement
of a damaged element with a new piece of steel fastened with fully tensioned high-strength bolts is
regarded as the safest method of repair. Replacing damaged riveted elements with bolted material
may not be excessively difficult and should be considered.
Fracture critical members shall be repaired by bolting or repaired by other methods and fully
strengthened by adding new bolted material.
C9-8.5.7
Partial replacement
In some instances damage will be so serious that partial replacement is necessary. This damage
includes excessively wrinkled plates, excessive deformation and bends, tears in member elements,
and large cracks.
Partial replacement will normally consist of removing the damaged area and replacement with
either a welded insert or a bolted splice insert.
Welded inserts are not recommended for fracture critical members. Partial replacement by bolting
and welding is an acceptable method, provided the longitudinal web weld is located in a
compression area.
Partial replacements can be used in conjunction with other repair methods, such as flame
straightening. For example, a bent member with a crack could be flame straightened and the crack
repaired by bolted cover plates.
C9-8.5.8
Complete replacement
Complete replacement of a member is normally the most expensive method of repair.
If a member is excessively damaged throughout its full length, replacement may be the only
alternative. Other less difficult methods of repair should be carefully studied prior to selecting
complete replacement.
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Damage Assessment
Factors
Flame Straightening
Hot Mechanical
Straightening
Cold Mechanical
Straightening
Welding
Flame Straightening
supplemented by
Bolting
Field Welding
supplemented by
Bolting
Bolting
Partial Replacement
Full Replacement
Weldable Steel
Non-Weldable Steel
Secondary Members
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Member Curvature Radius Member will return to correct position when adjacent
More than
members or joints are straightened
Cracks Weldable Steel
C9-8.5.9
C9-8.5.10
Durability of repair
Durability of repair must be given a high priority. All methods of repair should have durability equal
to or better than the original member. The accessibility of all parts of a repaired structure for
inspection, cleaning, and painting shall be accomplished by the proper proportioning of repairs and
the design of their details. Closed sections, and pockets or depressions that will retain water, shall
be avoided. Pockets shall be provided with effective drain holes or filled with waterproofing
material.
C9-9
C9-9.1
Procedure
Much of the structural steelwork within the NSW rail network is primed with red lead primer. It was
standard practice to use red lead primer on new construction until 1968 when it was replaced by
inorganic zinc silicate primer and on old construction until 1983 when it was replaced by zinc rich
epoxy primer. While red lead primer based systems remain intact, they present no significant
health or environmental pollution hazard. However, in most instances these systems require repair
or replacement during the design life of the structure, and we are confronted with potential health
and environmental pollution hazards associated with lead based paint removal during the course of
surface preparation for repainting.
Work involving surface preparation on steel structures with lead based paint shall be carried out in
accordance with the requirements of SMS-06-GD-0228 System Guide Hazardous Materials.
The successful management of an industrial structure coated with lead-containing paint requires
consideration of the function, design life and service environment of the structure, condition of the
existing coating system, coating systems that will be effective in the service environment, hazards
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associated with lead paint removal to workers, the public and the environment and program cost.
These factors and their many intertwined elements need to be judiciously dealt with in a logical and
systematic manner for satisfactory painting program selection and implementation to take place.
Thus, these guidelines are presented in the form of a step by step procedure to facilitate these
considerations when designing a lead-containing paint management project.
The procedure comprises the following steps:
Determination of the presence of lead paint.
Selection of painting strategy.
Selection of paint removal method and containment system.
These steps as described below may require modification to accommodate peculiar structures,
locations or regulations. Further, there may be circumstances where small, isolated patch repairs
or repairs to small structures far from the public or a waterway are to be carried out, and it may be
unnecessary to follow the procedure except for regulatory requirements concerning worker
protection and waste handling.
C9-9.2
C9-9.3
C9-9.3.1
No painting
When a lead-containing paint is in good condition, tightly adhering to the substrate, there is no
hazard; thus, the option of leaving the coating alone may be appropriate.
If the coating has poor film integrity or shows poor adhesion to the substrate, consideration should
be given to potential structural problems due to further corrosion and the possibility of the
surrounding area being contaminated by flaking and peeling paint. Again, the option of leaving the
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coating alone subject to carrying out periodic inspections to monitor coating deterioration may be
appropriate.
C9-9.3.2
Overcoating
When a lead-containing paint or system is adhering tightly to the substrate and showing
satisfactory film integrity, it may be contained on the structure for an extended period of time by
overcoating it with another topcoat or paint system if its film thickness is not so great that the
additional weight of the overcoat will weaken or break the bond between the existing system and
the substrate.
Prior to overcoating, the existing paint system should be cleaned to remove dust, dirt, grease, oil,
loose paint and other contaminants to maximize adhesion. The overcoating material isolates the
existing system from the environment thereby eliminating any hazard.
A number of systems are recommended for this application by the Paint Industry, and a few are
detailed below:
two-pack epoxy sealer with various topcoats
two-pack, high build epoxy mastic
single pack, moisture cured, polyurethane topcoat pigmented with zinc or aluminium
water borne acrylic primer with acrylic topcoat
oil modified alkyd topcoat with corrosion inhibiting pigment.
When considering this option, one should be particularly cautious where the existing system's film
integrity or adhesion to the substrate is suspect and guided by the recommendation of the
manufacturer of the overpainting system.
C9-9.3.3
C9-9.3.4
C9-9.3.5
C9-9.4
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C9-9.4.1
C9-9.4.2
C9-9.4.3
C9-9.4.4
C9-10
C9-10.1
Introduction
The materials used in railway construction over the past 100 years or so have evolved more or less
in step with the changes in the metal fabricating industry and it is important to keep in mind that for
the first two thirds of this period welding was not widely used and riveting was the usual method of
joining. As a consequence of this the weldability of the materials involved was not a prime
consideration and the ease, and in some cases the practicability, of welding can vary considerably.
This, of course, makes maintenance very much more complex as riveting is no longer commonly
used and where welding is not practicable bolting may be the best solution.
In an actual repair situation it is clear that identification of the material involved is the first and most
important step.
It is hoped that in time this information will be available for all bridges in the system.
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C9-10.2
TMC 305
Cast iron
Wrought
iron
Mild steel
Structural Steel
Carbon
3.5%
0.1%
0.1 to 0.3%
0.18%
Silicon
1.9%
0.2%
0.3%
0.2%
Sulphur
0.1%
0.1%
0.06%
0.02%
Phosphorous
1.0%
0.1%
0.06%
0.2%
Manganese
0.7%
0.4%
0.4%
1.0%
Slag
1%
Yield Stress
215 MPa
250 Mpa
250 Mpa
(Specified Min)
Tensile Stress
120 MPa
354 MPa
460 MPa
410 Mpa
(Specified Min)
Elongation
30%
20%
22%
(Specified Min)
C9-10.3
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Welding procedures and operators should be qualified where possible along the lines of
qualification to AS 1554.1: 2004 Structural steel welding Part 1 - Welding of steel structures. If
wrought iron of suitable section is not available, qualification may be done using Grade 250
structural plate.
Where distortion due to welding is undesirable, then the welding procedure may be combined with
a peening procedure to eliminate distortion. See WTIA Technical Note 11 Commentary on the
structural steel welding Standard AS 1554 for details of this procedure.
In cases where it is necessary to make a connection to the surface of a wrought iron member then
consideration should be given to replacing a length of the wrought iron by structural steel attached
by butt welds to wrought iron or by using a bolting technique.
C9-10.4
Mild steel
Mild steel was first produced in the late 1800's as a cheaper substitute for wrought iron that was
rather expensive and variable in properties. The differences between wrought iron, mild steel and
the current structural steels can be seen in Table 1. The important things to note are the higher
carbon content, relatively high sulphur and phosphorous contents and the low manganese content.
Wrought iron is readily forge or blacksmith welded, but mild steel does not lend itself to these
welding processes and the introduction of mild steel led to a great increase in riveting and the
extinction of forge welding.
Fusion welding of mild steel faces two problems. Firstly, the higher carbon content, which
increases the hardenability of the material and requires higher levels of preheat and arc energy to
prevent excessive hardening in the HAZ which can be dealt with; but more importantly the
tendency towards hot cracking in the HAZ arising from the low manganese to sulphur ratio.
(compare the values in Table 1 for Mild Steel and Structural Steel). Whilst some compensation for
this problem is possible by adjusting the welding procedure, the fusion welding of some mild steels
is impracticable. An additional factor is that mild steels are frequently segregated, that is, contain
bands of high carbon/sulphur content and these areas are likely to cause welding problems.
Whether a particular piece of steel is likely to be difficult to weld depends very much upon the raw
materials used in steelmaking and is therefore at the current time very much an unknown. The
safest course is to either avoid welding or to extract a small sample of material for chemical
analysis and metallographic examination as will be described later.
As with wrought iron and structural steel, both the welder and welding procedure should be
qualified prior to commencement of work. Again the qualification procedure described in AS 1554
Pt 1 should be followed. Since the mild steels are the most difficult of the three materials being
discussed, welder qualification on a mild steel should be accepted as qualification for procedures
within the limits allowed by AS 1554 for wrought iron and structural steel.
C9-10.5
C9-10.6
Structural steel
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Structural steel was developed to overcome the shortcomings of mild steel, i.e. cold cracking, hot
cracking, brittle fracture and lamellar tearing. Structural steel is intended for welding.
The procedures for welding such steels are fully described in AS 1554 and the welder and
procedure requirements of this standard should be observed fully. Welding consumables should as
far as possible conform to the prequalified consumables listed in Table 4.6.1(A) of AS 1554.1 and
in repair situations it will generally be found that adherence to the prequalified preparations of
Table E1 will provide the optimum solution.
C9-10.7
Material identification
As discussed above, it is essential before embarking upon any form of welding repair to determine
the nature of the materials involved. This can be done from existing records of construction,
although care is necessary if previous repairs have been carried out on the bridge; from material
identification marks on rolled sections that often give the name of the steelmaker and material
standard; and by metallurgical examination of the steels involved.
Removal of a sample for examination should be done for each piece of plate or section involved in
the welded repair, preferably in a location where rewelding is not required, and simply grinding
smooth the area of material removed is acceptable. Typically notching a V-shaped section from the
edge of a plate or section approximately 15 mm wide, half-plate thickness and 20mm long will
suffice. Removal is best done by hand using a hacksaw as power grinders often overheat a small
sample. An alternative method that is quicker and better is to take a core sample using a
trepanning cutter. The sample should be min 15mm diameter. Samples should be sealed in an
envelope clearly marked with bridge identification and sample location and sent to a laboratory for
metallographic examination and chemical analysis for carbon, manganese, silicon, aluminium,
sulphur and phosphorus contents.
Occasionally it may be impossible to remove a sample for the above testing by a simple sawing
method. In such cases the use of a "Boat Sample" removal apparatus can be considered, or the
use of in situ metallography. In the latter case the metal surface is prepared without metal removal
to permit microscopic examination on site or after the removal of a surface replica.
Unfortunately, the current methods of in situ chemical analysis, spectrographic and X-ray
diffraction, are not suitable for some of the elements of interest and it may be necessary to remove
drillings for chemical analysis. In this case care must, of course, be taken to ensure that the
drillings removed are not contaminated with paint, oil or other drilling lubricant. Sample drillings
should be sealed in an envelope marked with bridge identification and sample location.
Usually about 30gm of drillings will be required for chemical analysis and this represents a 8 mm
dia hole of about 8-10 mm in depth that will provide the necessary sample and will not require
welding repair.
C9-10.8
C9-10.8.1
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Note: Do not rely on the date on drawings unless you have additional confirmation. Two
underbridges were assessed as steel because of the date on the drawing. The drawing had in
small print TAKEN FROM FIELD MEASUREMENTS and the signatures were copies. The drawing had
been prepared from field measurements as the original drawing was lost. It had been assumed that
the underbridges had been constructed at the time of electrification, which coincided with the
drawing date, instead of the date of construction of the line.
Design details
Design details are another indicator that a bridge may be from the wrought iron era. It must be
emphasised that these details can exist in either steel or wrought iron bridges, but they at least
indicate further assessment needs to be made. The design details are as follows:
Flat bar tension members, particularly if they are diagonal tension members.
Tie rods with turnbuckles for tensioning and pin connections used for wind bracing and/or
diagonal tension members.
Wind bracing or sway bracing which includes:
Flat bar members
Connections to girders made by forge bending and/or forge welding of bracing members instead
of using gusset plates.
Connection of wind bracing to the centre of web (ie mid-depth) and/or away from stiffeners.
Angles which have chamfered edges on both sides of the toes (steel angles are rounded on the
inside face and square on the outside).
Expansion bearing of simple plate on plate design instead roller bearings for spans above 20
metres long.
Rivets with flattened or cone shaped heads instead of round heads.
C9-10.8.2
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Figure 14
Poor quality wrought iron can often be identified by defects on the edges of the rolled section.
Edges often show the straight outline of laminations and delaminations
Figure 15
Menangle web edge filed and mpi, showing laminations clearly, positively identifying wrought
iron
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Figure 17
After application of mpi laminations show clearly, positively identifying wrought iron
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Figure 18
Eltham deck girder, edge filed at top flange. Laminations confirm drawing notation as wrought
iron.
C9-11
C9-11.1
Introduction
No matter how carefully a repair procedure is carried out, using the wrong material will most likely
lead to early repair failure. Therefore, selection of appropriate materials is an absolute requirement
for obtaining durable repairs.
The basic criterion for selecting a repair material is that its material properties match the properties
of the base concrete and a good bond is achieved and maintained at the repair interface.
C9-11.2
Material properties
The material properties that affect the quality of a repair are:
C9-11.2.1
Dimensional stability
Bond failure between new and old concrete is usually caused by relatively large shrinkage of the
new concrete (or mortar) while the old concrete does not shrink further. Therefore, the repair
material must be either shrinkage free or else be able to shrink without losing bond.
C9-11.2.2
C9-11.2.3
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of a material is a measure of its stiffness. High modulus materials do not
deform under load as much as the low modulus materials. Consequently, when materials with
widely differing moduli are in contact with each other and subjected to a common load, the lower
modulus material would tend to yield or bulge transferring the load to the stronger material that if
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overloaded may then fracture. For this reason, a wall or section made of relatively flexible (low
modulus) material should not be patched with a stiff (high modulus) material.
C9-11.2.4
P
ermeability
Permeability refers to the capability of a material to transmit liquids or vapours. Good quality
concrete is relatively impermeable to liquids but freely transmits vapours. If impermeable materials
(such as epoxies) are used for large patches, overlays or coatings, moisture vapour that passes up
through the base concrete can be entrapped between the concrete and the topping. Entrapped
moisture can cause a failure either at the bond surface or within the weaker of the two sections.
Impermeable materials should also generally be avoided in patching concrete that has been
damaged due to corrosion of reinforcing bars as it may accelerate the rate of corrosion.
For the above reasons, whenever possible cementitious materials should be used for repairing
concrete structures due to their compatible physical properties with the parent concrete.
Cementitious mortars and concretes may be modified by the addition of polymers but are always
preferable to resin mortars if circumstances make it practical to use them.
C9-11.3
C9-11.3.1
G
eneral
A large variety of materials are used in the repair of concrete structures. These materials may be
used singly or in combination to achieve the best results according to the circumstances of a
particular repair job. It is therefore essential to know the characteristics and application
requirements of different materials so that an appropriate selection can be made for the repair in
hand.
The materials commonly used for concrete repairs are:
Polymers (synthetic latexes) and polymer modified cement mortars and concretes.
Synthetic resins and resin based material.
Unmodified cement based mortars and concretes.
Steel reinforcement coatings.
Substrate bonding coats.
Acrylic concretes.
Non-shrink hydraulic cement mortars.
Sprayed concrete.
Protective coatings.
Flexible joint sealants.
C9-11.3.2
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higher strength,
The three basic polymers used as latex modifiers for concrete are:
acrylics
PVAs are not recommended for use in wet environments because some types may hydrolyse and
break down.
SBR latexes develop a brownish coat after being exposed to sunlight and this may make them
The working life of polymer modified mixes is relatively short. Therefore, the quantity of mix for a
particular job should be limited according to the placing and finishing time - about 20 minutes. If the
mortar or concrete is manipulated after the latex has coalesced, cracking may occur on drying.
Application of polymers is also sensitive to temperature. At low temperatures the polymer spheres
will not coalesce to form a durable film around cement and aggregate particles. At high
temperatures their working time is too short allowing little time to finish the repair. Manufacturers'
To obtain a high bond between the latex concrete overlay or mortar patch and the base concrete, a
bond coat is brushed or broomed onto the prepared concrete surface. This bond coat can be the
mixture used for the overlay or patch, or made by mixing undiluted latex with Portland cement. The
surface is first thoroughly wetted with clean water for not less than one hour prior to placement.
After removing all free water but with the surface still damp, sufficient mixed material to coat all
bonding surfaces is then placed and vigorously broomed to assure maximum contact with the old
concrete. The rate of application of bonding material should be limited so that the bond coat does
The curing procedure of polymer modified concrete is different from normal concrete. Wax or resin
found in most curing compounds are incompatible with latex and should not be used without prior
evaluation.
The polymer film formed in polymer modified concrete helps to maintain high levels of internal
moisture in the concrete. Because of this, prolonged curing is neither necessary nor recommended.
To prevent shrinkage cracking before the film has formed, however, all finishing operations must be
completed and the surface covered with a single layer of wet burlap as soon as the surface will
support it. The curing cover is completed by placing a layer of polyethylene film over the wet
burlap. This is left in place for 24 hours after that the burlap and polyethylene are removed and the
C9-11.3.3
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delamination of the epoxy repair is likely to occur either at the interface or just within the concrete
substrate. As a result, epoxy mortar repairs are more suitable for thin and small volume repairs.
Further, in contrast to the cementitious materials that re-passivate the steel reinforcing bar, epoxy
resin materials do not passivate the bar but rather arrest corrosion only by excluding the oxygen
due to their low permeability to moisture and gases. In fact, in marine environments epoxy repair
materials are likely to trap chloride spray against reinforcement and introduce in-built potential
chloride attack on the steel.
Epoxy resins offer excellent repairs in the following situations:
Repairs of cracks up to 6 mm width by injection with low viscosity unfilled epoxy resin that has
the potential to penetrate and seal cracks down to 0.02 mm width. Crack injection is normally
associated with dead cracks that are basically inactive and do not move.
(If the cracks are live and continue to move with changing loads or temperatures, they cannot be
repaired with resins. In such cases, cracks are treated as expansion joints and sealed with flexible
materials).
Bonding of new concrete to old concrete. Epoxy resin formulations provide excellent adhesives
and can give long drying times prior to placing of repair materials. This is particularly useful
where complicated formwork has to be assembled.
Bonding of steel, brick, concrete blocks and other materials to existing concrete (i.e., use as
adhesive).
Epoxy resin grouts, mortar and concretes for reinstating deteriorated concrete or patching in
thin layer applications without problems of drying shrinkage associated with cementitious
repairs.
Resin mixtures can be made fluid enough to flow into places by gravity so that inaccessible
places can be filled with them and compaction is unnecessary. This is valuable for packing
bearings, machine bases and so on.
Epoxy compounds consist of a resin, a curing agent (hardener) and modifiers that make them
suitable for specific end uses. Modifiers include accelerators that make the rate of cure depend
less on temperature, dilutents that reduce viscosity and improve workability, and fillers such as
sand and aggregate that lower cost, decrease shrinkage and reduce the volume change due to
thermal expansion.
The resin generally consists of two components that are batched by volume and thoroughly mixed
before the incorporation of aggregate. Chemical reactions start as soon as the resin components
are combined and the working time will depend on the system, the temperature and the handling
procedure.
Accurate batching and proper mixing of the components is crucial for attaining maximum strength
and other properties of the epoxy materials. For this reason they should be mixed in whole batches
that are obtained pre-proportioned from the supplier.
If formwork is used with epoxy materials or epoxy modified concrete, the form surfaces should be
coated with a release agent compatible with the epoxy.
Surfaces of base concrete and steel should be primed with neat resin. Placement and
consolidation should be done in layers of limited thickness as recommended by the epoxy
formulator.
Considerable skill and experience are needed for the successful application of epoxy resin
materials. They have to be applied within a very limited time before they harden and have to be
handled cleanly to avoid contamination of both the resin mixture and the people working with them.
Therefore, it is advisable to employ specialists to supply them as well as apply them.
C9-11.3.4
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aggregate source, maximum aggregate size or water content, properties will differ. Also, the inplace concrete probably will have undergone considerable drying shrinkage so that differential
volume changes between a repair and the in-place concrete will almost certainly occur. The effects
of differential volume change can generally be minimised by maximising aggregate size, minimising
the water content and by following good curing procedures.
The concrete mix used for repairs must be capable of producing highly impermeable concrete.
Additives such as ground granulated blast furnace slag, pulverised fuel ash or microsilica can be
used in repair mixes to increase impermeability in the same way as in new concrete. The use of
accelerating admixtures may be advantageous but the admixture itself should not contain more
than 1 percent chloride ion by weight and the resulting total concrete should not contain more than
0.1 percent chloride ion by weight of cement.
The nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be less than of the patch or overlay
depth, and not more than 10 mm, bearing in mind that the concrete may have to get into fairly tight
locations.
The water-cement ratio should not exceed 0.4 by weight, lower ratios being preferred. The slump of
mixes for shallow patches and overlays should not exceed 25 mm. The slump of mixes that are to
be consolidated around reinforcing steel by internal vibration should not exceed 75 mm.
Accurately batched and properly mixed concrete is essential to the success of repairs. To avoid
variability in site mixed concrete due to the difficulty of accurate proportioning, pre-packaging at the
maintenance shop or other suitable location should be considered. If the aggregate cannot be
completely dried it must be packaged separately from cement.
A number of proprietary pre-packaged cement based mortars and grouts incorporating special
cements, chemical additives and admixtures, specially formulated to exhibit high bond, high
strength and non-shrink properties are also available in the market. Prior to using any proprietary
material its suitability for a particular job must be verified from the manufacturer's printed literature.
Cement based unmodified materials do not always adhere successfully to old concrete and it is
important that the old concrete be kept wet for a period of 12 to 24 hours prior to repair to ensure
that the old concrete does not suck away water from the new concrete thus preventing full
hydration of the cement at the critical interface. However, prior to placing the new concrete the
surface of the parent concrete must be dry and without free water so that the water-cement ratio at
the interface is not increased.
The other alternative is to prime the repair areas with Portland cement or latex modified Portland
cement grout, or an epoxy system. A bonding agent must be applied for low slump mixes.
The Portland cement grout should consist of a mixture of 1 part cement to or 1 part fine
aggregate and sufficient water to make a heavy cream consistency.
Polymer-modified bonding grouts have a short drying time (normally less than 30 minutes) and
cannot be used if there is much form fixing to be done before the concrete can be cast.
Epoxy bonding coats have two special advantages. Firstly, they can be formulated to have long
open times, that makes them suitable for use in hot climates, or when formwork has to be fixed
after the bonding coat has been applied. Secondly, they may provide a more effective barrier than
cement grouts against the migration of chlorides.
Note:
Although they are water compatible, epoxy bonding coats are applied to a
dry concrete surface. However, specially formulated resins are available for
application to damp surfaces also.
C9-11.3.5
Curing
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With low water-cement ratio repair concrete, a continuous water cure is the preferred method for
strength development.
Curing compounds may be used, however, they neither furnish desirable external water to low
water-cement ratio mixes nor do they provide any cooling effect. They should not be used if
additional material is to be later bonded to the surface being cured. Curing compounds should be
applied at twice their usual rate to shotcrete and to other rough textured surfaces. It is essential
that freshly placed surfaces be kept moist until curing is initiated. A fog spray or a film should be
used if there is to be any delay in the application of curing compounds.
C9-11.3.6
Cement slurry.
Alternatively, the cement paste from a well designed cementitious repair mix may protect the
Caution:
A coating is not an alternative to removing chloride contamination from
the reinforcement nor will it prevent corrosion from being caused by
chlorides that are already present on the reinforcement. It is therefore
essential to remove the rust and chlorides from corroded steel before
applying any primer.
Where the repair is cement based, a coating of cement slurry (or the cement paste in the repair
mortar or concrete itself) would create a lasting alkaline environment on the surface of the steel
and offer a high degree of impermeability to water, carbon dioxide and chloride ions.
Polymer modified cement slurries may dry too quickly to be effective in repairs where forms have to
be fixed after the coating is done, but they are suitable where the delay in placing the repair
material is short.
Use of epoxy resins, inhibitive primers and zinc rich primers should only be made after consultation
with concrete repair experts, as in certain circumstances these coatings may do more harm than
good.
Epoxy resin coatings act as an impermeable barrier against external moisture and gases, but if any
chlorides are trapped under the coating the corrosion of steel could still continue.
Where corrosion is due to a local flaw in generally sound concrete, the grit blasted bar may be
coated with zinc rich paint. Where there is generally poor quality concrete, but the environmental
attack is such that corrosion has occurred in a limited area (i.e. there may be a large number of
cathodes compared with the anodic corrosion sites), the anodic zinc coating may be rapidly used
up and steel re-attacked. In this case zinc rich paint should not be used. Where there is generally
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poor concrete and corrosion is very widespread (that is, there are many anodic as well as cathodic
sites) zinc rich paint may be used.
C9-11.3.7
C9-11.3.8
Acrylic concretes
Note: Description of this material is given as a matter of interest only. Its use requires training and
special skills and repairs should best be entrusted to experts.
Unlike normal Portland cement concrete, acrylic concrete contains no water and no Portland
cement. It is made by mixing aggregates with acrylic monomers that polymerise during curing to
form hard, tough concrete. Two types of monomers are available for making acrylic concrete:
methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM).
Acrylic concrete is expensive, so obviously it cannot be used everywhere. However, because it
develops a compressive strength of 35 MPa to 70 MPa in 1 to 2 hours, it has been used to repair
pavements, bridge decks, parking decks and warehouse and factory floors that cannot be closed to
traffic for several hours or days.
Acrylic concrete has few voids making it dense and impermeable. It resists intrusion of water,
chlorides and most other corrosive chemicals. It develops high bond strength with Portland cement
concrete. Therefore, it is often used as an overlay, 6mm to 50mm thick, on top of Portland cement
concrete. A primer of catalysed acrylic monomer is usually brushed on the base concrete first.
Because of its low viscosity, the acrylic penetrates into the pores of Portland cement concrete to
produce a mechanical bond with the substrate.
The aggregate for making acrylic concrete should be bone dry, with a maximum moisture content
of 0.5 percent. Normally, these products are sold as pre-packaged systems and manufacturer's
instructions should be followed for mixing and application.
Both methyl methacrylate (MMA) and high molecular weight methacrylate (HMWM) gain strength in
a matter of hours, but they are different in a few important ways. MMA has a low flash point,
therefore, it is easily flammable, produces a non-toxic but disagreeable odour, and has a short pot
life. HMWM, on the other hand, has a high flash point and its odour is not strong. HMWM is easier
and safer to use than MMA but it also costs significantly more.
Because of its low viscosity, low volatility and relatively good bond strength, HMWM has been used
without aggregate to weld together inactive cracks in Portland cement concrete. After mixing with a
catalyst HMWM is poured onto the concrete surface and distributed with a squeegee. Material must
be applied within 15 minutes after mixing. If cracks are blown clean and dry beforehand, the
monomer can penetrate the full depth of the cracks. However, monomers should not be used to
repair active cracks.
Caution:
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Personnel handling and mixing monomers should use eyeprotection and impervious gloves and aprons; respirators with
chemical filters should be available for those who wish to use
them. Mixing of monomers should be carried out in a shaded, wellventilated area, free of ignition sources. Storage and handling of all
materials must be done in accordance with manufacturer's
recommendations.
C9-11.3.9
Sprayed concrete
Note:
Sprayed Concrete is a specialised work that requires skilled operators. Only an
engineer with the knowledge of, and experience with, the material should decide where and how it
should be used.
Sprayed concrete consists of a mixture of cement, aggregate and water (it may also contain fibres
and/or other admixtures) forcefully projected onto a surface through a hose and nozzle by means
of compressed air.
Sprayed concrete develops excellent bond, is homogeneous and compact and does not sag in wall
and overhead applications. It is thus suited to a wide range of coating and lining operations.
There are two different techniques for applying sprayed concrete:
In the dry-mix process cement and aggregate are mixed together and metered into a regulated
high-pressure hose. The compressed air carries the mixture to a special nozzle equipped with a
controlled water spray that dampens the mixture and dispenses it on to the receiving surface. The
volume of the water added is controlled by the nozzle operator.
In the wet-mix process a mixture of cement and aggregate mixed with water is metered into the
delivery hose and conveyed towards the nozzle where compressed air is injected that then projects
the mixture into place.
Concrete sprayed by the wet process has lower impact velocity than with the dry process because
of inertia. Moreover, the extra workability required for pumping wet concrete dictates the use of
higher water content. Strict control is required in the wet-mix process to ensure pumpable concrete
at all times, otherwise if the delivery hose is blocked spraying has to be disrupted until the pipes
can be cleared.
In the dry-mix process the quality of mix delivered on the surface relies heavily on the operator's
competence as the rate at which water is added has to be controlled manually. With a skilled
operator the dry-mix process does give better control and adjustment and thereby better quality.
The dry-mix process is often the preferred technique.
In addition to suitability, the economics of the use of sprayed concrete must also be considered.
For some applications, sprayed concrete may be more economical than conventional in-situ
concrete because it needs little or no formwork nor any compaction, and the equipment for placing
and mixing is small and portable.
Sprayed concrete also has some limitations that should be kept in mind. These are:
The finished product is largely dependent on the operator skill. Quality control, supervision and
testing are difficult.
Correct batching of powdered admixtures in a dry-mix is very difficult. Some admixtures can
also be hazardous to handle.
Sprayed concrete must be reinforced with small mesh, small diameter reinforcement (or fibre
reinforcement added to the mix) to prevent drying shrinkage.
Dust from the dry-mix process can be objectionable. Protection must be provided for adjacent
buildings, materials, trees and gardens.
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Curing in sprayed concrete is more critical than in ordinary work because of the small thickness
usually applied. If curing compounds are used, they should be applied at twice their usual rate.
Sprayed concrete may have shrinkage and thermal properties that are different to the concrete
it is being applied to. To minimise the effect of differential shrinkage and thermal expansion
latex admixtures and/or latex based coatings to substrate may be used, but keeping in mind the
limited working time available with latex based products.
Sprayed concrete can have relatively high porosity and permeability.
Poor weather conditions such as wind, rain and cold can severely affect the application of
sprayed concrete.
The overall thickness of horizontal, downward and vertical work is virtually unlimited (though for
practical and economic reasons it is kept to less than 200mm). However, overhead work is
generally limited to about 80mm thickness in one day.
Except for thin sections, the cost per cubic metre is generally higher than for in-situ work.
Sprayed concrete is difficult to finish. It is probably best not to trowel or float it.
C9-11.3.10
C9-11.3.11
Protective coatings
Surface coatings are used on concrete structures to provide additional protection against ingress of
water, water soluble salts and atmospheric gases. In addition, they enhance the aesthetic
appearance and help in hiding the patchy appearance of concrete that has been repaired in
different places.
It should be noted however that when concrete is already showing signs of deterioration and tests
show that enough salt is present at the reinforcement to make it rust, adding a protective coating
will not help in reducing such deterioration. In such circumstances it is essential that the concrete
be repaired first, and then, if the environment warrants, protected against further deterioration by
application of a suitable surface treatment.
For whatever reason the coatings are applied it must be accepted that they will not last as long as
a durable concrete surface, and re-coating will be needed from time to time.
Basically, there are two types of protective coatings:
Film forming - relying on adhesion to concrete.
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polyurethane resins
epoxy resins
chlorinated rubber
acrylics
bituminous materials
Generally, film forming coatings are highly efficient against ingress of moisture, water soluble salts
(chlorides) and gases and vapours (carbon dioxide). However, build up of water vapour pressure
behind them, especially if water can get into the concrete from another face, can cause the coating
to blister and peel off unless the adhesion of the film to the concrete is very good. Also, if the film
lacks elasticity and fails to bridge across active cracks or subsequently formed shrinkage cracks,
pollutants will find easy ingress into the concrete at the site of cracked coating and will eventually
cause deterioration in the concrete.
Film forming coatings require a significant amount of surface preparation. The surface of concrete
must be free of oils, grease, loose surface layers, dust and surface defects such as blow holes and
shrinkage cracks. The surface is to be either sand-blasted or grit/water blasted and steam cleaned
and imperfections filled with a suitable levelling or fairing coat prior to the application of the coating
system. Most proprietary coating systems consist of a separate primer that improves the adhesion
of the coating to the concrete and resists peeling or blistering. Also, pigmented coatings give much
better protection and are more durable than unpigmented coatings.
Protective coating systems based on silane/siloxane are penetrating type sealers that impregnate
concrete and react with the moisture and silicates present in the cement thus modifying the
concrete surface to form a water repellant but vapour permeable barrier. Silane/Siloxane coatings,
therefore, prevent contamination against water soluble chlorides but being vapour permeable are
not effective against carbonation.
Penetration type coatings require less surface preparation. However, a dry concrete surface is
essential for successful application. They generally impregnate the outer 2 to 5mm of the concrete
surface and effectively seal blow holes, cracks up to 0.3mm and other minor irregularities.
All proprietary coatings perform differently from each other in regard to ease of application,
adhesion to concrete, resistance against ingress of moisture, soluble salts and gases, durability,
ability to stretch and bridge cracks and other characteristics. Their selection therefore should be
made with care according to the requirements of the repair job in hand.
C9-11.3.12
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Thermoplastics
Elastomers
chemicals, etc.)
Adhesive properties, curing rate and paintability
Service temperature range
Sealant width/depth ratio (modulus characteristics)
Trafficability
Applicability in horizontal and vertical situations.
A large number of proprietary sealants are available. The selection for any repair application should
be made according to the particular requirements of the job. Manufacturer's printed instructions
should be strictly followed.
C9-11.4
C9-11.4.1
Application conditions
How thick is the repair section?
In thick sections, heat generated during curing of the repair material may build up and produce
unacceptable thermal stresses. Some materials may shrink too much when placed in thick layers
and some materials will spall if placed in thin layers. Others can be feather edged. When
aggregates are used as an inexpensive filler or extender, the maximum size of aggregate that can
be used will be dictated by the minimum thickness of the repair.
Will the substrate be moist?
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Some polymer materials will not cure properly in the presence of moisture. Others are moisture
insensitive. Heat generated during initial curing of some repair materials may create steam in a
moist environment and the steam may cause failure of the repair.
At what temperature will the repair material be placed?
Portland cement hydration ceases at or near freezing temperatures and cement modifier emulsions
won't coalesce to form films at temperatures below about 5oC. Other repair materials can be used
at temperatures well below freezing, although setting time may be increased. High temperatures
will make many repair materials set faster, decreasing the working life or precluding their use
entirely.
Will repairs be carried out in poorly ventilated areas or in areas where use of flammable
materials is not permitted?
Components of some repair materials are volatile and combustible. Odour can also be a problem.
Is the repair section on a vertical surface or on the underside of a horizontal member?
For unformed wall or soffit patches, repair materials must adhere to the substrate without sagging.
C9-11.4.2
Service conditions
How soon does the repair have to be put into service?
If repairs are subject to early loading, rapid strength gain characteristics are essential.
Will the material be exposed to chemicals such as acids, sulphates, chlorides or strong
solvents?
Acids and sulphates will attack Portland cement-based materials, and chlorides may cause
corrosion of reinforcing steel. Strong solvents may soften some materials.
Will the repair bear heavy traffic?
A material with good abrasion resistance and good skid resistance may be necessary.
C9-12
C9-12.1
C9-12.1.1
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Damage needs to be repaired if it reduces the strength, stiffness or durability of the structure to an
unacceptable level. For example impact damage to beams and columns or loss of reinforcement by
corrosion. In such cases calculations should be carried out to determine the stress levels and
deformations in the damaged elements to assess the severity of damage and urgency for repairs.
C9-12.1.2
Appearance
Repairs may be required to improve the appearance of the concrete surface, for example some
types of cracks, minor spalls, scaling, efflorescence, impact damage, etc. These defects may not
immediately affect the strength of the structure but if left untreated could lead to further
deterioration.
C9-12.1.3
Functional performance
Repairs are required if the function of the structure is impaired even if the strength, stiffness or
appearance are not significantly affected. Examples: broken treads and handrails on stairs, loss of
sealants from expansion joints, dampness due to ponding of water, etc.
C9-12.1.4
C9-12.2
Repair options
Depending on the nature of damage, urgency of repairs and availability of funds and resources,
Do nothing other than carry out regular safety inspections. Wait and see.
Carry out repairs to restore deteriorating parts of the structure to a satisfactory condition.
C9-12.3
C9-13
C9-13.1
General
Masonry is constructed from units of brick, stone or concrete joined together with cement or lime
mortar.
In masonry repairs the most important material is the mortar. It is essential to understand its
function in masonry work and the basic principles that determine the selection of a "strong" or
"weak" mortar in repair work.
The other materials used in repairing masonry are:
polymers (synthetic latexes) for modifying mortars
synthetic resins
sealants.
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C9-13.2
Function of mortar
The purpose of mortar in masonry work is twofold:
to seal the joints between masonry units;
to provide a bed for the units so that the loads are evenly distributed across the joints.
The strength and rigidity of the masonry is mainly dependent on the strength of the brick, stone or
concrete units rather than the mortar. In fact, a very strong mortar can do more harm than good.
C9-13.3
C9-13.3.1
Cracking
Cracking is not usually attributable to directly applied loads, but is generally caused by differential
or thermal movements between the various parts of the structure as a result of thermal or
shrinkage movement or foundation settlement.
When a strong mortar is used, fine cracks develop between the mortar and the masonry unit (brick,
stone or concrete) that, as well as looking unsightly, may pass right through the masonry units and
permit the passage of water.
A weak mortar, on the other hand, permits the masonry work some freedom to absorb movements
without obvious cracking. Where cracking does occur, it will tend to be distributed through the joints
where it is comparatively easy to repair, rather than through the masonry units themselves.
Thus the resistance of masonry to cracking is improved when weak mortars are used.
C9-13.3.2
Fretting
Fretting occurs when there has been continued evaporation from the wall surfaces. With weak,
porous mortars evaporation occurs mainly along the joints. But if a strong, impermeable mortar is
used, the evaporation occurs from the masonry blocks and leads to spalling of bricks and fretting of
sandstone. It is easier to repair the fretting of weak and porous mortar by repointing than to replace
fretted bricks or stone blocks.
It is therefore better to use weak and porous mortar that can be repointed if necessary rather than
to use strong mortars and having to re-build the wall.
C9-13.4
C9-13.5
Basic principles
In general, the mortar should be slightly weaker and more permeable than the masonry units. For
sandstock brick or sandstone, a cement:lime:sand mix (by volume) of 1:2:9 to 0:1:2 is suitable. For
normal bricks, 2:1:12 to 1:1:6 can be used.
In all cases, just enough water should be added to attain a workable consistency of the mortar.
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Do not use a clay-sand soil unless following a proven local tradition. Do not use crushed stone
unless it has been successfully used as building stone. Avoid any sand, clay or crushed stone that
may contain salts.
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Introduction
This section details the requirements for certifying structures as safe for continuing train operations
after maintenance and minor installation work.
Structure maintenance certification is the process of determining that a structure is safe for the
operation of trains when doing work on the structure that affects or may affect track system
integrity.
Persons undertaking certification activities must:
understand the requirements of the work and the impact of the activity on the safe and reliable
operation of rail traffic over, under or past the structure,
visually inspect and assess relevant aspects of infrastructure condition or installation work
against the authorised design, and
certify the structure with appropriate restrictions if necessary.
Certification of any work that affects or may affect the integrity of the track system also requires
certification of the track. Refer to TMC 211 Chapter 9.
C10-2
What to Certify
Structure certification is required for work that affects or may affect track system integrity such as:
Repair structures: bridges, tunnels, overhead wiring structures, retaining walls, platforms, air
space developments, level crossings, buffer stops, track slabs
Install/replace transoms
Install minor structures: pipes, culverts, level crossings, buffer stops, ballast retention walls
Install temporary track support.
Certification is not required for routine maintenance of structures such as:
clearing vegetation and debris from and around structures/components
cleaning drainage weepholes
tightening of bolts
servicing of bridge bearings
patch painting of steel.
C10-3
How to Certify
C10-3.1
Planning
Establish what activity you are certifying. It may be a simple activity or a combination of activities.
Consider the impact of the work on the safety and reliability of the infrastructure if the work is not
Effect of work on the capacity of the structure to avoid collapse on to the track.
C10-3.2
Is there evidence that excavations around the structure have weakened the structure support?
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Was the repair done to an authorised design or in accordance with the repair manual?
Does the work method have the potential to create future instability?
If the repair has not fully restored the strength and serviceability of the structure, either to the "as
new" condition, or to the condition that is required for current or envisaged use (fit for purpose),
the defect is to remain in Teams 3. A new defect category and a new repair priority are to be
allocated.
C10-3.3
Install transoms
To assess the integrity of the transom installation, consider the following issues:
Were the transoms installed to an authorised design or in accordance with the installation
manual?
Are all fastenings/connections tight & secure?
Are there obvious deficiencies with the completed installation?
Is transom packed to correct line and level?
Does the work method have the potential to create future instability?
C10-3.4
Is there evidence that excavations around the structure have weakened the structure support?
Was the installation done to an authorised design or in accordance with the specifications?
Does the work method have the potential to create future instability?
C10-3.5
Is there evidence that excavations around the structure have weakened the structure support?
Does the work method have the potential to create future instability?
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Issued December 2009
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TMC 305
Introduction
This section details the requirements for assessing and certifying structures as safe for continuing
train operations after structures examination.
The regular assessment of structures achieves the following objectives:
to assess the current condition of a structure;
to determine the need for an engineering rating of the load carrying capacity of structures;
to certify structures safe for the continued operation of rail, road and pedestrian traffic with
C11-2
What to Assess
Structures assessment is required for all structures examined under the structures examination
system.
C11-3
When to Assess
Structures are assessed after:
detailed examinations
special examinations
underwater examinations
monthly examinations of broad flange beams over roads.
For cyclic examinations, the assessment is to be carried out by the Structures Manager within one
month of the receipt of the examination report.
For impact damage, the assessment is to be carried out within the assessment timeframes
specified for the standard defect categories (refer to TMC 301 Appendix 3).
C11-4
How to Assess
C11-4.1
General
The assessment can be based on the review of the examination report.
If the information in the report is insufficient to permit assessment, then a site inspection is to be
carried out.
The assessment will confirm the defect categories, repair priorities, and paint indices where
applicable.
C11-4.2
If A or B, seek engineering advice from Chief Engineer Civil. Based on the recommendations of
the design engineer, certify the structure subject to any restrictions recommended by the
engineer. Restrictions may be speed or load related.
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TMC 305
If C, seek engineering advice from the Civil Maintenance Engineer (CME). Based on the
recommendations of the CME, certify the structure subject to any restrictions recommended by
the CME. Restrictions may be speed or load related. The CME may seek advice from the Chief
Engineer Civil.
If D,
Is the load carrying capacity of the structurally critical component likely to be reduced as
a result of the defects? In bending? In shear?
What are the structural interactions between this member and other members?
What is the minimum allowable load rating applicable to structures on that corridor?
Assess any repair/refurbishment work carried out since the last examination. Is work to
standard?
What is the material type: steel/ reinforced concrete/ pre-stressed concrete/ masonry?
If necessary seek engineering advice from the CME or the Chief Engineer Civil.
C11-4.3
C11-5
C11-6
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C11-7
TMC 305
How to Certify
Allocate defect categories, repair priorities and paint indices.
Certify the structure after the assessment by signing the examination form.
Ensure that the final defect categories, repair priorities and paint indices are entered into Teams 3.
Rail Corporation
Issued December 2009
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