You are on page 1of 148

NON-DESTRUCTIVE

EXAMINATION /
EVALUATION
R.SUBBARATNAM
RETD., HEAD, QA&NDT SECTION
QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION
ENGINEERING SERVICES GROUP
INDIRA GANDHI CENTRE FOR ATOMIC RESEARCH
KALPPAKAM
Subbu_10@yahoo.com

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION /
EVALUATION


Examination with out destruction

Used for assessment and evaluation of




Raw materials Rolled (Plate, Pipe); cast; forged

Component & System Fabrication Weld

Pre-Service & In-Service Inspection

Unconventional Assembly, Level measurement, Gap


measurement

Visual Imaging 3 Dimensional information

Position, size, orientation

Macro, Micro, Nano Levels


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

NDE METHODS
VISUAL
LEAK
TESTING

LPE

BASIC
NDE
UE

VOLUMETRIC
NDE

MPE

RE

SURFACE
NDE

EC

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

ADVANCED NDE METHODS


IR

NRT

VA
ADV
NDE

UE
TOFD, SAFT

AE

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

VISUAL EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

Visual Examination


Most common and First method of NDE

Easy

Quick

Low Cost

Guide for other NDE methods

Reflection of light from the specimen

Eye tool for the examination

Adequate and proper cleaning and lighting of surface

Surface preparation in certain cases required


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

EYE



The registering device


Variable individual point of view








Variation in eye

Unreliable with different light intensities optical illusion


Relative brightness of different light sources can be judged
approximately with same order of brightness
Large image if the retinal image is large
Angle subtended at the eye by the object called the Visual
Angle

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

VIEWING





Converging lens increases visual angle and increases the size


of image
Diameter of the pupil is ~2.5 mm for 5500 A wavelength
Minimum angular separation of two points resolvable by the
eye is about one minute of arc
Minimum size of the defect detected depends on







Surface being examined


Brightness level
Contrast between the area and the background

Brightness falling on the retina is most important than the


brightness on the specimen
Brightness on the retina is determined by area of pupil
Pupil size variable from 1 to 6 mm and hence the area varies
by a factor of 36
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

SENSITIVITY OF EYE


Sensitivity of human eye varies for different wave lengths

With ordinary conditions it is most sensitive to yellow green light with


wave length of 5500 A

Human eye will provide satisfactory vision over wide range of conditions

Eye has excellent visual perception, however adequate lighting is prime


importance

Time of inspection permitted to work shall be limited to avoid errors due to


decrease in visual reliability and discrimination

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

LIGHTING


The amount of light reaching shall be sufficient for best


definition obtainable with aided or unaided eye
Relation between the visual acuity and brightness shall be
considered
The ratio of least perceptible brightness difference to the
brightness at which it is measured is nearly constant over large
range of 1 to 100000 candles / m2 [ordinary interior
illumination to bright day light]
But the visual acuity varies quit sharply over the lower and
middle portion of the range
visual acuity is considered to be dependant on the threshold
response of the cones in the retina. But no data available to
give explanation.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

10

OPTICAL AIDS


Optical aids








Mirror
Lens
Microscope
Periscope
Telescope
Fiberscope
Boroscope

Provide a means of compensating for the limits of visual acuity


by enlarging small image in to large
Improving viewing conditions for rapid inspection of small
precision parts, inaccessible areas and reducing operator fatigue

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

11










MIRROR
Simplest way of looking inaccessible area
Advantage of a portion of mirror is used and cone of
rays is limited by the pupil of eye
Other instrument / equipment can also be added with
mirror
Mirror surface shall be extremely flat
Mirror must be kept free from dust
Reflecting power of mirror reduces after some period
of use
Reflecting power of two three mirrors are much less
However the reflecting power can be increased by
special coating
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

12

BOROSCOPE


Boroscope is the instrument to inspect the inside surface of


tube, bore or chamber
Precision built optical system with prism and lenses through
which light also passes
Light source is located in font of object lens provides light in
the required area
The design of the objective determines the angle of view, size
of visual field and amount of light gathered
Design of the middle lenses has an important influence on the
image obtained. Most middle lenses are achromatic for the
purpose of preserving the sharpness of the image and color
values
Different angle of vision [0, 45, 60, 90]
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

13

FIBERSCOPE





Fiberscope is the instrument used to inspect surface of


pipeline. Compared to the Boroscope this is flexible and the
image transmission is by optical fibers.
Possibility of lighting of the surface of the object
Various diameters, operating length and angle of viewing [0,
45, 60, 90], backward and forward throw
Limitation guiding to proper location is required

Image acquisition in the digital form possible in both


Boroscope and Fiberscope

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

14

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

15

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

16

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

17

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

18

LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

19

SURFACE NDE

OPEN TO SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES ONLY

PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION

SIX METHODS


Two types & Three Techniques

FIVE STAGES

HIGH SENSITIVITY WITH POST EMULSIFICATION AND


FLUREOSCENT

10 SENSITIVITY WITH FLOURESCENT AND 25


WITH VISIBLE - SOLVENT REMOVAL

Temp. 15 to 50 C
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

20

BASIC PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

21

Factors influencing Penetrant infiltration into


discontinuities








surface tension of the liquid Penetrant


discontinuity configuration constant
surface coatings and contaminants
additives and contaminants in the liquid Penetrant
mechanical obstructions
temperature of the test object
roughness of the interior walls of the discontinuity

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

22

LPE METHODS

VISIBLE
OR
FLOURSCENT

WATER
WASHABLE

POST
EMULSIFICATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

SOLVENT
REMOVABLE

23

LPE - STEPS





Pre-Cleaning
Penetrant Appln.
Dwell Time (10 min to >1 Hr.)
Penetrant Cleaning
Water Washable
 Post Emulsification
 Solvent Removable







Developer Appln. (Dry or Wet)


Developing time (~5 min)
Interpretation
Post Cleaning
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

24

LPE STEPS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

25

LPE INDICATIONS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

26

LPE INDICATIONS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

27

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

28






SURFACE NDE
SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6mm)
FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS - LIMITATION
PRINCIPLE MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE DUE TO
DISCONTINUITY
SPECIMEN MAGNETISATION


DETECTION



Permanent Magnet; Magnetic Yoke; Prod; Head Shot (Fixing


component in head and tail stocks and passing current); Coil
AC or DC
APPLN. OF IRON POWDER (Wet or Dry)
Visible and Fluorescent

DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO THE MAGNETIC


LINES WILL BE DETECTED
Temp. Max 300 C
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

29

Methods & Means of


Generation of Magnetic Field


Magnetisation with permanent Magnet and by Electric Current


(Induced)
Characteristics of magnetic Field



Types of Magnetisation





Continuous
Residual
Circular
Longitudinal

Magnetic Fields in and around the job




Field around permanent magnet


In & around a conductor

Longitudinal magnetization
Circular Magnetisation

Magnetic Field Strength & Field distribution


Demagnetization
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

30

Magnetic Particle Testing Techniques







Type of Current

AC, DC, HWDC, FWDC (Single & three phase)
Method

Dry or Wet Method
Types of particle

Dry Particles

Wet Particles and Carrier (Water, Kerosene etc)
Fluorescent and Non Fluorescent
Type of Magnetisation

Circular, Longitudinal, Residual
Type of Equipment

Portable, Stationary or special purpose equipment
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

31

Magnetic Particle Test Equipments & Accessories




Equipments




Type







Permanent
Electro Magnet - Yokes
Small , medium, Stationary and Portable Equipments
Prods (Circular Mag.)
Coils (Longitudinal Mag.)
Head Shot (Circular Mag.)

Black Light (Fluorescent) Equipments


PIE Gauge, KETOs Ring, Shims with Notches for
field measurement & Gauge for residual mag. Field
measurement
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

32

MPE Principle

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

33

MAGNETISATION METHODS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

34

MAGNETISATION METHODS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

35

MPE INDICATIONS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

36

Magnetic Particle Indication

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

37

EDDY CURRENT EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

38






SURFACE NDE
SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6 mm)
CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL LIMITATION
PRINCIPLE INDUCTION OF CURRENT (CIRCULAR
EDDY) IN THE SPECIMEN AND ANALYSING
INTERACTION (Induction, Permeability)
PROBE CONFIGURATION





Encircling or Bobbin; Surface; Multiple Frequency Probes

DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO EDDY CURRENT


DETECTABLE
EXAMINATION FAST (Less Time)
USED FOR


Material Sorting (Permeability; Electrical Conductivity); Defect


Detection; Coating Thk.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

39

ECT PRINCIPLE & COIL ARRANGEMENT

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

40

ECT - EQUIPMET

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

41

ECT - INSTRUMENTATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

42

COIL APPLICATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

43

Eddy Current Inspection


Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
damage.

Pipe with damage

Probe
Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

44

RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

45

PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY











Differential absorption of short wavelength radiations


Difference in density is the effect of
 variations in thickness of the part,
 differences in absorption characteristics caused by variations in
compositions.
Shadow projection, an image, on a detector - varying grey levels
Sources - X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, electrons.
X and gamma rays are common sources for industrial radiography
Detector radiographic films, image intensifiers or scintillator
screens / counters.
Double coated, fine grain, high contrast X-ray films used
Radiography is the best method for the detection of volumetric
defects.
It can be applied on a variety of component ranging from miniature
integrated circuits to mammoth missile parts and complex
assemblies.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

46

RADIOGRAPHY SET UP
Source

Specimen

Variation in
Radiographic
Density

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

47

SOURCES OF RADIATIONS X RAY





X-ray and gamma rays


X-ray machine consists





X-ray tube head, high-voltage generators, control unit, cooling circuit.

Glass tube heads - earlier, modern X-ray heads - metal ceramic


When fast moving electrons impinging on a metal target X-ray
is produced .
Most of the energy (98%) - as heat, only a fraction is
converted into X-rays.
Depends on the atomic number of the target material, level of
vacuum.
X-ray tube target - high atomic number and high melting point
- Tungsten

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

48

X RAY EQUIPMENT

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

49

GAMMA RAY



Isotopic sources emitting gamma rays - extensive applications.


Main advantage of gamma ray sources



Main disadvantage of these sources





simplicity of apparatus, compactness and portability.


does not require cooling and power supply - field applications.
decay with time and hence required replacement
energy of the gamma rays is fixed and cannot be varied to match the
thickness of objects for better sensitivity.

The commonly used gamma sources are Cobalt-60, Iridium192, Cesium 137 and Thulium 170.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

50

GAMMA RAY SOURCES


COBALT
60

IRIDIUM
192

CESIUM
137

THULIUM
170

ENERGY
(MeV)

1.1.7 &
1.33

0.45 (Avg) 0.66

0.052,
0.084

HALF
LIFE

5.3 Yrs

74 Days

33.1 Yrs

127 Days

OUTPUT
RHM/Ci

1.3

0.55

0.38

0.25

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

51

GAMMA CAMERA / EXPOSURE


DEVICE

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

52

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM







Radiographic film most widely used as detectors


Consists - base, emulsion, binding layer protective layer
Polyester is most-commonly used material for film base
Emulsion of silver bromide is coated over the base
Gelatin acts a binding layer between film base and
emulsion.
protective layer - hardened gelatin, serves to protect the
emulsion from physical damage, abrasion and stress
marks.
Industrial radiographic films are double coated
 the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base.
 increases the film speed.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

53

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Protective Layer
5

Emulsion 10

Base 50

When X or gamma rays strike the grains of the sensitive silver


compound in the emulsion, change takes place in the physical
structure of the grains. This change is of such a nature that it
cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods. When the
exposed film is treated with a chemical solution (called
developer) a reaction takes place, causing the formation of
black metallic silver. This blackening of the film is called as
optical density (D) and is given by the relation.
D = Log10 (I0/It)
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

54

Characteristic Curve


Different types of radiographic film respond differently to a given amount of


exposure. Film manufacturers commonly characterize their film to determine the
relationship between the applied exposure and the resulting film density. The plot
is called a film characteristic curve, sensitometric curve, density curve, or H and D
curve (named for their developers Hurter and Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the
science of measuring the response of photographic emulsions to light or radiation.

A log scale is used or the values are reported in log units on a linear scale to
compress the X-axis.
Also, relative exposure values (unitless) are often
used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. The image directly right
shows three film characteristic curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log
scale, while the image below right shows the log relative exposure plotted on a
linear scale.

Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a
radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second
radiograph of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate
the exposure produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a
radiograph of the same density with a second type of film.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

55

Characteristic Curve

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

56

Intensifying Screens








Screens used to reduce the exposure times and improve the image quality
of the radiographs.
Two types of radiography screens - metallic and fluorescent screens
Both of these differ in Speed, contrast and elimination of scattered
radiation.
Metal screens - Lead is most widely used
 Being a metal with high Z, Lead acts to absorb the scattered radiation
of lower wavelength. This improves the radiographic contrast. Due to
photoelectric interactions of X-rays with lead, photoelectrons are
emitted which serve to reduce the exposure time by more than 50%.
This is called as intensification action.
Intensification action expressed in terms of intensifying Factors (IF)
Intensification factor depends on element, thickness, energy of radiation.
Apart from lead, copper screens have also used.
Exposure time required producing a film with particular density without screen

IF= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Exposure time required producing the same density with screen
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

57

Fluorescent Screens and Filters




Fluorescent or salt screens of calcium tungstate or zinc sulphide


provide greater intensification factor compared to metallic screens.
However, they are used in medical radiography due to the high
screen unsharpness and poor image quality and not in industrial
radiography.

Filters are metallic sheets of high atomic number used to absorb the
soft component of the radiation emanating from the tube port. Filters
thus harden the radiation beam.
The purpose of using filter
 increase the contrast around the specimen edge
 reduce the undercut due to scatter at the edge of thinner sections
and
 record a wide range of thickness in a given film.
Increasing the voltage or time of exposure compensates the loss of
intensity caused by filter.
Generally filters are made of copper, steel or aluminum.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

58

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES


Quality of radiographs or detection of discontinuity depends


on extent of the optical density of the image.
Selection of exposure parameters required to produce the
required radiographic density to reveal the discontinuity



Exposure Time
Exposure Technique Component / Specimen Shape

Coded Requirements on Image





Radiographic Density
Image Quality

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

59

RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE TIME




X Ray



Exposure Charts
Constant Parameters Like Matl., Film, SFD

Gamma Ray



Calculation
Exposure Time (Min) = (FF x (SFD) 2 x 2 (thickness/HVL) x 60)
/
(S x RHM x (100)2 )


Where FF is the film factor in roentgens, S is the source strength in


curies and SFD the source to film distance in cm.

Any Variation





Material
Film
Source to Film Distance (SFD)
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
Screen

60

Exposure Chart X - Ray

100 kV

120 kV
200 kV

Const.:
Material Steel
Film Agfa D7
SFD 700 mm
Screen Lead
Intensifying
Developing Std.

mA min

Matl Thk.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

61

Variation or Change in Exposure Parameters




Material



Steel (High energy) or Al (Low energy) Taken as Standard Material


Any change in the material shall be referred to Radiographic
Equivalent Factors for that energy and source

SFD


Variation in SFD Varies the beam intensity - I1 / I2= D22/ D12 [Inverse
Square Law]

TIME & DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP: T2 / T1 = D12 / D22

MILLIAMPERAGE & TIME RELATIONSHIP:M1 / M2 = T2 / T1

Film



Medium film to slow film increases exposure time or vice versa


Film manufacturer provides the film speed factors


Ex: D7 to D4 increases the Exp. Time by 3 times


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

62

Selection of Radiographic Techniques







Selection of particular radiographic technique is based upon the sensitivity


requirements.
Getting information on small discontinuity image is possible only with a
proper technique
Radiographic technique is affected by radiation source, film used, sources to
film distance and radiation beam alignment
A technique is selected on the basic of the knowledge about the following
factors.
 Test object material - thickness and configuration
 Fabrication processes (Welds, Casting, Assembly)
 Anticipated discontinuities and its locations & orientation,
 Areas of interest
 Sensitivity level required
Radiographic techniques can be broadly classified as
 High sensitivity technique & Low Sensitivity Technique
Also Classified according to the configuration as
 single wall single image (SWSI) technique
 double wall single image (DWSI) technique
 double wall double image (DWDI) technique
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

63

Radiographic Techniques - Configuration




Three Techniques
 SWSI Both side access
 DWDI - Single side Access - For Pipes Dia < 89 mm
 DWSI Single side Access - For pipes Dia > 89 mm

SWSI

DWDI
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

DWSI
64

Depth of Discontinuity



Stereo Radiography Only illusion


Double Exposure Method Generally Followed


Two exposures by shifting the source with half exp. time


a

SFD - d

d
b

d = b x SFD/a+b
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

65

Film Processing


Film processing - in five stages @ 18 24 C













Developing
Stop bath
Fixing
Clearing in running water
Drying

The developing converts the exposed silver bromide grains /


crystals to metallic silver i.e. creation of the visible image 5
Min
The second stage stop bath, stops the developing action and
removes all the developer 2 Min
The fixing process fixes this metallic silver and removes all
unexposed silver bromide grains / crystals 10 Min
Washing in running water 20 Min
The drying dries all the wetness on the film.
After drying the film is ready for interpretation.
Processing consumes minimum of 30 minutes.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

66

Image Quality Indicators (IQI) / Penetrameter














Radiographic sensitivity is judged by the use of Image Quality


Indicators (IQI)
Many type of IQI - Plate and Hole, Wire, Step, Step and hole
Sensitivity assessed by the image of IQI on the radiograph
Normally the sensitivity is represented in percentage.
Lower the percentage the higher the sensitivity
IQI is selected based on the thickness of specimen to be
radiographed and general codes specify IQI thickness equal to
2% of specimen thickness.
Codes of construction provide the IQI requirements
Sensitivity (plate and hole IQI) = 100/T [t x h / 2]
Sensitivity (wire IQI) = [Dia of minimum wire seen
in radiograph /Specimen Thk. ] x 100
Generally radiographic sensitivity shall be specified to a level
of 2%
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

67

IQI

10 Fe 16

10

Wire

Step and Hole

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

Plate and Hole

68

Radiographic Quality / Sensitivity




Quality of the radiograph is assessed by radiographic sensitivity


RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
Contrast

Definition

Subject contrast

Film contrast

Geometry

Film graininess

Thickness difference
in the specimen
Density difference in
the specimen
In-homogeneity of
the object material
Incident radiation
energy
Filters
Radiation associated
scattered energy

Type of film
Film processing
Variation in film
density
Intensifying screens

Screen film Contact


Source size
Source to specimen
distance
Object to film
distance
Source off set
Abruptness of
thickness
Shape and surface
condition of the object

Type of film
Chemical processing
Scattering of
radiation by film
grains due to type of
screen

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

69

Evaluation of Radiographs / Interpretation








Radiographs inform the presence of discontinuity by the


radiographic density difference
Discontinuities are evaluated for its type, location and size
Radiographs provide length and width of the discontinuity
Conventional radiography is widely used for the inspection of
weldments, casting and complete assemblies
Types of discontinuities vary from process to process like
Lack of penetration in the weld, shrinkage in the casting etc.
Type of the discontinuity is arrived from the shape and
location of the indication
Radiographic image are interpreted for acceptance or
otherwise of the discontinuity indications depends on the code
of manufacturing like ASME, BS etc, which is based on the
service requirements

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

70

High Energy Radiography










Radiographic Examination using sources having energy level of


1MeV or more is called high energy radiography.
Basic technique is same as conventional radiography.
Major advantages are:
 Examination of higher thicknesses of 100 to 1000 mm of steel
according to the energy level
 Higher distance to thickness ratio (D/T) possible with low
geometrical distortion
 Short exposure time and higher productivity
Three types of high-energy sources are used
 Van-de-Graf Generator
 Betetron
 Linear Accelerator
Linear Accelerator (LINAC) are more common in industries
LINACS are available with energy levels up to 15 MeV and 10000
rads / min out put.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

71

Advanced radiographic Techniques


High Resolution Technique






Advancement in areas of electronics and sciences made to obtain


very fine focal in the order of 10 X Ray units.
Called as Micro-Focal Units (having Focal size < 100 )
Control and very fine-tuning of X-Ray parameters are possible
Allows radiography of components with magnification and
achievement of very high definition and sensitivity (in the order of
25 ).
This technique enables the examination of very small and intricate
components like PCBs, thin walled (400 ) welds etc.
Also these are having Rod Anode type X-Ray heads that enables the
radiography of tube to tube-sheet welds of steam generator in the
power industries, which is not possible by conventional radiography.
Added advantage of this technique is the adoptability with real time
systems.
Major limitation is the examination limited to the thickness
according to the kV rating of the unit.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

72

Real Time Radiography (RTR)







Fluoroscopy / RTR / Computed radiography differs from conventional


radiography
 image is observed on a fluorescent screen rather than on the film
Present day systems use image intensifiers or Flat Panel detectors, video
camera and monitor or PC
Image intensifier converts the photon to electron and are multiplied and
accelerated and then converted to light and image
 Cesium Iodide (Cs I) used to convert the Photon to electron
 with image enhancement system provide a higher sensitivity
Flat panel detector replaces image intensifier
 use Selenium (Se) for conversion
 can provide a very good sensitivity even to micron level
RTR system is finding increasing applications in industry
 advantages of high speed and comparatively low cost
 added advantages of images in the digital form, can be processed and
analysed further
 digital images can be stored and be verified at later point of time to
compare the latest results
 systems are used for auto analysis for acceptance or rejection.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
73

METAL

APPROXIMATE RADIOGRAPH EQUIVALENT FATORS


ENERGY LEVEL
IR192

CO60

0.18

0.35

0.35

0.14

0.18

0.35

0.35

0.54

0.54

100kV

150kV

220kV

Magnesium

0.05

0.05

0.08

Aluminum

0.08

0.12

Aluminum
Alloy

0.10

Titanium

250kV

400kV

1MeV

2MeV

4-25
MeV

0.71

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.9

Iron/all Steels

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

Copper

1.5

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.1

1.1

1.2

1.1

1.1

Zinc

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

Brass

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

1.1

1.0

Inconel X

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.5

1.0

14.0

1.0

1.2

1.0

5.0

2.5

2.7

4.0

2.3

3.9

12.6

3.4

Monel

1.7

1.2

Zirconium

2.4

2.3

2.0

Lead

14.0

14.0

12.0

1.7

Hafnium

14.0

12.0

9.0

3.0

Uranium

20.0

16.0

12.0

4.0

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

74

Effects of Radiation





Exposure to radiations (x, , , ) are hazardous


Radiations produce ions and modify the cell
Natural mechanism of the body rectifies the damages
When this is not successful, irradiation causes the following:
 Chromosome aberrations
 Gene mutation
 Cell death
Radiation effects are depends on
 type of radiation
 energy of radiation
 dose & duration of exposure
 mode (internal or external)
 region of the body exposed.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

75

Radiation monitoring and Control







Data are available on this from experimental studies, medical


exposures, uranium miners, survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
etc
International Committee on Radiological Protection (ICRP) arrive at
a safe limits of exposure based on these data
Whole body radiation limited to 2.0 rem / year is permitted for
radiation workers and for general public limited to 0.2 rem/year
Radiation is invisible, can be detected and monitored using radiation
gauges, monitors and survey meters
Instruments are working by the principle of ionization
characteristics of radiation
Radiation workers are monitored by the use of film / TLD badges
and pocket dosimeters.
Permanent records are made for the individual radiation worker
Level of radiation in particular areas ( Area Monitoring)
Cordoning of areas
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

76

Evaluation of Radiographs
Some typical Weld Discontinuities

Lack of Penetration

Porosity

Slag inclusion
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

77

Micro Focal Radiography

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

78

Radiographic Image Processing

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

79

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

80

Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
CHARACTERISTICS:
ULTRASONIC WAVE Sound waves are vibration of particles of solid,
liquid or gas, of Greater Than Audible Freq. - 20 KHz FREQ.


Audible Freq. 20 Hz 20 KHz

Particle Displacement

Three Factors Velocity - V, Frequency - f , Wave Length -


V = f ; f = V/ ; = V/f
Velocity The speed at which the energy is transported between two
points.
Frequency (f) Oscillation of the atom in the medium when the wave is
traveling. Unit Hz, KHz, MHz. Time period (T) = 1/f
Wave Length () The distance traveled by the wave during the time
period (T) in the medium.


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

81

Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
One cycle
Amplitude
Displacement
Time /
Distance

Time
period - T
Acoustic Impedance (Z) : The resistance offered to the propagation of
ultrasonic wave by the material Z = V
Acoustic Pressure (P) : Denotes the amplitude of alternating stresses
on material by propagating ultrasonic wave P = Z a
Acoustic intensity (I) : Acoustic Energy passing through unit area
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

82

TYPES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES




Longitudinal / Compression Wave






Particles Vibration perpendicular to wave propagation


Propagation only in solids
V t = G/

Surface / Raleigh Wave





V l = E/

Transverse / Shear Wave




Alternative compression and rarefaction


Particles Vibration parallel to the wave propagation
Propagate in all media Solid, Liquid and Gas

Particle vibration generally elliptical


Travel along the surface - up to one wave length depth

V s = 0.9 V t

Lamb / Plate Wave





Velocity depends on type of material, material thk., freq.


Complex modes

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

83

ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
Material

Density
Kg/m3

Vel Long
m/s

Vel Shear
m/s

Z
103 Pa s/m

Aluminum

2700

6300

3130

17 064

Copper

8900

4700

2260

41 830

Steel

7850

5950

3250

46 629

Titanium

4540

6230

3180

28 284

Perspex

1180

2730

1430

3 221

Oil

870

1740

--

1 514

Water

1000

1480

--

1 480

Air

0.093

330

--

31

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

84

WAVE PROPAGATION
Transmission, Reflection & Refraction


Wave undergoes Transmission Reflection and Refraction

Normal incidence at interface




Transmission and reflection


(Acoustic impedance mismatch)
Refraction at the reflective interface

Oblique Incidence at interface




Transmission, reflection and


Refraction (Mode conversion)

Reflection R = (Z1-Z2)2 / (Z1+Z2)2


Transmission T = Z1Z2 / (Z1+Z2)2
Angle of Refraction = sin a / sin b = V1 / V2
(Snells Law)
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

Reflec
Refra

L
L
S

85

Mode conversion and critical angles


When the longitudinal wave incident obliquely at interface, inside the
specimen the beam refracts in to longitudinal and transverse modes. This is
called Mode Conversion.
When the incident angle increased, at one angle the refracted longitudinal
beam will be gliding on the scanning surface. This is called the First Critical
Angle.
If the incident angle increased further, then at one angle the refracted shear /
transverse beam becomes gliding and is called as Surface Wave and the
angle is called as Second Critical Angle.
The angle beam transducers are designed between these critical angles to
produce the desired angle.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

86

Wave Propagation
Beam Divergence, Near Field, Far Field


The wave propagate as a divergent beam

Near
Field

Far Field

Near Field Sound Pr. is not uniform D2 / 4



Far Field - Fraunhaufer Zone After Near zone

Beam Divergence / Spread Sin = K / D
Value K - 1.22 (100%- 40dB); 1.08 (10% - 20dB); 0.55 (50%-6dB)
D Dia of probe


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

87

Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beam




Ultrasonic beam undergoes losses during propagation







Coupling
Surface roughness
Absorption
Scattering

Coupling and Surface roughness External condition of the


specimen
Absorption and Scattering Internal condition of the specimen
Grain structure and Grain size



Fine grain Absorption


Coarse grain - Scattering

P=P0e -d Since the sound Pr. Is proportional to echo ht.


Attn. Coeff. = 20/d log (H0/H) dB/m; dB = 20 log (H1 / H2)

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

88

Effect Of Frequency
Beam Characteristics

Effect of Frequency( )

Beam Spread / Divergence

Decreases
(1.2 / D = 1.2 V / f D)

Sensitivity

Increases
( s = / 2 = V/ 2 f)

Near Zone

Increases
(NZ = D2 / 4 = D2 f / 4 V )

Attenuation
(Absorption / Noise)

Increases

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

89

Generation of Ultrasound


Magnetostriction Ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Ni, Co


shows that the length (size) can be varied by application of
magnetic field. If alternating mag. field applied this will
vibrate. Hence, the production of ultrasound in the contact
specimen
Piezoelectric Effect A piezoelectric material will develop an
electrical potential when subjected to mech. Pr..
 Two types of piezoelectric transducers



Single crystal Natural / Artificial Quartz, Lithium Sulphate


Polycrystalline materials Polarised Ceramic Materials - Barium
Titanate, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), Lead Metabionate.


These are made by heating them to their curie point and cooling them
under the influence of voltage.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

90

Characteristic of Transducer Crystals


Material
Quartz

Advantage

Limitation

Hard & High resistance to wear, Expensive, Least efficient generator,


Aging. Mech, & Electrical Suffers from mode conversion, High
stability. Used up to ~500 C
voltage for operation

Lithium
Sulphate

Most efficient receiver, Does not


age,
Very
little
mode
conversion,
Low
acoustic
impedance

Very Fragile, Soluble in water, Limited


to use with temp. can be used below
75 C

Polarised
Ceramics

Efficient Generators, Operate in


low voltage, Some can be used
for high tem. Appln. (lead
metabionate)

Piezoelectric property reduces with


aging, Low resistance to wear, suffer
from mode conversion.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

91

Construction of Transducers


The Transducers are of two types





Longitudinal / Compression mode


Shear / Transverse mode

Generally the compression mode is used for the construction of shear


transducers.
Acoustic
Barrier
Backing
Crystal
Wear
Plate

Long. Probe

L
S

Shear Probe

Delay
Block
Long. TR Probe Focused Probe

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

92

Couplant


Air is having low acoustic impedance compared to the probe and the
specimen. Hence the beam is reflected at the probe specimen
interface.
A medium with the acoustic impedance between the specimen and
probe has to be used
Commonly used Couplant
Water, Oils, Glycerin, Petroleum Grease, Silicon Grease
Selection of Couplant based on
Surface finish, Specimen Temperature, Chemical reaction with the
specimen, Post Cleaning
Transfer correction (External condn. Of specn.)
Loss due to surface roughness, Couplant thickness
Amt. of gain difference between the specimen and reference, in dB to be
added during scanning
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

93

EQUIPMENT


Ultrasonic Flaw Detector







Pulse Generator
Pulse Receiver
Signal Processing & Control Circuitry
Display System (CRT)

CRT

a
b

Amplifier
Time Base
Generator
Pulse
Generator

Clock or
Timer

a
c

Specimen
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

94

Presentation


Three Presentation Available






A Scan Amplitude vs. Time/Distance


B / D Scan Side View
C Scan Plan View
C

B
D
C

Specimen & Transducer

CRT Presentation
Width

Thk.
Length
A SCAN

B SCAN
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

C SCAN
95

TESTING TECHNIQUES


Resonance Exist when the thickness of a material equals to half the


wavelength or multiples of sound f = V / 2 t
Through transmission Two probes transmitter and receiver on either side
of the specimen Defect position will not be given.

Pulse Echo Sound in pulses transmitted and received




Contact & Immersion - Longitudinal & Angle beam

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

96

Pulse Echo Technique


Widely Used
Two types Contact & Immersion
Normal Beam Used to detect discontinuities parallel to
scanning surface
Angle Beam Used to detect discontinuities at angle to
scanning surface
Surface Wave Technique





Contact
1.
2.
3.

Immersion

Easy Scanning
Suitable for site condition
Defect position identification easy

1.

2.

3.

Use of high freq. Increases


sensitivity.
Easy manipulation of required
angle & odd shape jobs.
Automation possible.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

97

CALIBRATION OF TESTING SYSTEM





Using reference blocks IIW, V2


Calibration of Eqpt. & Probe











Time Base
Probe Index
Probe Angle
Time base Linearity
Vertical Linearity
Amplitude Linearity
Resolution Ability of the system to detect close defects Lat. & Depth.
Sensitivity Ability of the system to detect the smaller defects depends on
probe frequency
Dead Zone The zone occupied by the initial pip - depends on probe
frequency, equipment
Maximum Penetrating power Perspex

ASTM Reference Blocks





Distance Amplitude
Area - Amplitude

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

98

Types of Discontinuities & their Detection




Planar


Volumetric


Cracks, Lamination, Lack of penetration and Fusion


Inclusion Gas, Slag

Ultrasonic Examination is ideal for detection of Planar


discontinuities
Discontinuities parallel to scanning surface Longitudinal
Beam
Discontinuities in oblique / angle Angle Beam

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

99

Reference Blocks


Three types of references used






Flat Bottom Hole (Normal beam / Long.)


Side Drilled Hole (Angle Beam / Shear)
Notches (Shear / Angle beam)
A

Distance Amplitude
Correction Curve (DAC)

Reference blocks shall be acoustically similar and should have same


shape, thickness.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

100

Flaw Sizing and Characterisation




Scanning technique Probe movement to determine the


discontinuitys Location, Length and Orientation
Ultrasonic Signal gives the information about the
discontinuitys Characterisation / Type



Sharp High Ampl. Signal Planar type of discontinuity


Wide Low Ampl. Signal Volumetric Type of discontinuity

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

101

Flaw Sizing



Flaw Location
Flaw Length
S
t

Stand Off (S) = P sin

Probe Travel

= P cos

Depth (d)

Amplitude

Length

d
t

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

102

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF
PRODUCTS


Plates

Tubular Products Pipes & Tubes, Fittings

Forgings & Bars

Casting

Fabricated components - WELDS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

103

Ultrasonic Examination


Casting Restricted / Difficult due to Coarse grain

Forging Widely used as the fine grain exists Long. &


Angle beam used




Semi finished products Billets, Rods


Rolled Products


Plates both contact & immersion - Long. & Angle ,

Pipes & Tubes Immersion - Long. & Angle

Welding Usually Angle

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

104

PLATE




Scanning on any major surface of plate


After heat treatment
Longitudinal / Straight & / or Shear / Transverse Beam





Scanning 100% or on Grids 100 to 225 mm grids


Calibration Reference



According to the stage & defects expected

Long. Back wall


Shear - 3 10% Notch

Acceptance




Long.
Shear
Sizing

Total loss of back reflection -<5% - Area


Equal to or greater than reference (DAC)
6 / 20 dB method

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

105





TUBES & PIPES


Scanning on OD
Shear / Transverse beam
Scanning in axial and circumferential directions
OD Notches
Thk.

Calibration Reference






ID Notches

3% 10% Notch on ID & OD


Both in Axial and Circumferential

Acceptance Indication less than reference (DAC)


Generally automatic scanning using immersion
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

106

FORGING


DISC Forging


CLYLINDRICAL Forging





Straight beam and Angle Beam


Axial and Radial from OD
OD / ID Ratio < 2

Calibration Reference



Straight beam Axial & Radial

HOLLOW Forging


Straight beam Axial - Flat face & Radial Thk.

St. Beam FBH / Back Reflection


Angle Beam 3 / 5 / 10% Notches
on OD and ID

Angle Beam Scanning in two perpendicular & opposite


directions
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

107

CASTING




Low Frequency 0.5 2 MHz


Reference blocks with FBH
Surface condition - Rough



To be machined to accommodate scanning


Amplitude correction

Difficulty exist in ultrasonic examination






Coarse grain structure


Lower S/N Ratio
Different configuration and shape
DAC

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

108

WELDS


Parent metal

Weld Joint configuration

Welding Process

Weld Discontinuities

Code, Specification & Procedure

Equipment, Transducer & Calibration

Examination method / Technique

Reference

Scanning sequence

Signal

Evaluation & Reporting


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

109

UE OF WELD - BASE METAL










Carbon Steel
Alloy steel
Stainless Steel
Combination of CS, SS & Alloy steel
Aluminum
Titanium, Copper etc.
Similar / Dissimilar





Thk. of metal joined


Attenuation
Velocity of propagation
Impedance



Heat Treatment
Machining
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

110

UE OF WELD
GEOMETRIES/CONFIGURATION
Lap
Fillet
Corner
Groove
Butt
Sq. Butt
Single
Double
Discontinuities Lack of penetration & Lack of fusion
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

111

UE OF WELD - WELDING



Welding Joining of metal by fusion, Appln. of heat, Pr.


Welding Process







Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)


Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Electron beam welding (EB welding)
Laser, Electron Beam, Electro Slag, Explosive welding etc.

Discontinuities






Crack
Slag (SMAW, SAW)
Tungsten inclusion (GTAW)
Porosity (GMAW)
Debonding (Explosive)
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

112

UE OF WELD - DISCONTINUITIES


Type



Origin




Joint configuration
Weld configuration ( Passes / layers)

Inductance / Occurrence



Process parameters Current, Speed, Heat input, Heat treatment


Joint configuration
Welder performance Manipulation, weaving

Orientation


Planar - Crack, LP, LF, Under Cut, Debonding


Volumetric - Slag, Porosity, T/I

Fabrication / Manufacturing All


In-service Planar Crack

Location


Anywhere in the weld, HAZ, Parent metal


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

113

UE OF WELD - EXMINATION




Examination technique Contact, Immersion, Intensity


Equipment
Transducer




Single, TR, Pitch catch


Frequency
Sensitivity







Long. Normal
Shear Angle
Long Angle

Lamination in PM, Weld discontinuity


Part thk., Weld Geometry, Defect type, Matl. Type
Coarse grain structure

Calibration CRT Calibration, Range - Part thk.


Reference






FBH
- Normal
- Size, Depth
SDH
- Angle
- Size, position, orientation
Notch
- Angle
- Size, position, orientation
DAC
Recording level, Acceptance
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

114

UE OF WELD - EXAMINATION


Scanning









Manual, Auto
Accessibility
Area, Coverage
Direction
Movement
Overlap
Speed
Scanning sensitivity

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

115

UE OF WELD EXAMINATION - CODE






Surface preparation
Weld preparation
Scanning



St. Beam PM discontinuity recorded not for accp. / rejection


Angle beam






Evaluation



Direction perpendicular to axis of weld


2 direction
Manipulation to cover full volume of weld
6 / 12 / 20dB Drop Method for Sizing
For transverse defects parallel to weld axis

Signal crossing 20% DAC Investigate


Acceptance as per referring code

Cladding / Overlay


PE Tech., Single / Duel Crystal, Calibration




Reference hole at interface and FBH up to interface in PM & Overlay

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

116

Discontinuity Representation

Planar
Crack, LP, LF

Very Sharp,
High Amplitude

Wide, Medium
Amplitude.

Volumetric
Slag, Incln.

Sharp, High Amplitude,


Vanishes when probe
rotated / moved

Volumetric
Porosity

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

117

Other Techniques








Tandem Technique
Pitch Catch

Time-of-flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD)


Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)
Projection Scan ( P-Scan)
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) Technique

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

118

Applications of Ultrasonic Examination




Defect Detection in material

Thickness Measurement

Bond testing

Online monitoring of material for acceptance

Corrosion mapping

Pre-Service Inspection (PSI), In-service Inspection (ISI) and


Life Extension of Components

Stress analysis by velocity measurement


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

119

Advantages & Limitations of UE








Single side accessibility is enough


Very good for planar defects
Depth positioning is possible
Sizing is accurate
Discontinuity
of
different
orientation can be easily identified
Good & High sensitivity of defect
detection Immersion Technique
Used for In-Service Inspection
(ISI) and life prediction of
components

Specimen shape odd &


irregular shape difficult to
examine
Specimen Metallurgy
coarse grain difficult to
examine
Data & Signal Acquisition
may not be possible in the
conventional analog / digital
equipments
Technical knowledge is
required for interpretation

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

120

ON-LINE MONITORING OF
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
STUDIES

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

121

On Line Studies of Fatigue Crack Growth


-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Notch
10.155

10.115
10.165

10.125
10.175

10.135
10.195

10.145
10.205

10.210

10.215

10.2175

10.21788

10.220

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

122

LEAK TESTING

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

123

INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR LEAK TESTING


TO PREVENT MATERIAL LEAKAGE LOSS WHICH


INTERFERES WITH SYSTEM OPERATION

TO PREVENT
HAZARDS

TO DETECT UNRILIABLE COMPONENTS WHOSE


LEAKAGE EXCEED THE ACCEPTABLE LIMIT

TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND SERVICEBILITY AND


TO PREVENT PREMATURE FAILURE OF SYSTEMS
UNDER PRESSURE OR VACUUM

ENVIORNMENT

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

CONTAMINATION

124

LEAK TESTING


LEAK TESTING


FORM OF NDE



LEAK



DETECTION & LOCATION OF LEAK


MEASUREMENT OF FLUID LEAKAGE IN EITHER PRESSURISED
OR EVACUATAED COMP. / SYS.

EXISTANCE OF PHYSICAL OPENING


MAY BE CRACK, CREVICES, HOLE, FISSURES OR PASSAGE
WHICH ADMITS FLUIDS ESCAPE

LEAKAGE ?
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

125

SELECTION OF LEAK TESTING




MAINLY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE AND NATURE OF


COMPONENTS

MORE STRINGENT WHEN HAZARDOUS FULIDS &


GASSES HANDLED

MASS SPECTROMETER HELIUM LEAK DETECTION


UNDER VACUUM




PROVIDES ACCURATE LEAK RATE


HIGHER SENSITIVITY
SENSITIVITY UP TO 10 -13 Pa.m3 / Sec.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

126

Pr.

Tracer gas Pr Rise in Evacuated Sys

TIME
REAL

OUT GAS

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

VIRTUAL
127

SENSITIVITY OF VARIOUS METODS


METHOD

MIN DETECT ABLE LEAK


RATE
(Pa m3/Sec)

COMMENTS

Mass Loss
(Pr. Change)

Time Limited

Generally limited to sizable leaks. Gives good overall


quantitative measure. No inf. On leak location & time
consuming

Ultrasonic

0.05

Leak location only. Fast. No clean up. Can detect from


distance. Useful for large leaks

Chemical
Penetrants

10 -4

Simple to use. Location only. May plug small leaks. Requires


cleaning.

Bubble

10 -5

Leak location. Fluids may plug small leaks. Requires cleaning

Thermal
Conductivity

10 -6

Simple, compact, portable, inexpensive, sensitive to a number


of different gasses, operates in air

Halogen

10 -10

Operates in Air. Sensitive with SF6 (-12). Portable, requires


cleaning, losses with use, sensitive to ambient, halide gasses

Mass
Spectrometer

10 -12

Most sensitive for vacuum testing. Expensive. Relatively


complex. Not portable as that of Halogen Detectors. Much
less sensitive when used with pressure testing.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

128

PRESSURE CHANGE TEST




CAN ALSO BE TERMED AS





TECHNIQUES




PRESSURISED SYSTEM
EVACUATED SYSTEM
FLOW MEASUREMENT METHOD

ADVANTAGES



PRESSURE HOLD, PRESSURE DECAY, PR. DROP / LOSS


PRESSURE RISE, PRESSURE GAIN

NO SPL. TACER REQUIRED


PR. / VAC. GAUGES ALREADY INSTALLED CAN BE USED

LIMITATIONS



LONGER TIME REQD.


NO PRECISE LEAK LOCATION
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

129

PR. CHANGE TECH. OF LEAK TESTING




BARAMETRIC OR ATM. PR.






GAUGE PRESSURE



PR. CAUSED BY EARTHS ATM.


DECREASE WITH INCREASED ALTITUDE
STD. BAROMETRIC PR. AT SEA LEVEL = 101.325
k.Pa
PRESSURE ABOVE ATM. PRESSURE
UNITS k.Pa (GAUGE)

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE





PR. ABOVE ABS. ZERO VALUE CORRESPONDING


TO EMPTY SPACE
EQUAL TO SUM OF LOCAL ATM. PR. & GAUGE PR.
UNIT k.Pa.
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

130

PR. CHANGE RATES




CONST. TEMP. WITH PR. CHANGE




CONST. VOL. WITH PR. CHANGE







dP/dT= [(P1+101) (T1+273) / T2 + 273)] / dT (SI Units kPa, C)


dP / dT = [P1 P2 (T1 / T2)] / dT (For all abs. units)

TYPES


P1 / P2 = T1 / T2 or P1 = (T1 / T2) x P2

TEMP. CORRECTION


dP/dT = (P1 P2) / dT

PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEM


PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR EVACUATED SYSTEM

VAC. UNITS: 1 TORR = 133 Pa; 760 TORR = 101.325 k.Pa


OUTGASSING
PUMPDOWN TIME T = 2.3 V /S {T in Sec, v- Vol in Cu.m, S Pumping
Speed in Cu.m/Sec}
LEAKAGE RATE Q = (P2 P1) V / t (SI Units)

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

131

BUBBLE LEAK TESTING




PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ESTABLISHED

LIQUID IS PLACED
PRESSURE SIDE

BUBBLE FORMATION ON THE EXIT SIDE

CLASSIFICATION

IN

CONTACT

LIQUID FILM APPLICATION

LIQUID IMMERSION TECHNIQUE

FOAM APPLICATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

AT

LOWER

132

TRACER GASES




AIR, AMMONIA, NITROGEN


HELIUM MOST SUITABLE FOR LOW LEAKAGES
LIQUID FILM APPLN.


SOAP SOL: 1 PART LIQ DETERGENT + 1 PART GLYCERINE +


4.5 PARTS WATER
ALCOHOL + ETHYLENE ADDED FOR ANTI FREEZE

SENSITIVITY



10 -3 Std. CC / Sec SHOP / FIELD CONDN.


10 -5 Std. CC / Sec LAB CONDN.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

133

PREPARATION OF SPCIMEN /
COMPONENT


CLEANING FREE FROM OIL, GREASE, PAINT

SEALING OF OPENINGS

SOAK TIME REC. 15 Min

SPECIAL TECH.

HEATING OF SEALED COMP., APPLY SOLN.

PARTIAL VAC. CREATION ON TEST LIQ.

CRYOGENIC IMMERSION & TESTING AT AMB. TEM. SOL.

VACUUM TECH. FOR BUBBLE TESTING




VAC. CHAMBER SUITABLE FOR COMP.

VAC. BOX METHOD FOR LARGE & ODD COMP.


IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

134

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

135

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

136

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

137

HALOGEN LEAK TESTING









RESPONDS TO MOST GASEOUS COMPOUNDS THAT


CONTAINS HALOGEN
HALOGENS Cl, F, Br, I
TOXIC
NON-TOXIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS PREFERRED
REFREGERENT 12 [R12] & R 22 USED





R 12 Dichlorodifluromethane
R 22 Monochlorodifluromethane
R 12 & R 22 are non-toxic inert tracers
Common Names: Freon, Genetron, Isotron

STORED IN LIQUIDS UNDER PR. AT ROOM TEMP.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

138

GAS PROPERTIES
Properties

R 12

R 22

Chemical Formula

CCl2F2

CHClF2

Molecular Wt

120.9

86.4

Leakage rate relative ti Air

1.5

1.5

Boiling Pt at atm pr. C

-29.8

-40.8

Boiling Pt at atm pr. F

-21.6

-41.4

Liquid density at boiling pt. kg/m3

1486

1413

Liquid density at boiling pt.lb/ft3

92.8

88.2

Liquid density at 21 C kg/m3

1413

1209

Liquid density at 70F lb/ft3

82.6

75.5

Vapour pr. Above refrigerant at 21 C kPa


gauge

483

842

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

139

TYPES OF DETECTORS

HALIDE TORCH
HEATED ANODE HALOGEN DETECTOR
ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR

HALIDE TORCH DETECTOR









NORMAL FLAME PALE BLUE WITH AIR ALONE


GREEN WITH PRESENCE OF HALIDE
SENSITIVITY 10 -4 Std. CC / Sec.
FOR LOCATION OF LEAKS ON PRESSURISED
SYSTEM
SCAN ALWAYS FROM TOP
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

140

TYPES OF DETECTORS








RED HOT PLATINUM, AND CERAMIC HEATER


ELEMENTS ASSY EMITS +VE IONS
CYLINDRICAL CATHODS COLLECTD IONS
HALOGEN VAPOURS INCREASES EMMISSION ALSO
INCREASES THEREBY INDICATION OF LEAK
REFREGENT GASES Cl, Fl ETC.
SENSITIVITY 10 -9 Std. CC / Sec.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

141

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

142

MASS SPECTROMETER LEAK DETECTOR




MOST SENSITIVE & ACCURATE

PORTABLE

SUITABLE FOR ALL TYPES OF COMPONENTS

MSLD CONSISTS

MASS SPECTROMETER

HIGH VACUUM SYSTEM

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS

PORTS FOR STD. LEAK & COMPONENTS

LEAK TESTING METHODS




VACUUM LEAK TESTING

PRESSURE LEAK TESTING

PRESSURE VACUUM COMBINATION

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

143

NDE in Various Levels




NDE is used in design to understand the effect of discontinuity


during operation / service condition

The discontinuity type, size and orientation is very much


important for design consideration

NDE used in pre-service and in-service inspection to assess


the integrity of the components / system during commissioning
and service

NDE is used for Component / System life prediction and life


extension
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

144

APPLIED STRESS

YIELD TENSILE STRENGTH

(a) The Strength of materials approach

Factor of safety
Even with large factor of safety Failures and accidentsMaterial behave differently in presence of
defects
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

145

NDT & Fracture Mechanics


Fracture mechanics approach damage tolerance approach
(propagates the idea of live with discontinuities)
A material property, fracture toughness (KIc) is defined and this
characterizes the material behaviour in presence of discontinuities
which the earlier strength of materials design approach has not
taken into account. KIc can be experimentally determined
The stress intensity factor (KI) the stress distribution around a
discontinuity is given by
KI = G a where G is geometric constant, is the working
stress and a is flaw size
Failure criteria : KI = or > KIc

To determine KI,, flaw size information needed and


is provided by NDT
Life extension and life prediction methods flaw size
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

146

APPLIED STRESS

YIELD TENSILE STRENGTH

(a) The Strength of materials approach

APPLIED
STRESS

FLAW
SIZE

FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS

(b) The Fracture Mechanics approach


Comparison of classical design philosophy with fracture mechanics approach
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

147

NDE
NDE is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDE methods used.

Remote visual inspection using


a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.


This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as
it is pushed along by whatever is
being transported.

Radiography of weld joints.

IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE

148

You might also like