Douglas Vance

Geomorphology of China
Introduction
China is a vast country with many different climate zones, landforms, and topographic
areas. The country is one of the largest in the world and contains most of the geomorphologic
processes scientists have been able to study. Three regions of the country are particularly
interesting. They have been chosen because they demonstrate unique processes and involve
different climactic zones. These include the Gobi Desert, the karst landforms in the Yunnan
province in southeast China, and the Yangtze River. The Gobi Desert is mainly located in
Mongolia but extends into the northern part of China. It is important to China because of the
features that help create the desert environment. The karst landforms in southern China are
among the most amazing views in the world. This area is home to the largest area of karst
landscape than any other in the world. The limestone in this area has been eroded to form these
features into two main types, cone karst and tower karst. The Yangtze River is the most important
river in China as it spans almost the entire length of the country and benefits the country in many
different ways including agriculture and transportation. However, many risks are involved with
the river as it yields the consequences of the sub-tropical climate in southern and eastern China.
These three geographic features are very different in their processes and effects on the landscape
but they also affect each other. Each area discussed is connected in erosional and climatic
regards.
The overall purpose of this paper is to study the geomorphological processes responsible
for three main geographic features of China.

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The Gobi Desert, the karst landforms in southern China, and the Yangtze River all have different
geomorphologic features that created them, but they also affect each other in many ways.
Understanding this is important because of how large the country is. Many people believe there
is no way a river can affect a desert hundreds of miles north, and this is mostly true, however
similar forces are acting on both at the same time. So although the area is vast, the land is
changing all the time and each change causes a ripple effect that creates and alters landforms in
other areas. First, we must understand China as a whole, its location in the world, extent, and
other physical features. Next, each of the three geomorphologic areas will be explored. The Gobi
Desert, the karst landforms, and the Yangtze River are to be discussed respectively. Finally, the
information will be discussed and conclusions about the areas will be reached.
Background
China is undoubtedly a large country to cover. It spans more than 3 million square miles
and lies between about 18 degrees and 54 degrees north latitude and 73 degrees and 135 degrees
east longitude (Figure 1). The country is mostly mountainous mainly in the western part of the
country due to the Tibetan plateau. China has a west to east strike overall as the country levels
off and becomes flat as it approaches the ocean to the east and southeast. The total relief of China
is around 5 thousand meters in the west to 2 hundred meters in the east (Praeger, 1969). This
basic geographic information is relevant for many reasons. First, mountains, in general, tend to
create a rain shadow desert on one side especially if the raised land extends across deeper into
the landmass. Second, mountains create water runoff which is crucial in producing a river.
Finally, the creation of these mountains in particular, was due to the India continent colliding
with the Asia continent. This caused the orogenesis with land and sea based materials. The ocean

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material formed limestone and this is the basis for the karst features in southern and southeastern
China.

(Figure 1- This is a geographic map of China that shows the elements discussed in this paper
such as the Tibetan Plateau and Yangtze River. Source
http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/china/china-map-physical.jpg)
The Gobi Desert
The first feature we will look into is the Gobi Desert. The Gobi Desert is part of a greater
desert area known as the Central Asian Desert that stretches for more than 2000 miles. Another
part of this is the Taklamakan Desert. These deserts together span from western and northern

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China into Mongolia. More specifically, The Gobi Desert extends about 1000 miles across Asia
and is mainly composed of salt basins (Quilici, 1969). To understand the formation and
geomorphology of this region, three factors need to be explored. First is the soil history and
present soil. Next is the overall location of the desert. Finally, the weather, past and present, that
affect the arid climate.
First, the desert is obviously dry now but when did it become arid? Evidence can be
found in the soil history. Clues are available for an arid climate as early as the Paleozoic but the
soil gives the concrete evidence beginning in the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages. The soil shows
that the deposits from this area switch from coals, bauxites and iron-manganese ores to red
deposits with salts and gypsums. This evidence is important because the salts are deposited under
conditions of intense evaporation and water deficits, supporting the development of an arid
climate. Todays soils are created by a process known as carbonate accumulation. This forms
desert limestone which has a gray-brown color. The southern part is the most desert-like part of
the region and is often called a stony desert. This is due to the aeolian processes that carry fine
sediments away and leave behind coarse material sitting on bedrock (Praeger, 1969).
The Gobi Desert is relatively flat because it is in a fold or valley but is almost completely
surrounded by mountains to the west, south, and east sides (Figure 2). The most significant of
these are the Qilian Mountains to the south. They are part of the Tibetan plateau and the
Himalayas.

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(Figure 2- This map of the Gobi Desert shows the surrounding topography focusing on the
mountains in the area. Source http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gobi_desert_map.png)
These mountains create the rain shadow effect in which orogenic uplift causes all the moisture to
be dropped on the front side of the mountains. By the time the air mass crosses the mountains
and descends, it is completely dry and increasing in temperature. The temperature increases
because the air mass is quickly descending and expanding. The mountains to the east and west
have the same effect. Any air mass containing moisture that avoids the Tibetan Plateau will just
run into another mountain range that will deplete the available moisture. This entire region is
also located in the center of a continent therefore reducing the amount of moisture available
(Praeger, 1969).
The final component for this arid region is of course the weather. The mountains play a
large part in the weather of this area but another factor is also important. The continental
Mongolian-Siberian anticyclone located in Russia and Mongolia is an almost permanent high
pressure system that controls the region. High pressure systems are typical for sunny, dry
weather because it is a stable system. Moisture and rain is associated with low pressure systems
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and unstable weather. The high pressure is the source wind because wind moves from high to
low pressure; this helps keep undesirable weather away. The high pressure system is mainly in
control of this region in the winter as it advances southward. In the summer, the low pressure
system, The East Asian Monsoon, to the south that is the cause for the massive flooding in India
and along the Yangtze River is more prominent as it moves north. However, this does not affect
the Gobi Desert because of the rain shadow effect from the Tibetan Plateau and Himalayas. This
high pressure system is the final punch to create a sustained arid climate as this area receives less
than 100 mm of rainfall per year (Praeger, 1969).
Yunnan Province
The karst features of southern China seem other worldly and are among some of the most
amazing sights in the world according to Sweeting. Karst is the term used to describe a landscape
riddled with limestone that has been eroded by fluvial processes. Limestone dissolves when
water such as rain, rivers, and lakes act on it leaving behind caves, towers, and hills of remaining
limestone. Rain water is slightly acidic. Limestone breaks down when exposed to water and the
acidic nature of rain water accelerates the process. Yunnan is a province in south China that is
riddled with these unique landforms. This area is located on the China reference map where the
Mekong River flows out of the Tibetan Plateau. Karst dominates for many reasons. First is the
amount of limestone in the area. The limestone is more than 9000 feet thick and represents over
60 percent of the known strata in this region (Sweeting, 1973). The climate also plays a large
role. Yunnan has a sub-tropical climate where the western part of the province receives around
1500mm of rainfall annually and the east receives 600 mm. The area receives the effects of the
East Asian Monsoon which is the low pressure system that advances north in the summer. This
causes the area to receive more rainfall in the summer causing the erosion rate to increase. The
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last feature is the location in regards to the Tibetan Plateau. Yunnan is raised in elevation due to
the building of the Himalayas and contains many rivers that originate in the highlands. This leads
to fast flowing rivers that are high in sediment content. These rivers accelerate the erosional
fluvial processes that have formed this region (Praeger, 1969). There are two types of karst
features in southern China, cone karst and tower karst.
Cone karst is also known as Kegelkarst. These are limestone hills that resemble cones,
rising and falling in quick succession. They are mainly located in eastern Yunnan and can reach
as much as 300 feet high. They have a wide base anywhere between 300 and 600 feet and have a
moderate slope, usually anywhere between 40 and 60 degrees. Cone karst is typically formed
from water eroding on top of limestone bedrock. Rain or rivers can form channels in the blocks
of limestone and slowly erode over time to create a rounded hill of the original block. These are
located in eastern Yunnan where the topography is more level and the rivers are not as fast and
are not carrying a high sediment payload (Sweeting 273-281).
In contrast tower karst, known as Turmkarst, are steep sided limestone hills in groups.
They are almost always accompanied by a river or standing water. Lakes are a common site
around tower karst. The towers can rise to 300 meters high which is almost 1000 feet and have
anywhere between 70 and 90 degree slopes. They typically form in tropical regions so heavy
rainfall creates prime conditions for heavy flowing rivers with large amounts of sediment. These
towers are often riddled with caves because infiltrating rain forms channels in the limestone. The
caves can also be formed by past groundwater channels. Two factors play into the difference in
forming cone and tower karst. First is the more significant river flow, tower karst forms when
cone karst forming processes are accelerated such as faster rivers with more sediment. Second
are the joints in the limestone. They form as guidelines for the formation of water channels so
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they often serve as the point of erosion. Uplift can also rejuvenate the karst landscape with this
areas proximity to the Himalayas (Sweeting, 1973).
The Yangtze River
The Yangtze River is the most important river in China in terms resources such as
irrigation for farmland and power production from dams. Its headwaters are located in the
Tibetan Plateau at around 5100 meters high and the river stretches 3600 miles across China until
it reaches the Pacific Ocean in the east (Rau, 1970). The Yangtze River is the third largest river in
the world in regards to length and water discharge and the fourth largest in terms of sediment
load (X.X. Luo, 2012).

(Figure 3 This map shows the extent of the Yangtze River Basin. Source X.X. Luo, 2012)

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The Yangtze River basin stretches from about the midway point of the river to the mouth
at the Pacific Ocean and is essential to supporting life in this area (Praeger,1969) (see Figure 3).
The 180,000 square mile basin is home to about 450 million people and is a prime location for
human activity because of the rich floodplain soil (X.X. Luo, 2012). The soil was originally two
thirds yellow-cinnamonic soils but has been changed by farmers. This area is affected by the
tropical monsoon that fluctuates seasonally. So although the area is rich and great for agriculture,
it is also in danger of seasonal flooding. The floods are some of the most extensive in the world
and this has led to human action such as building dams (Praeger, 1969). Within the basin, around
50,000 dams have been built over history to combat the major flooding events. The most
significant dam in China is the Three Gorges Dam. It was built in 2006 and is the worlds largest
hydropower project. Although this dam produces more power than any other, it is controversial
for geological reasons. A common occurrence with dams is the reduction of sediment. Coarse
grained material can become trapped on the upstream side of the dam which allows only fine
grained material to pass through. This causes problems downstream. For example, this situation
can change a gravel based river to a sand based river. This change is controversial because it can
change the ecological processes of the river downstream from the dam causing problems in
erosion and even biological processes (X.X. Luo, 2012).
Discussion
Some of the key factors discussed are the importance of mountains in the formation of
each area. The rain shadow desert in the Gobi, the orogenisis and uplift of the land in forming
karst, and the headwaters of the Yangtze River are all due to the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding
mountains. Each area seems to be connected. The Tibetan plateau stops moisture from getting to
the Gobi Desert creating the arid environment. The limestone in Yunnan is there because of the
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formation of the Himalayan Mountains and the rain that falls on the plateau from the tropical low
pressure system is the source of many rivers that run through south China and carve the karst
landforms. Finally, the Yangtze River that provides for so many and is capable of destroying so
much is also created in these mountains. Even though they are all different processes, each is
affected by the others. The plateau is critical to each area. The Gobi Desert is formed from the
rain shadow desert effect. All the moisture is dropped on the plateau and creates some of the
rivers that run through China. These rivers carry sediment and pick up speed and cut through the
limestone in Yunnan. One of these rivers is the Yangtze, which provides for a mass of Chinas
population. Overall we can conclude that each area relies on the Tibetan Plateau. Without it, each
geomorphological landform would change completely.
Conclusion
China is a large country and is home to many different types of geomorphological
landforms and processes. First, the Gobi Desert is the main desert in China. It is created by the
rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau and the Siberian-Mongolian
high pressure system located over Mongolia. Second, the karst landscape of the Yunnan
province. This landform is made of limestone that was formed by the oceanic materials from the
impact of India into Asia. The limestone is eroded by the high amount of rainfall and the
numerous rivers that cut through the tropical and sub-tropical regions of China. Third, the
Yangtze Rivers headwaters flow from the Tibetan Plateau and carry sediment downstream
eroding and constantly changing the landscape. Without the Tibetan Plateau all of these regions
would dramatically change. The Gobi Desert would be exposed to the effects of the low pressure
system and receive enough rainfall to change the landscape. The limestone would not exist in
Yunnan without the orogenisis of the Himalayas therefore there would be no karst landforms.
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Finally, The Yangtze River would not be one the most impressive rivers in the world without the
rainfall and sediment from the plateau. Overall, the Tibetan Plateau creates each of these unique
processes and without it, none of the landforms would be the same.
References:
X.X. Luo, S.L. Yang, J. Zhang, The impact of the Three Gorges Dam on the downstream
distribution and texture of sediments along the middle and lower Yangtze River
(Changjiang) and its estuary, and subsequent sediment dispersal in the East China Sea,
Geomorphology, Volume 179, 15 December 2012, Pages 126-140, ISSN 0169-555X,
10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.05.034.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X12003868)
Sweeting, Marjorie M. Karst Landforms. New York: Colombia University Press, 1973. Print
Rau, Margaret. The Yangtze River. New York: Julian Messner, 1970. Print
Quilici, Folco. The Great Deserts. London: Collins, 1969. Print
Praeger, Frederick A. The Physical Geography of China Volume 2. New York: 1969. Print

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