Lecture 1 Introduction To Research Method

2/25/2015
PI10203
Research Methods
1
Introduction to Research Methods
An Example From Psychology

Research
Psychologists develop theories and conduct

research to answer questions about behavior and
mental processes.
Psychological research provides answers that
impact individuals and society.
One example is the research on the effects of
media violence on youth.
Media Violence and Aggression
After five decades of research, what do

psychologists say about the behavioral,
emotional, and social effects of media violence?
Exposure to media violence causes an increase in the
likelihood of aggressive thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors in short- and long-term contexts.
The effects of violence in the media are consistent
across a variety of research studies and methods,
samples of people, and types of media (e.g., TV,
films, video games, Internet, music).
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Media Violence and Aggression (continued)

Recent long-term studies link frequent childhood
exposure to media violence with adult aggression
including physical assaults and spouse abuse.
Research evidence supports psychologists theories
that media violence:
activates (primes)
peoples aggressive cognitions and

physiological arousal,
facilitates peoples learning of aggressive behaviors
through observation (modeling), and
desensitizes people to violence.
Media Violence and Aggression (continued)
Factors that influence the likelihood of aggression in

response to media violence include:
characteristics of
viewers (e.g., age, identification with

aggressive characters),
social environments (e.g., parental monitoring), and
media content (e.g., realism of violent depictions,
consequences of violence).
No one is immune to the effects of media violence.
Source: Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R.,

Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). The
influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4,
81-110.
The Scientific Method
Scientific method refers to
an abstract concept,
not a particular technique or method.
The scientific method refers to ways in which

scientists ask questions and the logic and
methods they use to gain answers.
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The Scientific Method (continued)
Two important aspects of the scientific method

are:
the reliance on an empirical approach, and

the skeptical attitude scientists adopt toward
explanations of behavior and mental processes.
The Scientific Method (continued)
An empirical approach to gaining knowledge

emphasizes:
observation of behaviors that can be observed
directly, and
experimentation in which scientists employ
systematic control in the situation to be observed.
Science in Context
Historical, Social/Cultural, and Moral Contexts
Historical Context
The scope of scientific psychology has increased dramatically

in 100 years.
The American Psychological Association (APA) and the
American Psychological Society (APS) promote the science
of psychology.
At the turn of the 20th century, early psychologists adopted
the empirical approach as the best means for developing the
science of psychology.
The computer revolution has been a key factor in the shift
from behaviorism to cognitive psychology as the dominant
theoretical perspective in psychology.
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Science in Context (continued)
Social and Cultural Context

Scientists questions, resources, and acceptance are
influenced by the current zeitgeist (pronounced: tsahytgahyst) the social and cultural spirit of the times.
Because scientists conduct psychological research in
a social and cultural context, they are susceptible to
the potential bias of ethnocentrism.
10
Ethnocentrism
A
bias in which we try to understand the behavior of

individuals in a different culture through the framework or
views of our own culture.
Be aware of cultural influences.

The
way we think about ourselves and others is heavily

influenced by the culture in which we live.
Our understanding of psychology is based on research
done primarily within the American cultural context.
11
An ethnocentric bias can influence the research areas and

questions we choose to pursue. For example:
Do we focus on deficits in aging people (e.g., declining
memory) rather than strengths (e.g., wisdom)?
Do we examine questions of aggression and race rather than
nurturance and race?
When developing a research question, be sure to consider
whether you are being ethnocentric.
Consider developing a research question that goes against
the cultural norm.
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An ethnocentric bias also influences how we
interpret behavior.
Consider, for example, how we stereotype people
based on their dress, hairstyle or body art (e.g.,
Goths, Hip-Hop).
Has your behavior ever been interpreted in terms of
an ethnocentric bias?
13
Moral Context
Scientists maintain the highest standards for integrity
and ethical conduct.
Scientists do not fabricate data, plagiarize, or
selectively report research findings.
Psychologists consult the ethical principles of the
American Psychological Association.
The code of ethics helps researchers to evaluate dilemmas, such as

the risks and benefits associated with deception and the use of
animals in research.
14
Thinking Like a Researcher
To think like a researcher is to be skeptical regarding

claims about the causes of behavior and mental
processes
even claims made on the basic of published scientific
findings.
The strongest evidence for a claim about behavior

comes from converging evidence across many studies
although scientists recognize that claims are always
probabilistic.
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Thinking Like a Researcher (continued)
Scientists are similar to detectives and others in

the legal system.
Both groups seek to make decisions based on
evidence.
In the legal system, a small amount of evidence

leads to suspicion, but a large amount of evidence
is needed to convict someone of a crime.
16
Thinking Like a Researcher (continued)
Similar to legal evidence, scientific evidence varies

according to the strength of the evidence.
Description of behavior
Prediction about behavior
Evidence for the cause of a behavior
Replications (repetitions) of findings for the cause of
behavior
The stronger the evidence, the more confident we can

be about the claim about behavior.
17
Evidence and Decision Making
Quality & Extent of

Legal Decision
Evidence
suspicion of guilt
low
arrest
description
prediction
arraignment
conviction
Scientific Decisions
statement about
causes
high
replication of findings
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Guidelines for Evaluating Reports of

Research
Dont confuse pseudoscience or nonscience

with science.
Be skeptical.
Be aware that scientists may disagree.
Keep in mind that research is generally about
averages.
Whenever possible, go to the original source.
Adams asserts in her book Chicken Little that "without a doubt, the chicken came
before the egg" (as cited in Smith, 2005).
19
Getting Started Doing Research
What should I study?
Choose a research topic by reviewing topics in

journals,
textbooks, and
courses.
20
Getting Started (continued)
Research Hypotheses
A hypothesis (plural: hypotheses) is
a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, and

is often stated in the form of a prediction together
with an explanation for the prediction.
21
2/25/2015
Examples of hypotheses:
Research participants who play violent video games
are predicted to behave more aggressively after
exposure than participants who passively view
television violence
because
video game participants aggression is reinforced
(rewarded) while playing the game.
22
Examples of Hypotheses (continued)

Research participants who play violent video games
are predicted to behave less aggressively after the
exposure than participants who passively view
television violence
because
video game participants have the opportunity to
release any aggressive impulses; passive television
viewers do not have the opportunity during
exposure.
23
How do I develop a hypothesis to test in my

research?
Think about deviations (oddities, exceptions) from a general

trend or principle.
Imagine how you would behave in a task or when faced with a
specific problem.
Consider similar problems with known solutions.
Make sustained, deliberate observations of a person or
phenomenon (e.g., perform a case study).
Generate counterexamples for an obvious conclusion about
behavior.
Borrow ideas or theories from other disciplines.
Read reports of psychological research.
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Is the research question a good one?
Why might this question be scientifically important?

What is the scope of this question?
What are likely outcomes if I carry out this research project?
To what extent will psychological science be advanced by
knowing the answer to this question?
Why would anyone be interested in the results obtained by
asking this question?
25
The Multimethod Approach to

Psychological Research
There is one scientific method.

There are many psychological research questions
and research methods.
Psychologists study many different topics from
diverse areas:
clinical, social, industrial/organizational,
developmental, counseling, physiological,
cognitive, educational, personality, human factors,
neuropsychology, etc.
26
The Multimethod Approach (continued)
No single research method or technique can

answer all of the different questions.
An important advantage of the multimethod
approach is that researchers obtain a more
complete understanding of complex behavior
and mental processes.
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Researchers recognize there is no perfect

method for answering questions
each method or measure of behavior has flaws or
may be incomplete in its ability to answer research
questions fully.
By using multiple methods, the flaws associated

with any particular method are overcome by
other methods that fill in the gaps.
28
The multimethod approach means that we have a

toolbox with different tools for conducting
research.
The focus of this class is to introduce you to the

different research tools and how to use them.
29
Steps of the Research Process

(An overview of this course.)
1.
Develop a research question.

Be aware of ethnocentrism.
Gain personal experience doing research.
Read psychological literature.
2.
Generate a research hypothesis.
Read psychological theories on your topic.

Consider personal experience, think of exceptions,
and notice inconsistencies in previous research.
30
10
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Research Steps (continued)

3.
Form operational definitions.

Look to previous research to see how others have
defined the same constructs (concepts).
Identify the variables you will examine.
4.
Choose a research design.

Decide whether your research question seeks to
describe, allow prediction, or identify causal
relationships.
Choose the appropriate research design for your
question.
31

5.
Evaluate the ethical issues.
6.
Identify the potential risks and benefits of the research and

the ways in which participants welfare will be protected.
Submit a proposal to an ethics review committee.
Seek permission from those in authority.
Collect and analyze data; form conclusions.
Get to know the data.

Summarize the data.
Confirm what the data reveal.
32
6.
Report research results.

Present
the findings at a psychology

conference.
Submit a written report of the study to a
psychology journal.
33
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Discussion Questions
Have you heard or read media reports about

psychological research?
Did you accept the report without questions?
Why or why not?
Did you have enough information?
What
do other scientists say about the topic?

report be biased?
Could the
Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or

distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Discussion Questions, continued
Do you remember ever being skeptical about

research presented in the media?
Why were you skeptical?
What information would have made you less
skeptical?
Did a finding seem too good to be true?
Did anyone have anything to gain through the
report?
Have the findings been replicated (repeated)?

What research topics in psychology interest you?
What hypotheses can you form about your topic?

What
relationships might exist between variables (factors)

youve identified?
Can you make predictions regarding your topic?
Can you identify potential causes for the behavior or
phenomenon?

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Does your cultural background influence your

choice of topic and hypotheses?
Would people with different backgrounds view your
topic similarly?
Consider people with different sex, age, racial,
socioeconomic status than yourself.
Might these characteristics make a difference for
your topic?
Are there other cultural variables that would make a
difference?

What research topics and theories are currently

popular among psychologists?
What psychology research topics are
investigated at your school?

How might our current social and cultural

context be related to the prominence of certain
research topics?
To what extent does ethnocentric bias play a
role in the prominence of current research
topics?

13
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Tutorial Classes
PT10203 (SECTION 2) tutorial registration for is now open. Please register your tutorial class
online. Maximum 35 students/tutorial. For Section 1 please contact Mr. Beddu Salam Baco.
Tuesday 8am-9am (BS3)

Tuesday 9am-10am (BS3)
Wednesday 8am-9am (BS3)
Wednesday 11am-12pm (BS3)
Thursday 8am-9am (BS3)
Online registration will commence from 6th February 2015 (8 a.m.) to 27 February, Friday (5
p.m.). Any later than that will not be entertained.
Tutorial classes begin on the THIRD WEEK of the semester (3, 4 & 5 March 2015).
Attendance is compulsory.
Please be informed that the FIRST LECTURE will commence on the SECOND WEEK of
the semester (24th Feb 2015).
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2/25/2015

An Example From Psychology

Psychologists develop theories and conduct

Media Violence and Aggression

After five decades of research, what do

Media Violence and Aggression (continued)

peoples aggressive cognitions and

Media Violence and Aggression (continued)

Factors that influence the likelihood of aggression in

viewers (e.g., age, identification with

No one is immune to the effects of media violence.

Source: Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R.,

The Scientific Method

Scientific method refers to

The scientific method refers to ways in which

The Scientific Method (continued)

Two important aspects of the scientific method

the reliance on an empirical approach, and

The Scientific Method (continued)

An empirical approach to gaining knowledge

The scope of scientific psychology has increased dramatically

Science in Context (continued)

Social and Cultural Context

Science in Context (continued)

bias in which we try to understand the behavior of

Be aware of cultural influences.

way we think about ourselves and others is heavily

Science in Context (continued)

An ethnocentric bias can influence the research areas and

Science in Context (continued)

Science in Context (continued)

The code of ethics helps researchers to evaluate dilemmas, such as

Thinking Like a Researcher

To think like a researcher is to be skeptical regarding

The strongest evidence for a claim about behavior

Thinking Like a Researcher (continued)

Scientists are similar to detectives and others in

In the legal system, a small amount of evidence

Thinking Like a Researcher (continued)

Similar to legal evidence, scientific evidence varies

The stronger the evidence, the more confident we can

Evidence and Decision Making

Quality & Extent of

Guidelines for Evaluating Reports of

Dont confuse pseudoscience or nonscience

Getting Started Doing Research

What should I study?

Choose a research topic by reviewing topics in

Getting Started (continued)

a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, and

Getting Started (continued)

Getting Started (continued)

Examples of Hypotheses (continued)

Getting Started (continued)

How do I develop a hypothesis to test in my

Think about deviations (oddities, exceptions) from a general

Getting Started (continued)

Is the research question a good one?

Why might this question be scientifically important?

The Multimethod Approach to

There is one scientific method.

The Multimethod Approach (continued)

No single research method or technique can