Aktuatori I Deo

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet
HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI
O aktuatorima (sa primerima upotrebe u vazduhoplovstvu) - I deo

Actuator
Device that creates mechanical motion (rotary or linear) by converting various forms of energy (Electic, Hydraulic, Pneumatic)
Mainly there are three types of actuators:
Electro-Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic actuator use the hydraulic fluid power/energy and transform into motion.
The available devices are both linear and rotary. Hydraulic actuators are often used when large forces are required.
Electro-Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuator converts power/energy (in the form of compressed air or gases) into motion.
The motion can be rotary or linear, depending on the type of actuator.
Because low pressure involve so these actuators are limited to low force applications.
Electro-Mechanical Actuators
In Electro-Mechanical actuator electrical power/energy is converted into mechanical power or motion with the use of mechanical system i.e. gears,
harmonic drive and lead screw etc.
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dr Marko Milo; kabinet 136; e-mail: mmilos@mas.bg.ac.rs
Block Diagram of a General Actuation Module
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Diagram for Conventional Methods of Actuation System Design
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Aerospace Application
Device used for Attitude control by moving Aerodynamic (Fins, Ailerons, Canards..) or Gas dynamic (Vans, tabs) Control Surfaces or by tilting the whole
Gimbaled Engine/Nozzle Assembly
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About Flight Control Systems

Or
How Fying Object Turns in Flight
To perform turns, flying object that use no thrust vectoring must rely on only aerodynamic control surfaces; craft with vectoring still can/must use control
surfaces, but to a lesser extent.
A typical aircraft's primary flight controls

(see animation 1 - ControlSurfaces.gif)
Flight control: Aileron [Linear Actuator]
Used on typical airplanes:

Ailerons (A-roll control)
Elevators (C-pitch control)
Rudders (D-yaw control)
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About Flight Control Systems

Or
How Fying Object Turns in Flight
Thrust vectoring is the ability of an aircraft, missile or other vehicle to direct the thrust from its main engine(s) in a direction
other than parallel to the vehicle's longitudinal axis.
Flight control: Thrust Vectoring / Jet Vane

[Rotary Actuator]
Missile with thrust vectoring
(see animation 2 - MovableNozzle.gif
& 3 - TVC_Animation.mpg)
Most missiles do not have conventional rudders (D-yaw control), ailerons (A-roll control) or elevators (C-pitch control) like those used on typical airplanes.
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Basic Concept

As it was written before, three basic solutions should be used in various types of control
systems:
Electro-mechanical actuators
Electro-hydraulic actuators
Electro-pneumatic actuators
The advantages of electro-mechanical actuators in comparison with hydraulic solution

(electro-pneumatic actuators are rare used):
Fig. 1 EMA_version 1, Main Parts
Electromechanical actuators are cost effective, compared to electro-hydraulic

system, because there is one energy conversion versus two in a hydraulic system.
Installation time is reduced, as the system requires the mechanical installation of
the actuator and the connection of two cables (one power and one resolver) only.
There are no periodic maintenance requirements.
No need for flexibly hydraulic lines and fittings, no replacements of high-pressure
seals or filters, no leakage of oil.
A hydraulic pump unit may require a separate additional space with fluid
containment provisions.
Concerning respond speed: when a step function is generated in a hydraulic
system, the hydraulic fluid will exhibit some compression before the actuator
begins to move. In an electric system, the electric motor begins operation at peak
power as soon as the command is received.
However, for very large loads and very long strokes, etc., hydraulic actuators are
often the only solution
Fig. 1 EMA_version 1, Main Parts
The system consists of the three major components :
Object (FOR EXAMPLE: Control surface: Vane or Fin)
Electric motor with (or without) gearhead
Transmission assembly-speed reducer
Fig. 2 EMA_version 1, Main Subassemblies
Main subassemblies of actuator are:
1. Motor
2. Housing assembly
3. Transmission assembly
4. Lever with Slides
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Fig. 2 EMA_version 1, Main Subassemblies
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Fig. 3 EMA_version 2, Linear EMA, Main Subassemblies
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Fig. 3a EMA_version 3, Linear EMA, Main Subassemblies
Fig. 3b Rotary EMA, Main Subassemblies
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / How It Works
The primary mechanical scheme of EMA (Fig. EMA_AT3, Fig. EMA_AT4) is relatively
simple even the component design could be complex.
The design consists of the following major components:
Control surface
Electromotor with (or without) gearhead & encoder
[Gearhead makes possible control of large load inertia with a

comparatively small motor inertia. Without the gearhead, acceleration or
velocity control of the load would require that the motor torque, and thus
current, would have to be as many times greater as the reduction ratio
which is used;
Fig. EMA_AT3
DC electric motors produce large output speed with relatively small torque.
In actuating system, however, opposite situation is required, so we need
relative small speed (angular velocity) and large torque. Because of that,
reducing system between electric motor and vane (or fin) may be
introduced if it is necessary]
1
5
2
Transmission subassembly
[Converts rotational input into linear output]

System control could be provided with electronic controller and power supply.
Usually, resolvers and associated electronics deliver position feedback to the
controller such precise positioning could be achieved.
4
3
Fig. EMA_AT4
(see animation 4 - FIN 1_Animation.flv

& 5 FIN 2_Animation.flv)
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / How It Works

Application
Basic principle of work
The electromotor and gearhead (Fig. EMA_AT4 pos. 2) in the combination with
transmission subassembly - transforms rotation motion (of electromotor) via
roller screw (Fig. EMA_AT4 pos. 3) in translation motion of nut (Fig. EMA_AT4 pos. 4).
Translational motion of nut is then via fork lever (Fig. EMA_AT4 pos. 4) transformed into rotational motion of vanes (Fig. EMA_AT4 pos. 1) shaft.
Fig. EMA_AT1
Fig. EMA_AT5 EMA assembly
Fig. EMA_AT6 EMA subassembly

Fig. EMA_AT2
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Selection of Electric Motors

Types of Electric Motors Which Should Be Applied In
Electro-Mechanical Actuators
Advantages
DC Motor Drives
Features
Field orientation via mechanical commutator
Controlling variables are Armature Current and Field Current,
measured DIRECTLY from the motor
Torque control is direct
In a DC motor, the magnetic field is created by the current through the field
winding in the stator. This field is always at right angles to the field created by
the armature winding. This condition, known as field orientation, is needed to
generate maximum torque. The commutator-brush assembly ensures this
condition is maintained regardless of the rotor position.
Once field orientation is achieved, the DC motors torque is easily controlled
by varying the armature current and by keeping the magnetizing current
constant. The advantage of DC drives is that speed and torque the two
main concerns of the end-user - are controlled directly through armature
current: that is the torque is the inner control loop and the speed is the outer
control loop (Fig. 4).
Accurate and fast torque control

High dynamic speed response
Simple to control
Initially, DC drives were used for variable speed control because they could
easily achieve a good torque and speed response with high accuracy. A DC
machine is able to produce a torque that is:
Direct - the motor torque is proportional to the armature current: the torque
can thus be controlled directly and accurately.
Rapid - torque control is fast; the drive system can have a very high
dynamic speed response. Torque can be changed instantaneously if the
motor is fed from an ideal current source. A voltage fed drive still has a fast
response, since this is determined only by the rotors electrical time constant
Simple - field orientation is achieved using a simple mechanical device - a
commutator/brush assembly. Hence, there is no need for complex electronic
control circuitry, which would increase the cost of the motor controller.
Drawbacks
Reduced motor reliability

Regular maintenance
Needs encoder for feedback
The main drawback of this technique is the reduced reliability of the DC

motor; the fact that brushes and commutators wear down and need regular
servicing; require encoders for speed and position feedback.
Fig. 4 Control Loop of a DC Motor Drive
While a DC drive produces an easily controlled torque from zero to base

speed and beyond, the motors mechanics are more complex and require
regular maintenance.
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Basic Motor Theory Summary for Commonly Used DC Motors
2. Brushless DC motors
Commonly used DC motors are:

1. Brush DC motor
Fig. 6 Brushless DC Motor
Fig. 5 Brush DC Motor
Permanent magnet DC motor converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. This conversion takes place due to interaction of the
motors two magnet fields. One of these magnetic fields is created by a set of
permanent magnets (on the brush-type motor, the stator usually contains the
permanent magnets; the brushless motors magnets are a part of a rotor
assembly). The other magnetic field is created by current flowing through the
motors windings (the windings of brush-type motor are contained in the
armature motor), while the brushless windings are part of the stator
assembly. The interaction of these two fields causes a resulting torque; the
result of which is motor rotation. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings
is commutated, resulting in a continuous torque output. Brush-type motors
(Fig. 6) are mechanically commutated (with brushes), while brushless motors
are electronically commutated.
A brushless DC (BLDC, Fig. 6) motor is inherently more reliable that

a brush motor. They, of course, have no brushes to wear out, so they have a
longer life and less downtime due to brush replacement. Because of lack of
brushes, there is no brush arcing or brush bounce. With no brush resistance,
they typically provide high speeds than brush motors. And because the
winding is typically on the outside element, they offer better heat dissipation.
The absence of brushes also makes the BLDC motor a more quiet
(both acoustically and electrically) unit than one with brushes. Advances in
electronics and power semiconductors permit cost effective control of a
BLDC motor.
Conversely, brushless motors are usually more expensive. Also,
since there is a need for additional electronics that will convert monophase
signal to multiphase, they are more space and also weight consuming.
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3. Stepper motors
For some application, there is a choice between using servomotors

and stepping motors. Both types of motors offer similar opportunities for
precise positioning, but they differ in a number of ways. Servomotors require
encoder feedback control systems of some type. Typically, this involves an
optical or magnetic encoder to provide feedback about the rotor position, and
some mix of circuitry to drive a current through the motor inversely
proportional to the difference between the desired and the current position.
Fig. 7 Stepper Motor
Stepping motors (Fig. 7) can be viewed as electric motors without

commutators. Typically, all windings in the motor are part of the stator, and
the rotor is either a permanent magnet, or a toothed block of some
magnetically soft material (in the case of variable reluctance motors). All of
the commutation must be handled externally by the motor controller, and
typically, the motors and controllers are designed so that the motor can be
held in any fixed position as well as being rotated one way or other. Most
steppers, as they are also known, can be stepped at audio frequencies,
allowing them to spin quite quickly, and with an appropriate controller, they
may be started and stopped on a dime at controlled orientations
Stepping motors can be used in simple open-loop control systems;

these are generally adequate for systems that operate at low accelerations
with static loads, but closed loop control may be essential for high
accelerations, particularly if they involve variable loads. If a stepper in an
open-loop control system is overtorqued, all knowledge of rotor position is
lost and the system must be reinitialized. Servomotors are not subjected to
this problem.
Stepping motors can also be used in closed loop systems, much like
servos, with the addition of an encoder and feedback drive circuitry.
Performance is improved at the expenses of additional cost.
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AC Motor Drives
AC Drives general characteristics
Small size and robust
Simple in design
Light and compact
Low maintenance and low cost
The evolution of AC variable speed drive technology has been partly
driven by the desire to emulate the performance of the DC drive, such as fast
torque response and speed accuracy, while utilizing the advantages offered
by the standard AC motor.
Fig. 8 Control Loop of a DC Motor Drive
Advantages
Low cost
No feedback device required simple
Features
Controlling variables are Voltage and Frequency
Simulation of variable AC sine wave using modulator
Flux provided with constant V/f ratio
Open-loop drive
Load dictates torque level
Unlike a DC drive, the AC drive frequency control technique uses
parameters generated outside of the motor as controlling variables, namely
voltage and frequency.
Because there is no feedback device, the controlling principle offers

a low cost and simple solution to controlling economical AC induction motors.
This type of drive is suitable for applications which do not require
high levels of accuracy or precision, such as pumps and fans.
Drawbacks
Field orientation not used
Motor status ignored
Torque is not controlled
Delaying modulator used
Both voltage and frequency reference are fed into a modulator, which
simulates an AC sine wave and feeds this to the motors stator windings. This
technique is called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and utilizes the fact that
there is a diode rectifier towards the mains and the intermediate DC voltage is
kept constant. The inverter controls the motor in the form of a PWM pulse
train dictating both the voltage and frequency.
With this technique, sometimes known as Scalar Control, field

orientation of the motor is not used. Instead, frequency and voltage are the
main control variables and are applied to the stator windings. The status of
the rotor is ignored, meaning that no speed or position signal is fed back.
Significantly, this method does not use a feedback device, which

takes speed or position measurements from the motors shaft and feeds these
back into the control loop. Such an arrangement, without a feedback device,
is called an open-loop drive.
Therefore, torque cannot be controlled with any degree of accuracy.

Furthermore, the technique uses a modulator which basically slows down
communication between the incoming voltage and frequency signals and the
need for the motor to respond to this changing signal.
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Selection of Electric Motor General Considerations
Regardless of how simple or complex the application, there are some
common requirements to consider for the selection of the proper motor
(and/or controller).
Environmental considerations
- Temperature
- Humidity
- Shock and vibration
- Altitude
- Presence of chemicals, contaminants, vapors, etc.
Heat sinking of motor

A motor can be heat sinked by mounting it on a mass of thermally
conductive material. The material conducts heat away from the
motor. Heat sinking has a dramatic effect on motor performance.
Effective heat sinking increases the continuous output torque
capability of the motor.
Expected velocity profile

A velocity profile is a graph that shoes how quickly the motor
accelerates to rated speed, the time the motor runs at rated speed,
and how quickly the motor decelerates to zero speed.
Some common considerations are:
Required output torque

Motor torque is combination of the internal torque loses (a function
of motor design) and external torque load. External torque load is a
function of load inertia and load acceleration.
Required speed range

How fast should motor run when loaded and unloaded
Available space for motor mounting

Motor length and its maximum diameter must be taken into
consideration. Also, motor dimensions may be dictated by
performance requirements.
Source of power for the motor

Source of power is DC. Current limits and voltage range could be
limiting factors.
Special shaft and/or mounting requirements

What length and diameter of shaft are needed, and is a rear shaft
extension required (for encoders, brakes, etc.) are the questions that
should be kept on mind.
Electric motor should be chosen according to required technical

requirements for a specific actuator system.
The electric motors, which have been taken into consideration are produced
by:
MOOG
KOLLMORGEN
MAXON
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Kollmorgen ServoDisc Concept
Servodisc concept (Fig. 9) has many advantages in comparison with
motors from other manufacturers, so we will give its detail description. The
greatest difference between the ServoDisc motor and conventional DC servos
is its ironless disc armature. This difference enables ServoDisc motors to
deliver a level of performance, in both incremental motion and continuous
speed applications, which is not attainable with conventional ironcore motor
designs.
In a conventional slot-wound servomotor, the armature is

constructed from a heavy, laminated ironcore wounds with coils of wire. In a
ServoDisc motor, the armature has no iron. Instead, it is constructed from
several layers of copper conductors in a unique flat-disc configuration.
As additional performance advantages, ServoDisc motors have a

unique compact shape that can be an attractive alternative in solving tight
packaging problems.
A conventional ironcore motor (Fig. 10) uses a radial design with
magnets placed concentrically around the shaft in such a way to produce a
radial magnetic field. The armature consists of slotted steel laminations
wound with coils of wire, which interact with the magnetic field to produce
torque. As the motor rotates a commutator automatically maintains the correct
current flow.
A ServoDisc motor uses entirely different physical construction. The motor is
designed with the magnetic field aligned axially, parallel to the shaft. The
conductors in the armature have a current flow, which is perpendicular to the
magnetic field (radial to the shaft). This produces a torque perpendicular to
both the magnetic field and the current (the left-hand rule). This force rotates
the shaft.
This construction approach is much more efficient than the radial design of
conventional ironcore motors and eliminates the heavy iron armature and the
electrical losses associated with it. The large number of commutations makes
possible with Kollmorgens unique flat armature to produce dramatically
smoother torque output.
Fig. 9 Kollmorgen ServoDisc Motor
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Beside armature designs, completely different is also the shape and

internal construction. In a conventional servo, the permanent magnets are
mounted on the motor shell creating a radial magnetic field, perpendicular to
the shaft (Fig. 11). Because the magnet pairs are so far apart, the iron core
of the armature is needed to contain and focus the lines of magnetic flux.
Motors of this type are typically long, thin and heavy.
Fig. 10 Conventional Ironcore Motor
In a ServoDisc motor, the magnets are mounted on the end plates

creating an axial magnetic field, parallel to the shaft. This leads to a very
small air gap between the magnets, separated only by the thickness of the
disc armature-a very clean and effective design approach. Torque is created
when the current flowing radially through the copper conductors interacts
directly with the field of the permanent magnets (Fig. 11). This configuration
is a very efficient way of producing torque. These different approaches
produce dramatically different motors (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12
Fig. 11 ServoDisc Motor
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The iron-free ServoDisc armature provides some significant
performance advantages for motion control applications. They are:
Size
The ServoDisc armature is much smaller and lighter than bulky

ironcore designs of equivalent output.
Long brush life
Because there is no iron, there is nearly no inductance. The result is

no arcing, because there is no stored energy in the armature to be dissipated
during commutation. In an ironcore motor, a lot of energy is stored in the
magnetic field of each coil. When this field collapses, the energy may be
discharged by arcing to the brushes. Arcing, not friction, is the major cause of
brush wear. The elimination of arcing leads to very long brush life in most
applications. In fact, depending on the application, it is possible for the
brushes to last as long as the bearings. Also, if there is some electronics
stored in vicinity of a motor, arcing can cause serious problems, due to
electrical disturbances. In this case, there is no such a problem.
Acceleration
ServoDisc motors accelerate up to 10 times faster than conventional

servomotors. The thin, low-inertia armature design leads to exceptional
torque-to-inertia ratios. This translates into blazing acceleration (Fig. 13). A
typical ServoDisc motor can accelerate from 0 to 3000 rpm in only 60 degrees
of rotation. In some applications, the entire move can be performed in less
than 10 milliseconds. This means shorter cycle times, more moves per
second and higher throughput. For incremental motion applications, this
translates into higher productivity and more profitability.
No arcing also means no commutation limits due to speed. In a conventional
motor, arcing increases as speed increases and eventually causes motor
operation to become erratic. ServoDisc motors do not suffer from this problem
and can run to 4000 rpm and above.
Fig. 13
Cogging
The ironless ServoDisc armature has absolutely no cogging at any

speed of operation. If you rotate a conventional motor when it is unpowered,
you will notice that it pulls into certain preferred positions. This occurs when
the iron laminations in the armature line up with the permanent magnets on
the stator. This phenomenon is called cogging. It also occurs when the
motor is powered and shows up as torque disturbances, which can be a
serious problem in critical applications. The ServoDisc armature, being
ironless, is not attracted by the magnets and. consequently, has intrinsically
zero cogging (Fig. 14). The result is ultra-smooth rotation at any speed.
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Fig. 14
Electrical Time Constant
A very low electrical time constant results in torque much sooner than
with conventional wire-wound motors. Low inductance provides another
advantage-low electrical time constant. This is a measure of how long it takes
for current to flow into the armature. For ServoDisc motors, this is much less
than one millisecond (Fig. 15). This means full torque almost instantly; a key
to fast moves and accurate tracking.
Torque-Speed Curves
With full torque from 0 to full speed, ServoDisc motors solidly

outperform conventional motors.
In a conventional motor there are losses associated with rotating the
iron armature in a magnetic field. These losses are increased with speed, so
if the motor goes faster, it uses more and more of its available torque just to
keep itself in turning.
Consequently, less torque is left to deliver to the output shaft (Fig.
16a). ServoDisc motors do not have these iron-associated losses and, as a
result, deliver more torque over their entire speed range. In fact, the torque is
almost constant from 0 to 4000 rpm (Fig. 16b). Comparing this performance
with the torque-speed characteristics of a conventional motor, when sizing a
conventional motor, the torque drop-off with speed may require you to select
the next higher size to get sufficient torque at high speed. You will never
have this problem with a ServoDisc motor.
Fig. 16
Fig. 15
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Peak Torque Capability
MOOG electric motors
High peak torque capability means more throughputs than is available

from standard servos.
Moog Components Group manufactures wide range of different

torque and servomotors electric motors, both brush and brushless. Moog
motors are designed to operate over a range of speeds for a wide variety of
military, aerospace and industrial applications.
Different applications can require unique configurations of mounting
flanges, housings, output shafts and electrical requirements, which can be
ordered from this manufacturer.
A variety of shaft configurations can also be ordered from this
manufacturer, in dependency of mechanical configuration where this motor
will be applied.
Fig. 17
For rapid acceleration and deceleration, higher level than normal

torque is usually required. To produce this temporary peak torque, a peak
current is applied to the motor. In an iron-core design, the magnetic field of
the armature can interact with and demagnetize the permanent magnets.
Because of this effect, peak current is generally limited to 2 or 3 times the
continuous current rating. With the non-magnetic ServoDisc armature and
axial magnetic field, this problem is virtually eliminated. Most ServoDisc
motors are rated for peak current of 10 times the continuous rating (Fig. 17).
Motors from this manufacturer also have high torque-to-power and

torque-to-inertia ratios, high linearity and low electrical time constants. These
motors are ideally suited for applications that require maximum dynamism in
minimum space, and offer other benefits, such as low inductance, high
efficiency and extreme reliability.
Kollmorgen Servodisc motors has many advantages in comparison

with electric motors from other manufacturers with classic ironcore design.
This motor is faster in comparison with others, and would satisfy all
requirements, but it has one big shortage: it has brush. Nevertheless
numerous advantages, this makes it inappropriate for specific application.
Fig. 18 MOOG permanent magnet DC motors
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MAXON electric motors
The Maxon Group is specialized in developing, and manufacturing
high-quality drive components and systems under the Maxon motor trade
mark. It manufactures precision components for highly dynamic drive
systems: small, high-quality, precision direct current (DC) brush and
brushless motors. These motors can be used for a wide range of
applications from medicine, semiconductor, aerospace & defense, test and
measurement, robotics, assembly, manufacturing and many other
applications.
Maxon motors offers several advantages over conventional DC
motors: a low mechanical time constant for fast acceleration, low current
consumption for extended battery life, eliminates cogging for smooth
rotation, even at low speeds, linear speed-torque constants for simple,
accurate control. Maxons electronically commutated (EC) brushless motors
enable extremely long motor life since there are no mechanical brushes to
wear out. By assembling the motor such that the coils are outside the rotor,
good heat dissipation and high overload capability is assured. In addition,
the use of high-energy neodymium magnets results in very high torque with
minimum overall size.
Other advantages are:
the rotor's low inertia, minimal detent, robust bearings and compact
construction.
Fig. 18 MAXON cross-section of typical brushless DC motors
The use of high-powered permanent magnets ensures high power density,

providing great speed stability under load.
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Gearhead Selection
Selection of Gearhead General Considerations

The primary reason to use a gearhead is that it makes
possible control of large load inertia with a comparatively small
motor inertia. Without the gearhead, acceleration or velocity control
of the load would require that the motor torque, and thus current,
would have to be as many times greater as the reduction ratio which
is used. There are extensive motor and gearhead combinations that
will satisfy the performance requirements of a specific application.
Basically, it is best solution to choose the motor-gearhead
combination from same manufacturer (if possible), regardless of
what it would, eventually, be. In that way, one can bypass the
problem of their compatibility, thus reducing design and production
coasts, as well as construction size.
Primary consideration in selection of the best combination of
motor and gearhead should be output torque and the speed required
by application. The no-load speed or peak torque may also be the
driving consideration for certain applications.
The long and short-term capabilities of a gearmotor vary
widely. Furthermore, the nature of the load which is being driven, is
a factor which must be considered when selection of the right
gearmotor for the application is performed. Shock loads shorten unit
life, though the average torque may not exceed the specified rating.
Duty cycle will limit the gearmotor capability. Mechanisms
that contribute to gearmotor failure often are related to heat and its
effect on lubrication. Therefore, long duty cycles which can
significantly increase motor temperature over ambient conditions
should be avoided.
Fig. 1 Gearheads
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Gearhead Selection
Factors affecting gearhead life - the life performance of a

reduction gearhead and motor combination is determined by
input speed, output torque, and conditions of operation. Since a
multitude of parameters are present in a given application, it is
impossible to state actual lifetimes that can be expected from a
specific type of gearhead or motor-gearhead combination. A
number of options for standard reduction gearheads are
available to enhance performance such as ball bearings, all
metal gears, special lubricants, etc.
Assembly precaution - whether a gearhead with sintered,

ceramic, or ball bearings is chosen, it must be handled as any
piece of precision machinery. Avoid dropping, crushing, or
otherwise abusing the gearheads, and keep them away from dirt
if they are not assembled to a motor. Getting dirt particles or
other foreign matters in the input end of a gearhead will impair its
performance and lifetime. Many ball bearing systems are
preloaded with calibrated spring washers to lower current
consumption and backlash. Exceeding shaft loading
specifications or maximum push-on pressures will destroy the
preload in the bearings. This can result in decreased
performance, increased operating currents, higher audible noise,
increased backlash, and shorter gearhead life.
In selecting a gearhead, one must be mindful that gearhead selection

will impact more than just the output speed and torque level at the output
shaft. Some of the considerations to keep in mind should include:
Backlash this is the gearhead characteristic that allows bidirectional shaft play in the shaft. It is measured at the output
shaft of the gearhead and can vary typically from some arc
minutes up to 6 or 7 degrees, in dependence of load. Backlash
can be deduced by using preloaded ball bearings, and by
specifying zero-backlash gearheads.
Ball bearings are typically suggested in applications where high

axial loads are present. Be advised, however, that using of ball
bearings can increase audible noise in some cases.
Ceramic bearings - for cost-sensitive applications in which

extended life and enhanced load-bearing capabilities are
important. These bearing systems allow the user to increase
radial loads beyond the levels allowed in traditional sintered
bronze bearing systems. Costs of the ceramic bearings are also
considerably below above of ball bearings.
Assembling of motors and gearheads requires that the motors be run

at specific speeds, and that assembly be done according to specific
procedures in order to prevent damage of the motor and the gearhead.
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Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Transmission System

Connection of electric motor and the object using gear reducer
(standard, planetary gearhead, harmonic drive...)
Preliminary Consideration of Transmission System
Advantages:
Some solutions of actuator transmission system design will be
considered in the further text. Regarding the way of connection and transfer of
electric motor's rotary motion on the object, several types of electromechanical actuators (EMA) can be defined.
They allow favourable selection of dynamic characteristics of actuator, and

reduction of weight of device.
Disadvantages:
Direct fitting of electric motor (torque-motor) to the object

It is used for applications with large torque and low speed.
Its disadvantages are large weight and a need for special shaft of the
object with adequate bearings.
Because of presence of inevitable teeth gaps, which have unfavorable effect

on control loop, it is needed very precise gear production, or special
construction with elimination of gaps, which makes production harder and
more expensive.
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
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Connection of electromotor and the object using rolled threads ball screws
along with some lever mechanism.
This type of screws transforms rotating motion of electric motor to linear motion
of nut.
However, instead of classic screw-nut conjunction, hardened steel balls rotating
between them are used. In that way sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction,
thus increasing efficiency of the screw from 30% to around 90%. Except that,
they have another advantage-small gap that could be eliminated by preloading
(for example with two nuts and preload spacer).
Disadvantage is that balls must at the end of nut go out of touch with screw and
go back through special tube, thus having external recirculation. Also, they have
weak capability of carrying load in radial direction. They are sensitive to impact
loads, too.
Connection of electromotor and the object using

" Planetary roller screws"
Connection of electromotor and the object using " Planetary roller screws"
with lever mechanism or two coaxial cylinders in which screw and nut are
placed, making compact construction (resembles to hydraulic cylinder).
They work in a similar manner as ones with ball screws, but instead of
balls, they have threaded rollers. The helix angle of the roller thread is
exactly the same as the nut thread, so the roller does not move axially
relative to the nut as it rolls. It has high efficiency 80-90%, because there
is no sliding. The absence of recalculation means that the nut is robust
and capable of high rotation speed with smooth running. They also have
small gap that could be eliminated by preloading. They are less sensitive
to impact loads and they can carry higher loads, comparing to those with
ball screws.
Disadvantages: Higher costs of production due to increased precision,
and somewhat larger dimensions.
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Strana 27

Ball / Roller Concept
Internal recirculation ball screw
The classic sliding screw typically consists of a steel shaft with

trapezoidal thread and bronze nut. The high efficiency screw has rolling
elements, balls or rollers, between the nut and the screw shaft.
The efficiency of the screw is increased by replacing the sliding
friction with rolling friction from 30% to 90%, and provides other essential
benefits that are common to all types of high efficiency screw:
Smooth action - no stick slip

Excellent repeatability and high reliability
Predictable life
Low wear ensuring consistent precision
External recirculation ball screw

Ball screws, in which the balls return by a tube after 11/2, 21/2 or 31/2
turns of load carrying, have external recirculation (Fig. 6). This is the least
expensive method of recirculation, but has the disadvantage of a relatively
large nut. This nut design is matched with economical rolled thread screws.
The internal recirculation system uses a stainless steel insert in

which the balls jump back over the screw thread after only one turn of load
carrying (Fig. 24). This is more costly than external tube recirculation, but
provides a more compact nut.
In all types of ball screw the load is transmitted from screw shaft to
nut through each ball. According to Hertz's law the load carrying capacity of
each ball is a function of its diameter. In a conventional ball screw the ball
diameter can never be larger than the lead of the screw normally 60% to
70% of the lead. The load carrying capacity of a high efficiency screw also
depends on the number of contact points. More contact points with larger
diameter are required therefore, to increase the load carrying capacity. This
can be achieved by means of rollers, threads (Fig. 7) or grooves. Thus, roller
screws have higher load carrying capacity than ball screws.
Fig. 7
Fig. 6
Strana 28
Planetary roller screw

The high load Transrol planetary roller screw has threaded rollers (Fig. 10). The helix
angle of the roller thread is exactly the same as the nut thread, so the roller does not
move axially relative to the nut as it rolls. The absence of recirculation means that the
nut is robust and capable of high rotational speeds. Its planetary timing system
enables it to run smoothly even in dirty or poorly lubricated conditions.
Fig. 8
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Recirculation roller screw
Fig. 9
Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 represents the design of electro-mechanical actuator

with integrated electric motor and SKF recirculation ball screw.
A grooved roller is the basis of the Transrol recirculating roller screw (Fig. 11). The
rollers move axially as they roll inside the nut so that recirculation is necessary as in
the case of a ball screw. This mechanism permits high loads to be carried with leads
as small as one millimeter. The recirculating roller screw facilitates ultimate
positioning accuracy and rigidity, often with a simplified transmission. Resolutions as
small as 0.025 p have been achieved by this kind of roller screw.
Strana 29
Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Transmission System - Lever Mechanism

Kinematics and Dynamics Analysis
Mechanisms With Ball and Roller Screws
of
Lever
Among possible transmission systems which can

be applied in an actuating systems, we will consider
custom screw-nut transmission system. Custom screwnut transmission system transform fast rotating motion of
electromotor to slower translation motion of nut. That
motion is then, in some way, translated to rotational
movement of objects shaft, using lever mechanism.
Screw is connected to electric motor shaft, and screw is
connected to vane the object via lever with slot and
slider.
ELECTROMOTOR
SCREW
NUT
BEARING
vn
l
The advantages of this mechanism are:

- small overall dimensions of system
- simple design and easy manufacturing
Mh
The main disadvantage is great friction, and

thus, large losses. However, these shortcomings could
be overcome using ball and roller screw drives.
This type of reduction system using ball or roller
screw drives is primarily used in actuating system that
require large precision of positioning. Coefficient of
efficiency is much larger (up to 0.9) than in conventional
screw-nut systems. Friction forces are not dependant of
speed. Also, backlash can be practically totally
eliminated.
FIN
LEVER
Fig. 12 Screw-Nut Transmission System
Custom screw-nut transmission system is presented in

Fig. 12.
Strana 30

The following parameters can be recognized on the sketch (Fig. 12):
The equation of system behavior could be done applying law of kinetic
energy preservation. Kinetic energy of system equals sum of kinetic energies
of rotor, screw, nut, lever and the object:
h - screw pitch (lead)

vn - axial velocity of nut
2rn - mean thread diameter
m - speed of rotation of an electric motor
l - lever arm
Mh - moment on object
- objects deflection
Ek
1
1
1
(J m J s ) 2m m n v 2n (J a J f ) 2 (1.6)
2
2
2
or
2
Calculation of axial velocity of nut for this transmission system is given bellow:
Ek
vn
h
(1.1)
tan
2rn
rn m
h m
vn
(1.2)
2
Where:
From figure:
Jm - moment of inertia of motor

Js - moment of inertia of screw
mn - mass of nut
Ja - moment of inertia of arm (lever)
Jf - moment of inertia of the object
J - moment of inertia of rotating elements of system, reduced to the
objects axis of rotation
v n cos l (1.3)
and from that we can get:
1
l
J J m J s 2 m n l 2
J a J f (1.8)
2
h
cos
h cos

m m (1.4)
l d 2
i
Where reduction ratio is:
1
1
1
1
l
(J m J s )i 2 2 m n 2 J a J f 2 J 2 (1.7)
2
2
2
2
cos
2 l
(1.5)
cos h
The power of torques acting in system is:
P Pdeveloped Pfriction Pload
The reduction ratio depends on the objects deflection , i=i(). For small
angles , we can take cos=1, thus letting that mistake be 1-2%. However, for
angles from 0.35-0.4rad (20-25), this approximation is not allowed, leading
to erroneous results.
P M m m M f .m m M f .n m M h
Strana 31
(1.9)

Loses in power screw are due to friction forces. They are proportional
to torques that are transmitted. If the coefficient of efficiency of power screw is
n, then the torque due to friction is:
Mf.n = (1-n)Mm
Where Mf is sum of all Coulombs frictions, reduced to fins axis of rotation.

The first derivation of J , according to (1.8) is:
(1.10)
2
tan
dJ
l
2J m J s 2 m n l 2
2
dt
h
cos
Since, according to law of change of kinetic energy
dE k
P
dt
dJ
l
2 J m J s 2 m n l 2
dt
h
from (1.7) follows:
dE k 1 dJ 2
d
J
dt
2 dt
dt
(1.11)
Thus, we can conclude that derivation
Replacing (1.10) into (1.9), we get:
(1.13)
d
1 dJ
i ( ) n M m M h M f
dt
2 dt
(1.12)
dJ
is proportional to
dt
deflection angle and its derivation. From expression (1.12), we can see that
this derivation is multiplied with derivation of deflection angle, so this
component could be neglected, as small value in respect to other
components in equation (1.12).
Strana 32

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Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

O aktuatorima (sa primerima upotrebe u vazduhoplovstvu) - I deo

Mainly there are three types of actuators:

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

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Block Diagram of a General Actuation Module

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Diagram for Conventional Methods of Actuation System Design

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

About Flight Control Systems

A typical aircraft's primary flight controls

Used on typical airplanes:

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

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About Flight Control Systems

Flight control: Thrust Vectoring / Jet Vane

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Basic Concept

The advantages of electro-mechanical actuators in comparison with hydraulic solution

Fig. 1 EMA_version 1, Main Parts

Electromechanical actuators are cost effective, compared to electro-hydraulic

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Basic Concept

Fig. 2 EMA_version 1, Main Subassemblies

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Basic Concept

Fig. 3 EMA_version 2, Linear EMA, Main Subassemblies

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Basic Concept

Fig. 3a EMA_version 3, Linear EMA, Main Subassemblies

Fig. 3b Rotary EMA, Main Subassemblies

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / How It Works

[Gearhead makes possible control of large load inertia with a

[Converts rotational input into linear output]

(see animation 4 - FIN 1_Animation.flv

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / How It Works

Fig. EMA_AT5 EMA assembly

Fig. EMA_AT6 EMA subassembly

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Selection of Electric Motors

Accurate and fast torque control

Reduced motor reliability

The main drawback of this technique is the reduced reliability of the DC

Fig. 4 Control Loop of a DC Motor Drive

While a DC drive produces an easily controlled torque from zero to base

Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet

HIBRIDNI TEHNIKI SISTEMI

Electro-Mechanical Actuators / Selection of Electric Motors

Commonly used DC motors are:

Fig. 6 Brushless DC Motor