Rock Magnetism and

Environmental Magnetism

Leonardo Sagnotti
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Roma

Rock magnetism is the study of the magnetic properties of rocks and it includes the
study of magnetic minerals. Rock magnetism is one of the oldest science known to
man. Historians still debate when the magnetic properties of lodestone (or leading
stone, a rare natural magnet) were first discovered.

Some historians suggest that the Greek philosopher Thales made

observations on the 6th century BC on lodestone, known today as
magnetite. The word magnetite itself comes from the town of
Magnesia ad Sipylum (on the Meander), an ancient Greek city in
Anatolia. Magnesia, in fact, was the source for the mysterious
stones that could attract or repel each other.

Beginning as early as the 3rd century BC the Chinese literature

makes reference to the magnetic properties of chi si, the loving
stone, still another name for magnetite. Earliest records show a
spoon shaped compass made of lodestone or magnetite ore,
referred to as a "South-pointer" dating back to sometime during
the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC to 2nd century AD).
One early school of thought (the animist) argued that the
attraction powers of lodestone occurred because it possessed a
soul.

The physical theory of ferromagnetism was introduced by Weiss in 1907 who

hypothesized an internal molecular field in iron and other ferromagnets, which aligns the
magnetic moment of individual atoms, producing a spontaneous magnetization.
The theoretical foundations of rock magnetism were later established in the first half of
20th century by Koenisberger, Thellier, Nagata (his textbook Rock Magnetism was
edited in 1953) and Nel, who attempted to reproduce and understand the process by
which igneous rocks are magnetized in nature (Nel introduced the concepts of quantum
mechanics in magnetism and received the Nobel prize in 1970).
At present, one of the main purposes of rock magnetism is to understand how magnetic
properties of rocks affect the paleomagnetic data recorded by those rocks.
An essential part of every paleomagnetic study is a discussion of what is carrying the
magnetic remanence and how the rocks got magnetized. For this, we need some
knowledge of:
what the important natural magnetic phases are,
how to identify them,
how they are formed, and
what their magnetic behavior is.

Physics of magnetism (basic concepts)

Let's start with a few definitions. There are three magnetic vectors:
(1) H Magnetic field
(2) B Magnetic induction
(3) M Magnetization
The magnetic field H is a vector field because at any point the field has both direction
and magnitude. The magnetic field lines are known as magnetic flux. The density
of flux lines is one measure of the strength of the magnetic field: the magnetic
induction B.
B and H are closely related. Strictly speaking, B is the induction and H is the field.
The relationship between B and H is given by:
B = 0 (H+M)
where the magnetization M is a magnetic moment per unit volume (units of Am1) or
per unit mass (Am2kg1) and 0 is a parameter known as the permeability of free
space. In the SI system 0 = 4 107 H m1.
In vacuum B = 0 H.

Magnetic susceptibility
Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of the magnetic response of a material to an
external magnetic field.
All materials are susceptible to become magnetized in the presence of a magnetic
field, and the magnetic susceptibility (MS) is a measure of the strength of this
transient magnetism within a material sample. Low-field MS is defined as the ratio
of the induced magnetization (Mi or Ji) to the strength of an applied, low-intensity
(i.e. 7-8 times the intensity of the Earth magnetic field), magnetic field (Hi), where
Ji = ijHj (mass specific)

is given in units of m3/kg

or
Mi = kij Hj (volume specific)

k is dimensionless in SI

On the basis of the magnetic susceptibility all substances may be classified as

diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic.

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetic susceptibility is negative, essentially temperature independent, reversible, and

quite small (k < 0; 10-6 SI). Diamagnetism is exhibited by all matter, arising as it does
from the response of electronic orbitals to externally applied magnetic fields. In the absence
of unpaired electronic spins, diamagnetic susceptibility dominates the magnetic response.
Common diamagnetic substances include quartz (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3) and water (H2O).

Paramagnetism

Paramagnetism yields a positive magnetic moment (k > 0, 10-5 10-3 SI) that outweighs
diamagnetic effects. It is characteristic of compounds with unpaired electron spins.
Paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with temperature. The temperature-dependent
paramagnetic susceptibility is given by the Curie Law. Most of the rock forming minerals are
paramagnetic at room temperatures [e.g., many clay minerals and ferromagnesian silicates
(amphiboles, pyroxene, olivine), iron carbonates, some iron sulfides].

Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic material have very large magnetic
moments in applied field (k >> 0, 50 104 SI),
several orders of magnitude larger than a typical
paramagnet.
The path of magnetization exhibits hysteresis (is
irreversible), and magnetic susceptibility, , is not
a simple constant.

Ferromagnetic materials can produce magnetic fields in the absence of external magnetic
fields (i.e., they are permanent magnets). These so-called spontaneous magnetic moments
are also the result of spins of electrons which, in some crystals, act in a coordinated fashion,
thereby producing a net magnetic field (exchange interaction). The resulting magnetization can
be fixed by various mechanisms and can preserve records of ancient magnetic fields. This
remanent magnetization forms the basis of the field of paleomagnetism.

Types of ferromagnetism

Below the Curie/Nel temperature, certain crystals have a permanent (remanent)

magnetization resulting from the alignment of unpaired electronic spins over a large area
within the crystal. Spins may be either parallel or anti-parallel; the sense of spin alignment is
controlled entirely by crystal structure.
The energy term associated with this phenomenon is the exchange energy.
There are three categories of spin alignment:
(a) ferromagnetism (sensu stricto), (b) antiferromagnetism and (c) ferrimagnetism.

Schematic picture of spin moment

alignment in substances;
a ferromagnetic s.s.;
b antiferromagnetic;
c ferrimagnetic;
d canted antiferromagnetic

Magnetic domains

A magnetic domain is a region within a material which has uniform magnetization. The
magnetization within the domain is saturated and will always lie in the easy direction of
magnetization when there is no externally applied field. Magnetic domains exist in order to
reduce the energy of the system. A uniformly magnetized specimen (a) has a large
magnetostatic energy associated with it. The break up of the magnetisation into two domains (b)
reduces the magnetostatic energy by half. If the volume breaks down into N domains then the
magnetostatic energy is reduced by a factor of 1/N, hence (c) has a quarter of the magnetostatic
energy of (a). In a closure domain structure (d) the magnetostatic energy is zero.

Magnetic hysteresis
The term hysteresis in general describes that
an effect is lagging behind its cause.
Magnetic hysteresis is a property of all
magnetic minerals (sensu lato) causing the
magnetization of such a material to be
strongly dependent on its magnetic history.
A system with hysteresis can be summarised
as a system that may be in any number of
states, independent of the inputs to the
system. To be exact, a system with
hysteresis exhibits path-dependence, or
"rate-independent memory.

Magnetic Parameters and Units

Magnetic minerals
Because iron is by far the most abundant transition element in the
solar system, most paleomagnetic and rock magnetic studies
depend on the magnetic iron species:
the iron-nickel alloys (which are particularly important for
extra-terrestrial magnetic studies),
the iron-oxides such as magnetite, maghemite and hematite,
the iron-oxyhydroxides such as goethite, and
the iron-sulfides such as greigite and pyrrhotite.

TiO2FeOFe2O3 ternary diagram

Ternary diagram for iron-titanium oxides. The dashed lines with arrows indicate the direction
of increasing oxidation (z). The solid lines are solid solution series.

Magnetite
Fe3O4

Magnetite is a cubic mineral with an inverse spinel crystal structure. It is ferrimagnetic.

Magnetite: crystal structure

The crystal structure of titanomagnetites is the inverse spinel structure. A unit cell contains 32
02 anions arranged in a face-centered-cubic network. These 02 anions form approximately
hexagonal-close-packed layers orthogonal to the cube diagonal [111] direction.

Magnetite: crystal structure

Within the spinel network of 02 anions, there are two types of cation sites.
The A sublattice is made up of 8 sites per unit cell in tetrahedral coordination with 4
surrounding 02 anions.
The B sublattice is composed of 16 sites per unit cell in octahedral coordination with 6
surrounding 02 anions.

Magnetite: crystal structure

In magnetite, there are 16 Fe3+ (ferric iron) and 8 Fe2+ (ferrous iron) cations per unit cell.
Cations distribute between the A and B sublattices in an inverse spinel structure. In a
normal spinel, similar cations occupy the same sublattice.
For example, ZnFe2O4 is a normal spinel with two Fe3+ cations per formula unit occupying
B sites and one Zn2+ cation occupying the A site. In the inverse spinel structure of
magnetite, the two B sites per formula unit are occupied by one Fe2+ and one Fe3+, and the
A site is occupied by the remaining Fe3+.

Titanomagnetite

Saturation magnetization and Curie temperature for titanomagnetite series. Composition

is indicated by parameter x; the left axis indicates saturation magnetization (js); the right
axis indicates Curie temperature (TC).

Hematite
- Fe2O3

Trigonal (rhombohedral) crystal structure, like corundum. Canted antiferromagnetic.

Hematite: crystal structure

The hexagonal close packed structure.

The cell contains the equivalent of six
atoms or ions and an equal number of
interstices with six-fold coordination.

The three-layer stacking sequence of cation layers

in the corundum structure, the cations laying at the
nodes of a hexagonal mesh. Half of the nodes of
layer 2 lie above the nodes of layer 1 and half
above the vacant sites of layer 1. Layer 3 has the
same relation to layer 2, the nodes of layer 2
overlain by the nodes of layer 3 being those which
do not overlie nodes of layer 1.

Hematite: crystal structure

Coupling of cationic (Fe3+) magnetic moments in hematite. Planes of cations are basal (0001)
planes; magnetic moments are parallel within a particular basal plane.
Coupling of cationic (Fe3+) magnetic moments between (0001) planes is shown on the right of the
diagram; the magnetic moment in the upper plane is shown by the dark gray arrow; the magnetic
moment in the lower plane is shown by the light gray arrow; the vector sum of these two nearly
antiparallel magnetic moments is shown by the bold black arrow using a greatly expanded scale.

Hemoilmenite

Saturation magnetization and Curie temperature for hemoilmenite series. Composition is

indicated by parameter x; the left axis indicates saturation magnetization (js); the right axis
indicates Curie temperature (TC); compositions x < 0.45 have canted antiferromagnetic coupling;
compositions 0.45 < x < 1.0 have ferrimagnetic coupling.

Maghemite
- Fe2O3

Cubic crystal structure, like magnetite. Ferrimagnetic.

Goethite

- FeO.OH
Orthorombic crystal structure. Antiferromagnetic.

Pyrrhotite
FeS1+x ; 0 <= x <= 0.14
Fe7S8 :Monoclinic crystal structure. Ferrimagnetic.
Fe9S10: Hexagonal crystal structure. Antiferromagnetic at 20oC.

Greigite
Fe3S4
Cubic inverse spinel crystal structure, like magnetite.

Magnetic minerals Summary table

Composition

Max saturating B
(T)

Max unblocking T
(C)

Fe3O4

0.3

575

x = 0.3

0.2

350

x = 0.6

0.1

150

Mineral
Magnetite
Titanomagnetite

Fe3-xTiO4

Maghemite

Fe2O3

0.3

590-675

Hematite

Fe2O3

1.5 5

675

Goethite

FeOOH

>5

70-125

Pyrrhotite

Fe1-xS

x = 0.125

Fe7S8

0.5 - 1

325

x = 0.1

Fe9S10

0.5 -1

275

Greigite

Fe3S4

0.3

380

Laboratory methods
The magnetic mineralogy of rock samples may be determined by
means of specifically designed laboratory magnetic
measurements.
Such methods include essentially the measures of:
- the basic natural magnetic properties, such as the susceptibility
and the natural remanent magnetization;
- a few artificial magnetic remanences, specifically produced in
the laboratory;
- a set of field-dependent and of temperature-dependent magnetic
properties.

Stepwise acquisition of an IRM

(Isothermal Remanent Magnetization)

Stepwise demagnetization of an IRM

Thermomagnetic curves (high-T)

Thermomagnetic curves (low-T)

Hysteresis cycles

Hysteresis loops of end-member behaviors: a) diamagnetic, b) paramagnetic, c)

super-paramagnetic (data for submarine basaltic glass), d) uniaxial, single domain,
e) magnetocrystalline, single domain, f) pseudo-single domain.

Day plot
Mr/Ms

Magnetite
0,6
SD

0,5

0,4

PSD

0,3

0,2

0,1
+SPM

MD or SPM

0,0
0,0

0,5

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

6,0

Hcr/Hc

Critical grain size (for equidimensional magnetite):

SPM --> SD : 0.035 microns
SD --> PSD : 0.05 - 0.08 microns
PSD --> MD : 15 - 20 microns

First order reversal curves (FORC)

FORC: first order reversal curves are a series of minor hysteresis loops made after the
sample magnetization is saturated.

FORC diagrams

To better visualize the produced set of loops, they are transformed into contour plots by
calculating the second derivative, usually referred to as FORC diagrams.

Environmental magnetism

As early as 1926, magnetism was used to examine environmental processes, in a

glacial setting. Gustav Ising measured the magnetic susceptibility and natural
magnetic remanence of annually laminated lake sediments from Sweden. He found
that the magnetic properties of the sediments varied seasonally and with distance
from their ice margin source.
Environmental magnetism was however formally defined as a discipline for the first
time by Thompson et al., 1980 (Environmental applications of magnetic
measurements, Science, 207: 481-486). The magnetic properties of samples allow
the magnetic mineralogy, the concentration of magnetic grains and the size of these
grains to be deduced. The environmental materials encompass soils, sediments,
dusts, rocks, organic tissues and man-made materials. The magnetic properties of
the samples, in turn, are used as proxy parameters for several environmental
purposes, including provenance analysis of sedimentary basins, pollution
assessment and paleoclimate studies

Variation in rock magnetic

properties may be
climatically driven
Stratigraphic variation of magnetic
susceptibility for two cores from
central Atlantic (ODP Site 661)
and Arabic Sea (ODP Site 721).
The time series were divided into
0.4 Myr intervals and spectral
analysis was performed on each of
these intervals. The vertical lines
represent (from left to right) the
100 kyr, 41 kyr, 23 kyr, and 19 kyr
Earth orbital periodicities. Note the
increase in power at the 41 kyr
periodicity at both sites after about
2.4 Myr.

Correlation of terrestrial and

marine sequences ( and 18O)

Mineral magnetic properties of the Chinese loess as proxies of paleoclimate. Magnetic

susceptibility variations in loess sections from Xifeng and Luochuans how remarkable
similarities with the SPECMAP oxygen isotope record for the last 700 kyr [Imbrie et al.,
1984]. Successive loess (L1 ..... L7) and paleosol ( S0.. ... S6) units are shown in the column
on the left of the figure.
Oxygen isotope stages are shown in the column on the right of the figure.

Development of
astronomically calibrated age
models: The continental
sequences of the Chinese
Loess plateau

Development of astronomically calibrated age models:

The Pleistocene of the Mediterranean

Identification of sharp and brief climatic events:

the Heinrich events in the North Atlantic

Heinrich events are global climate fluctuations which coincide with the destruction of northern
hemisphere ice shelves, and the consequent release of a prodigious volume of icebergs at sea.
The events are rapid: they last around 750 years, and their abrupt onset may occur in mere years.

Identification of sharp and brief climatic events:

the Heinrich events in the North Atlantic

Identification of major climatic events and trends:

the development of the Antarctic glaciation

Pollution: the magnetic properties of tree leaves

Via delle terme di Caracalla Via Druso

Pollution: the magnetic properties of tree leaves

Viale Marconi - Via Ostiense

Suggested Readings

Butler, R. F. (1992), Paleomagnetism: Magnetic Domains to Geologic

Terranes, Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Dunlop, D. & Ozdemir, O. (1997), Rock Magnetism: Fundamentals and
Frontiers, Cambridge University Press.
Evans, M.E. & Heller F. (2003) Environmental magnetism. Principles and
applications of enviromagnetics. Academic Press, Elsevier Science.
Lanza, R. & Meloni, A. (2006), The Earths Magnetism - An Introduction
for Geologists, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg .
Tauxe, L. (2005), Lectures in Paleomagnetism,
http://earthref.org/MAGIC/books/Tauxe/2005/
Thompson R, Oldfield F (1986), Environmental magnetism, Allen and
Unwin, London.