De 5 H

Corporate Engineering Standard
Design Standard: DE5H
Electrical Technology Network
DE5H
Power Control Devices in Electrical Heating and
Other Variable Power Applications
Table of Contents
1. User Guidance....................................................................................................................................................2
1.1 Scope .........................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Applicability ................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 Benefits ......................................................................................................................................................2
1.4 References .................................................................................................................................................2
2. General ................................................................................................................................................................2
3. Magnetic contactors / ElectroMechanical relays ............................................................................................2
4. Mercury Displacement Relays (MDR) ..............................................................................................................3
5. Siliconcontrolled rectifiers..............................................................................................................................3
6. Solid State Relays (SSR) ...................................................................................................................................4
7. Type of control ...................................................................................................................................................5
8. Comparison ........................................................................................................................................................6
List of Figures
Figure 1. Circuit for inverse parallel connection of silicon-controlled rectifier units as alternating-current
contactor .................................................................................................................................................7
Figure 2. Time-proportional control action .............................................................................................................7
Figure 3. Basic SCR control systems for electric heating applications ..................................................................8
Figure 4A. Example SCR control system for a small to medium process gas heater............................................10
Figure 4B. Example SCR control system for a large process gas heater ..............................................................11
Red text indicates revisions made in the April 2008 issue.
Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Contact Valerie.S.Lamison@usa.dupont.com by e-mail for more information.
This document may be used and reproduced for DuPont business only.
Copyright 2001, 2008 E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. All Rights Reserved. (Unpublished)(Engineering)
Page 1 of 11
DE5H
Power Control Devices in Electrical Heating and Other Variable Power Applications
1.
User Guidance
1.1 Scope
This standard covers the selection of suitable methods and devices for controlling electrical
heating and other similar variable power applications on the basis of performance requirements
and costs.
1.2 Applicability
This document offers recommended guidelines for the application and selection of power devices
used to control electrical heating and other variable power applications. The guidelines contained
in this standard are applicable to all sites within DuPont.
1.3 Benefits
The proper selection of power control devices for electrical resistance heating systems is very
important to system performance, life cycle, and electrical energy efficiency.
1.4 References
NEC
2.
National Electric Code
General
2.1 In the simplest and lowest initial cost type of control, the power supply to electrical loads is
turned on and off by means of automatically controlled magnetic contactors. Circuits requiring
control of power not exceeding approximately 3/4 kW may be switched on and off without the use
of magnetic contactors by using suitable thermostat contacts directly.
2.2 The most common and economical power control device in use in industry today is the
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). These are solidstate (or static) devices in which no active
mechanical, thermal, or electronemitting components are used.
2.3 Other control schemes used infrequently and, therefore, not included within the scope of this
standard are as follows.
2.3.1 Varying automatically the voltage applied to the load by means of inductionvoltage
regulators or multitap transformers.
2.3.2 Using power input controllers that are a type of circuit interrupter, in which the length
of time that power is supplied to the process is automatically varied in reference to the
departure from a set point.
2.3.3
3.
Adjusting automatically a resistance in series with the load elements.
Magnetic contactors / ElectroMechanical relays

Generally, a magnetic contactor is selected only where cyclic operation about a set point is
suitable for the processheating application and the minimal installed cost is of prime
consideration. The control condition is aggravated by the necessity of purposely placing a dead
band in the system to prevent too frequent operation, with the resultant excessive wear and
damage to the contactor, particularly where the larger sizes are used. A typical minimum cycle

Copyright 2001, 2008 E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company. All Rights Reserved. Used under Copyright License.
Page 2 of 11
DE5H
time is 15 seconds, longer cycle times are preferred. In addition, magnetic contactors are noisy
and may cause a serious vibration problem that prevents all but the smallest sizes of contactors
from being mounted on the same panel (or within enclosures) with control and measuring
instruments. Magnetic contactors usually are unsuitable for use in dirty or contaminated areas
because of frequent shutdowns, due to the severe service, and the high cost of contact
maintenance.
4.
Mercury Displacement Relays (MDR)

4.1 Mercury displacement relays switch power to loads by applying AC or DC control voltage to
its solenoid. This causes a plunger to raise and lower the mercury level, thus making and
breaking the power to the load circuit. The contacts do not wear due to the mercury in the
capsule. MDRs must be mounted and remain in the upright position at all times. They come in
1, 2 or 3 pole configurations. They can switch considerable amounts of power at a low cost,
similar to electromechanical relays, and they offer long life operation, similar to solid-state relays.
4.2 Because MDRs contain mercury, they should not be placed in the normal waste stream.
Mercury is a hazardous material and therefore all MDRs are required by law to be recycled and
disposed of properly.
5. Siliconcontrolled rectifiers
5.1 SCR units are the solidstate equivalent of ignitron and thyratron tubes. SCR units are
much like ordinary silicon rectifiers except for being designed to block in the forward direction until
a small signal is applied between the gate and the cathode. When a SCR unit is fired, it will
continue to conduct, even when the gate signal is removed, until the anode positive potential is
either removed or made negative. If an ac potential is placed on the anode, the SCR unit will
conduct every half cycle (provided the gate is fired) similar to an ignitron tube.
5.2 It is necessary to take precautions to ensure that the semiconductor rectifiers are not
subjected to (a) excessive voltage or current overload conditions due to choice of unsuitable
component values in the circuit, (b) excessive inrush or transient voltages or currents, (c) high
ambient temperatures, (d) voltage surges higher than peak inverse voltage rating due principally
to transformer switching transients, (e) inadequate heat sinks or cooling fins, etc. Installation of
an electrostatic shielded type isolation transformer is recommended in the ac supply to the unit to
protect SCRs and prevent voltage spikes from being transmitted back upstream and affecting
other devices on the same ac source. Devices with a peak forward voltage (PFV) and peak
reverse voltage (PRV) of 2.5 times rms line voltage have generally proven satisfactory when
surge suppression devices are properly applied on the line side of the controller. Since solid
state contactors have a limited shortterm overload rating, it is important to select a unit with a
current rating equal to, or greater than, the maximum peak load to be carried. Generally, ratings
are based upon a maximum ambient temperature of 120oF (49oC). For operation at higher
temperatures, the units should be derated in accordance with manufacturers recommendations.
5.3 SCR units are very reliable and should have very long service life. As is common with many
solidstate devices, they have characteristics that the longer they last, the better are the chances
that a failure will not occur. If a failure is to occur, the chances are that it will happen during initial
operation rather than later. A failure can cause the SCR unit to either open up completely or to
short out. In most cases, the SCR fails shorted so a satisfactory means of disconnecting the
heater from line voltage, such as a contactor or shunt trip breaker, must be used for over
temperature protection. The controller adjusts output voltage so the load must be sized to restrict
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DE5H
the current rating or a current limit circuit must be added to the controller. Medium to large SCR
power controllers are available with optional shorted SCR alarms and current limiting controls.
5.4 By connecting two SCR units in inverse parallel, as shown on Figure 1, it is possible to
control a singlephase ac current. When two rectifiers are used in inverse parallel in an ac circuit,
both rectifiers will conduct alternately, permitting both the positive and negative parts of the cycle
to pass. When conduction to the load is desired, the gates of SCRs are allowed to fire. When it
is desired to stop conduction, the gates are prevented from firing. Unlike a magnetic contactor,
the frequency at which the control circuit can permit the static contactors to operate can be very
fast (theoretically up to once every 16.7 milliseconds) without damage.
5.5 If SCR units should misfire due to electrical noise on the gate signal lead, filtering or
shielding of the gate lead may be required.
5.6 True-RMS meters are recommended when making load measurements on systems using
phasecontrolled SCR units, as moving coil or averaging meters can give inaccurate readings at
less than 100% demand. When measuring the output of burstfired SCR units, a filter circuit
must be applied to the meter to smooth the response or the meter indication will cycle.
5.7 SCR control systems are normally purchased as a packaged system from specialty
suppliers. The type of SCR or other type of control is based on the type of heater and how it
needs to be controlled. Local versus remote heater temperature control, need for safety controls,
monitoring features and local or remote alarms should be based on process/personnel hazard
risk, and business loss and how the heater controls fit into the overall process control strategy.
See Figure 4A for an example of an SCR based control system for a large process gas heater.
See Figure 4B for an example of an SCR based heater control system for small to medium size
process gas heater.
6.
Solid State Relays (SSR)

6.1 Solid-state relays (SSRs) control load currents through solid-state switches such as triacs,
SCRs, or power transistors. These elements are controlled by input signals coupled to the
switched devices through isolation mechanisms such as transformers, reed relays, or
optoisolators. Optical isolation allows the output circuitry to be energized when infrared light
strikes a photosensitive device, which results in the virtual absence of electrically generated
noise, and allows for electrical isolation of the input to the output. Applications are where rapid
on/off cycling would quickly wear out conventional electromechanical relays. General-purpose
SSRs have on/off cycle lifetimes as high as 100,000 actuations.
6.2 SSR failure modes are primarily determined by the triac or SSR switching characteristics.
Most failures take the form of SSR false turn on with no turn-on signal. For example, turn on may
occur if operating temperatures exceed the thyristor rating. Also, transients from the switched load
or from an ac line can momentarily exceed the thyristor breakover voltage, or steeply rising load
voltages can couple into the thyristor input through stray capacitances in the thyristor and cause
turn on.
6.3 The primary failure mechanism of an SSR is mechanical fatigue in the power semiconductor
structure, caused by thermal cycling. Since semiconductor switches can dissipate significant
amounts of power, solid-state relays must generally be heat sinked to minimize operating
temperature. Proper heat sinks for most conditions are available or are an integral part of the
SSR. SSRs generate heat because of the voltage drop present in all semiconductor devices. A
40-A relay, for example, typically drops 1.2 V during conduction and, thus, dissipates 50 W of

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DE5H
heat. However, SSR heat generation generally does not require special system design. These
devices usually mount on circuit boards or control panels containing other semiconductor devices.
Cooling and heat-sinking methods used for these devices are likely to be adequate for the SSR.
One of the most common causes of SSR failures in industrial applications is not derating the SSR
for the installed ambient temperature. Higher than expected enclosure or localized spot
temperatures (limited or blocked ventilation/cooling) temperatures can cause early and repeated
failures of SSRs. Consult the manufacturers derating charts for use with free-air and heat sink
applications.
6.4 Some SSRs designed for controlling ac loads incorporate a zero-voltage turn-on circuit that
switches the load on or off only when the power-line sine wave passes through zero. Some solidstate relays also incorporate snubber circuits or zero-crossing detectors to reduce spikes and
transients generated by interrupting load current. Highly capacitive loads such as lamps and
heaters that produce high inrush currents at turn on generate little electromagnetic interference if
actuated when line voltage is zero.
6.5 SSRs are available with zero-voltage switching and proportional firing (example: converts a
4-20ma signal to time proportional output), or direct connection to a heating controller with a time
proportional (pulsed DC) output.
7.
Type of control
7.1 Static contactors can be applied to either single or threephase loads as an onoff, time
proportional, or a modulatedproportional type control. Even with onoff control, better operation
can be expected than with magnetic contactor control since the hysteresis and dead time is
eliminated.
7.2 Timeproportional control (burst firing) ideally is suitable for static contactors. Time
proportional control is a form of onoff control where the control instrument is set to a basic
repetitive unit of time instead of waiting until the process temperature reaches the control point
before applying or dropping the power. The time over which power is applied to the process in a
given unit of time is dependent upon the deviation of the process temperature from the process
set point. In processes where the thermal time constant or thermal inertia of the system is long
compared with the selected repetitive interval, the temperature of the process will be smoothed or
averaged to a constant level. The shorter the interval, the smoother will be the resultant process
temperature. Time-proportional control is not suitable for switching transformer primaries; phaseangle control is required.
Since static contactors are not limited by the frequency of operation, they can be used with a
very high repetitive rate control. When the process is first fired, the temperature will be well
below the set point and the process will call for full power over a given period, as illustrated
on Figure 2. As the process temperature nears the set point, the process will require less
heat and will begin to cut back on the applied power by providing certain off intervals. As
the process temperature levels off at the set point, the offtime intervals are increased so
that the average power applied will be that required to provide for the process losses.
Burstfired units thermally shock heating loads with low thermal inertia, causing rapid
temperature changes and fatigue at connections. Full onfull off characteristics also cause
mechanical forces on system components. This type of controller cannot be used for (a)
variable resistance loads, (b) inductive loads such as transformers, or (c) where soft start or
current limit is required.

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DE5H
7.3 Modulatedproportional control (phase-angle fired) can be used in most applications. It

costs slightly more than burstfired controllers and induces harmonics on the supply system
which may be objectionable, especially when phasecontrolled heaters are a major portion of the
load on the system. Providing a supply transformer dedicated to the heating system can reduce
problems associated with transients coupled back into the site power system.
7.4 Where two or more heating elements are employed, especially if the heating loads are large,
there are two common methods of control.
7.4.1 The heating elements may be switched on and off in a stepping manner to satisfy the
required load (heating) demand.
7.4.2 One or more base load heating elements may be switched on in conjunction with one
or more swing load heating elements, which are controlled proportionally on and off to suit
the required load (heating) demand.
7.5 For accurate temperature control where the heating load is at a fixed temperature and the
size of the heating load does not change except over a relatively narrow range, a minimum cost
installation can be designed with a manually switched heat input adjusted slightly below minimum
(or standby) requirements, supplemented by an additional heat input controlled by temperature
sensing instruments operating magnetic contactors to switch the additional heat, which should
provide a total heat input just slightly above the maximum heat required. Where conditions are
such that the difference between maximum and minimum energy required is small relative to the
maximum energy required, such a system can provide very accurate control in a very lowcost
installation. Timeproportional control can be used with this arrangement for control of the
narrowband heating, if desired.
8.
Comparison
8.1
Solid state devices (SCR & SSR) have the following advantages over magnetic contactors:
a. Low maintenancethere are no contact tips to dress or replace and no moving parts to
wear. Dust and dirt particles cannot affect the operation of SCR/SSR devices; however,
excessive quantities will reduce heattransfer capabilities that may result in premature
failure of the devices.
b. Quiet operationSCR/SSR devices are silent in operation. Magnetic contactors are
inherently noisy because of the necessity to quickly pull in and drop out.
c. Vibration freesince there are no moving parts, SCR/SSR devices can be mounted on the
same panel.
d. No exposed arcSCR/SSR devices are sealed, there is no electric arc in the air (an
important consideration in ambient conditions where a hazardous atmosphere could
possibly exist due to gases or dusts). These devices permit their safe use in Class I,
Division 2; Class II, Division 2; and Class III, Divisions 1 and 2 hazardous locations providing
surface temperatures do not exceed 80 percent of the ignition temperature (in degrees C) of
the hazardous material (National Electrical Code requirement).
e. Long lifeyears of servicefree life of SCR/SSR compared to a relatively lower servicefree
life of magnetic contactors.
8.2
The main advantage of the magnetic contactor over SCR/SSR devices is lower initial cost.

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DE5H
8.3 Basic SCR control systems for electric furnaces and heating applications, such as
electrically heated steam or gas heaters, autoclaves, and special boiler pressure controls are
shown on Figure 3.
Figure 1.
Circuit for inverse parallel connection of silicon-controlled rectifier units as alternating-current

contactor
Figure 2.
Time-proportional control action

Page 7 of 11
DE5H
Figure 3.
Basic SCR control systems for electric heating applications
3A
Figure 3B
Figure 3A
.**
Figure 3C
3D
Figure 3D
Figure 3E
* Maximum load volts 99% of line volts

** Maximum load volts 93% to 97% of line volts

Page 8 of 11
DE5H
Figure 3.
Basic SCR control systems for electric heating applications (continued)
3F
Figure 3F
Figure 3G
3E
Figure 3H
3H.
Figure 3J
* Maximum load volts 99% of line volts
** Maximum load volts 93% to 97% of line volts

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DE5H
Figure 4A. Example SCR control system for a small to medium process gas heater
480 Vac - 3 phase
Electrostatically
Shielded Transformer
480 - 480Y208
Power On
Disconnect Sw
Contactor
Enabled
to DCS
Process (permissive)
Interlocks from DCS
Contactor
Off / Enable Sw
I2T High
Speed Fuses
SCR Hi Temp
to DCS
Shorted SCR
to DCS
Heater Current
to DCS
Heater Voltage
to DCS
SCR Hi
Temp
Shutdown from OTC

SCR
W/
Current
limit
Local/Remote Sw
4-20 ma DC from DCS

Remote Pot
Shorted SCR
I/I
E/I
Manual adjustment
potentiometer for test/
maintenance
Reset
3
OTC
1
Process Flow
to DCS
Overtemperature
Controller
Process Temp
to DCS
FM
Circulation heater 50 Kw - 480 Vac

3 phase - 4 wire (Wye)
Figure 4 A
Example - Large Process Gas Heater (see DE5H Section 5)
1. SCR power-pack: Six SCR (Three pair back-to-back) Voltage proportional power (phase-angle fired)
SCR, with current limit, shorted SCR & SCR high temperature alarms (see DE5H Figure 3G).
2. Basic temperature control, monitoring, and alarms in DCS (Process Control Controls System)
3. Safety layer: Agency approved overtemperature controller, sensing TC welded to heater sheath,
magnetic contactor to interrput 480 volt power to SCR.

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DE5H
Figure 4B. Example SCR control system for a large process gas heater
480 Vac - 3 phase
Electrostatically
Shielded Transformer
480 - 480Y208
Remote
General Alarm
Power On
Disconnect Switch
Contactor
enabled
Contactor
Off / Enable Sw
I2T High
Speed Fuses
Shutdown from OTC
Process (permissive)
Interlocks from
process control
system
TC
SCR
W/
Current
limit
SCR Hi Temp
Temperature
Controller
Shorted SCR
Ammeter & Switch
Overtemperature
Controller
Reset
OTC
Process Gas
Circulation heater 15 Kw - 480 Vac
3 phase - 3 wire (Wye)
Figure 4 B
Example - Small to Medium Process Gas Heater (see DE5H Section 5)
1. SCR power-pack: 3-phase w/ two controlled legs (four back-to-back SCR), open heater / shorted SCR
detection & SCR high temperature alarms (see DE5H Figure 3F).
2. Basic temperature control integral to control cabinet (local) , local dedicated alarms and a dry contact for
remote general alarm.
3. Safety layer: Agency approved overtemperature controller, sensing TC welded to heater sheath,
magnetic contactor to interrput 480 volt power to SCR.

Page 11 of 11

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Corporate Engineering Standard

Design Standard: DE5H

Electrical Technology Network

Red text indicates revisions made in the April 2008 issue.

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

National Electric Code

Adjusting automatically a resistance in series with the load elements.

Magnetic contactors / ElectroMechanical relays

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Mercury Displacement Relays (MDR)

Solid State Relays (SSR)

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

7.3 Modulatedproportional control (phase-angle fired) can be used in most applications. It

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Circuit for inverse parallel connection of silicon-controlled rectifier units as alternating-current

Time-proportional control action

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Basic SCR control systems for electric heating applications

* Maximum load volts 99% of line volts

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Basic SCR control systems for electric heating applications (continued)

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Shutdown from OTC

4-20 ma DC from DCS

Circulation heater 50 Kw - 480 Vac

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

Shutdown from OTC

Ammeter & Switch

Document revised April 2008 / Entire document reaffirmed April 2008

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