APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES

USED IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

By Trish Morrow
https://www.linkedin.com/in/trish-morrow-27959988

What is a solar stove?

http://www.solarcooking.org/gallery1.htm
http://www.solarcooking.org/gallery1.htm

Any device which uses heat from the sun to cook food or boil drinking water.
Does not use electrical energy from photovoltaic modules, just uses heat.

Why use solar energy for cooking?

In developing countries biomass is burnt as
the primary source of domestic energy for
cooking, heating and boiling contaminated
drinking water. (Kammen, 1991)
About half the population of China boil
their drinking water mostly over biomass
stoves
1% of Jakartas GDP is spent by the residents for
boiling their drinking water (Gadgil, 1998)
With an average cookstove efficiency of 12%,
fuelwood can only boil water three times its own
weighta typical family of five would use 12kg/day
1kg of firewood releases 440g CO2 and ~650g Cequivalent of non CO2 greenhouse gases. (Gadgil,
1998)
50-100 acres of forest destroyed/minute
(Lovejoy, 1991)
http://www.efn.org/~apro/atstove00.html

Why use solar energy for cooking?

http://www.webcom.com/bi/images/billboard.gif

Mara,D.D., Tropical Public Health Lecture Notes, University of Leeds, 2000.

Biomass burning in developing countries is firmly linked to acute

respiratory infection, a leading heath hazard to children in
developing nations, resulting in an estimated 4.3 million deaths per
year. (Kammen, 1991)
Other health effects - woodsmoke contributes to: pneumonia,
low birth weights, cataracts, and nervous or muscular fatigue.
URL: http://www.solarcooking.org/cookingsmoke.htm

How does woodsmoke compare with tobacco

smoke?
CONSTITUENTS OF
LEVELS FOUND IN LEVELS FOUND IN
HEALTH
TOBACCO SMOKE
/ WOOD SMOKE
Aldehydes
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Benzene
Benzo(a)anthracene
Chrysene
Benzofluoranthenes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Ideno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Ca
Cr
Ni

WOOD SMOKE
(g/kg wood burnt)

TOBACCO SMOKE
(ng/cigarette)

0.6-5.4
0.1-0.7
0.03-0.6
0.6-4.0
4x10-4 - 2x10-3
5x1041x10-2
6x10-4- 5x10-3
3x1045x10-3
2xl0-4-1.3x10-2
3x104lx10-3
2x10-5 - 2xl0-3
9xl0-4-1.8x10-2
2x10-5 - 3x10-3
lxl0-6 - lx10-3

References:
URL: http://www.webcom.com/bi/table2.htm Chemical constituents of Wood Smoke
URL: http://www.brown-and-williamson.com/Index_sub2.cfm?ID=18
Approximate Chemical Composition of Whole Mainstream Smoke

70-100
18-1400
12-48
20-70
40-60mg
4-22
20-40
4-20
1.7-3.2
4
41-62
4-70
0-600

EFFECTS

Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic
Carcinogenic

How does a solar oven work?

http://www.solarcooking.org/sbcdes.htm#heat_gain

How does a solar oven work?

Sunlight enters the oven through the glass lid. It strikes the black
absorber plate in the base and changes in wavelength.
The longer wavelength infrared radiation is trapped by the glass
which is only transparent to shorter wavelengths
Insulation in the walls reduces heat escaping through them.

Consider:
Heat gain into a solar oven
Heat loss from the box
Heat transfer from the oven to the cooking
vessel
Effect of materials used for the box
Materials used for reflector and glazing
Volume of the cooking space, compared
with volume of food to be cooked
http://www.solarcooking.org/sbcdes.htm#heat_gain

Thermodynamics of solar ovens

Heat losses are via
conduction through the oven walls and
floor,
convection through any gaps in the lid or
around the glazing, air in the walls, or via
radiation.
Thermal resistance due to conduction is defined by
the equation q = T1-T2
R
where q is the heat flux (W/m2) and R is the thermal
resistance (m2 W/C).
Heat flux due to radiation is given by the equation
qr = 1 2 K(T14-T24) A
1 - 1 2
where is the emissivity of the wall surfaces and K is
the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 (W/m2K4).
Box Temperature as a function
http://www.solarcooking.org/fi/petrithe.htm
Rogers and Mayhew, 1981
of wall resistance

Thermodynamics of solar ovens

Total wall resistance is given by considering
radiation and convection resistance in parallel,
to give the following equation: R = Rrad Rc
Rrad + Rc
Heat loss from radiation is

approximately three times the loss

from convection.
To be able to reach a cooking
temperature of at least 100C, a
resistance of at least 1 unit is needed.
Doubling the wall thickness from
5cm thick to 10 cm thick gives only a
6% increase in resistance.
http://www.solarcooking.org/fi/petrithe.htm

Thermodynamics of solar ovens

Convection currents can be reduced by
providing a physical barrier to airflow eg. A
baffle or some insulating material.
Insulating materials used to prevent heat loss
include wood shavings, sawdust, rice husks,
peanut shells, newspaper, aluminium foil, and
for those who love wasting money, fibreglass.
Doubling the number of panes of glass (from
one to two) only decreases the heat loss
coefficient by 20%. Four panes instead of one
gives a 40% decrease only.
The most important mechanism of heat
transfer to the pot itself is by conduction from
the absorber plate. Optimum thickness 1mm.
http://www.solarcooking.org/fi/petrithe.htm

Thermodynamics of solar ovens

Painting pots black is helpful but makes little
difference to the emissivity. Conduction is the
most important form of heat transfer.
Elevating the absorber plate has no significant
effect overall.
Aluminium foil is the most effective reflector,
given its low cost.
Material

Durability

Cost

Mirrors
Aluminium Foil
Aluminium Sheet
Aluminised polyester
Metal from fuel tins

Breakable
Tears easily
Good
Tears
Rusts

Very high
Moderate
High
Moderate
Moderate

Specular
Reflectance
0.88
0.86
0.85
0.75-0.85
N/A

http://www.solarcooking.org/fi/petrithe.htm

Other types of Solar Stoves

Parabolic solar stove

http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/Parabola_dir/parabola.html

A hybrid type of
solar stove with a
sloping front and
multiple reflectors
Solar panel cooker uses reflectors like the
parabolic stove with an oven bag for glazing
Its all done with mirrors!
http://www.solarcooking.org/gallery1.htm

Pasteurisation of drinking water

Women in Nepal testing

waterquality using a Colilert
test kit
http://www.solarcooking.org/gallery2.htm

The Colilert Test Kit

http://www.idexx.com/Water/Products/prod.cfm?ID=2

http://www.solarcooking.org/solarwat.htm

A water pasteurisation
indicator is used to
indicate whether water
has reached 65C for 6
minutes.

Where are solar stoves being used?

Tens of thousands in China, hundreds of thousands in India
Projects in Chile, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Nepal,
Kenya, and Guatemala, to name but a few
Some used in developed countries, eg. United States

We are
here!

Solar radiation in Australia

Solar radiation in Europe

URL http://www.bom.gov.au/sat/solrad.shtml
: http://www.satellight.net/core.htm

How does a composting toilet compare with

any other type of toilet?

http://www.compostingtoilet.org

They turn excreta into a valuable fertiliser, without contamination with

heavy metals.
They are usually built above ground (no pit to excavate)
They usually dont use any water for flushing (or very very little) .

How does a composting toilet compare with

any other type of toilet?

Feachem et al, 1983

RANKING OF EXCRETA DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES BY EASE OF

OPERATION & MAINTENANCE, WATER NEEDS & HEALTH BENEFITS
Technology

Lack of Effort Requireda WaterNeeds

User
Municipality

Flush Toilet/sewers/ 10
oxidation pond
Vault/Vacuum truck 8
Pit Latrine
8
Septic Tank
6
Aqua Privy
5
Bucket Latrine
3
Batch Composter
1
Continuous Composter 0

Health Benefitsb
Ideal
Actual

10

0
5
5
5
1
10
10

L
L
H
M
L
L
L

8
8
8
9
5
8
7

6
6
7
6
1
5
3

L = low M = medium H = high

a 0 = maximum effort 10 = minimum effort
b 0 = no benefits 10 = maximum benefits

Why use Composting Toilets?

Reduced use of expensive chemical

fertilisers
Suitable for areas with high water table
No need for back-breaking work
digging latrine pits when the ground is too
stony
Water saving (40% of potable treated
water is used for toilet flushing)
Energy saving (like all forms of on-site
sanitation)
Sale of compost may finance
composting latrine
Save money on water rates and septic
tank pumping
Avoid water and groundwater pollution

How does a composting toilet work?

http://www.compostingtoilet.org/3makers/aussie.htm

Two types:
Batch
(includes Carousel composting)

Continuous

True composting toilets provide a controlled environment to enable aerobic

decomposition.
Some toilets which separate urine primarily work by dehydrading the
faeces so that the pathogens die by dessication
May use baffles, mixers or fans to improve airflow, and may use heating
units

Where are composting toilets being

used?
http://www.elementalsolutions.co.uk

Mexico, Guatemala and

Vietnam
Some used in developed
countries, eg. Australia,
United States, United
Kingdom

Composting Toilets sold in the UK

BRAND NAMES
Sun Mar Ecolet, Excel, Centrex
Clivus
Dowmus
Aquatron

COMPANY
PRICE
Eastwood
1000
Kingsley Clivus
Elemental solutions 2000
Elemental solutions

Solar photovoltaic energy

Environmentally sound (42 gCO2/kWh vs 450g CO2/kWh
for gas, Greijer et al, 2000)
Solar energy is more labour intensive, creating employment
(Solar thermal power employs 2.14 times more workers than
coal fired power stations, Truax, 1992)
Cost of system for one 30W panel, a battery and 4 x 10w
fluorescent light tubes ~$600USD = 400

Appropriate Technologies Used in Developing Countries

Low Cost
Water Supply

Appropriate Technologies used in Developing Countries

Biogas for cooking

Indigenous peoples technical knowledge & skills