1.

Abstract
The nature provides us with plenty of components to be used on
construction, equipment and many other applications in industry and in life. There
are some techniques to test the limits of these materials, which are meant to be
strong and durable. The tests show us some characteristics of the materials, so
we can chose the proper materials that meet the requirements needed. Some of
the characteristics of materials we can test and calculate are the stress and
strain limits, yield-strength, ductility, and modulus of elasticity.
Two hardness tests were done in this lab, and the materials used were
Steel, Aluminum, and Copper. The first test determined the Rockwell Hardness
(C-scale) of Steel by applying a maximum load of 100kg onto a steel sample with
a 1/16 diameter steel ball. The second test determined the Rockwell Hardness
(B-scale) of Aluminum and Copper by applying a maximum load of 150kg onto a
sample with cone shaped Diamond Head. The hardness obtained is calculated
by the Force Applied over Surface Area of indenture. Steel was considered the
hardest material with a 11.7 HRC, then Copper with a hardness of 61.933 HRB,
and lastly Aluminum with a hardness of 57.377 HRB.
The other experiment was the tensile test where a sample of Aluminum
was pulled apart until it fractured, to determine the strengths and weakness of
the material. The machine, with the initial and final lengths of the aluminum dog
bone, computes data that converts into the materials tensile strength, fracture
strength and ductility as percent elongation.

2. Introduction
A main objective of Materials Science is to know when to use the right
material. Normally, durable and strong materials are desired, and that is why the
stress-strain experimentation is done in order to determine the maximum
strength a material can handle.
For the hardness test, samples of different materials are needed. In order
to calculate the harness, a constant force is applied to the material, and the
greater the deformation on the material done by the force, the softer the material
is.
For the tensile test, a dog-bone sample of a material is needed, and the
initial length must be recorded. The machine pulls the dog bone from opposite
ends and records the force and distance pulled along the way. The fracture occur
in the center of the dog bone, because is where it has the least surface area due
its shape. With these values, tensile strength, fracture strength, and ductility can
be found by calculation. The higher these numbers are the more strong and
durable a material is.

3. Background Search
The materials strength is determined by how it deals with stress () and
strain (). Based upon experimentation, it is determined that stress and strain are
mathematically related through the modulus of elasticity (E).
Stress is defined as the amount force on a given area. It is measured in
the unit for pressure (psi), which is also the unit for pressure. The formula to

calculate stress is =F/AO . Considering the American units system, the force is
usually constant and measured in pounds (lbf). A 0 is the original cross sectional
area of the material and it is measured in in 2.
Strain is defined to be the deformation of a solid due to stress, which
means it is the change in length of a specimen over its original length and is
dimensionless. To calculate stain the formula, = (Li-L O)/LO is used. (Li-LO) is the
change in length and means the difference between the final length and the initial
length. LO is simply the initial length.
The relationship between stress and strain is determined by the modulus
of elasticity using the formula =E. This value is typically given since every
material has its own value.
The tensile test preformed in this lab gives you data that can be set up in
a stress v. strain graph. Figure 3.1 shows a common stress v. strain graph. Line
formed from data usually gives you a deformed line that is part straight and part
curved.

Figure 3.1

The straight portion shows elastic deformation and the curved portion
shows plastic portion until the point of fracture. The modulus of elasticity can be
found by determining the slope of the straight-line segment, which is calculated
by rise/run and in this case it is / which relates back to the formula =E . The
yield strength (y) is the max stress a material can take, so it can revert to
normal after the stress be released. To estimate this value on the graph, an offset
value is given to be locate on the strain axis where the slope of the linear portion
must reach the curve. At the point the curve is reached, the corresponding stress
values is found and it is known as the yield strength. To find the percent ductility,
find the highest point on the line (fracture point), and use the slope of the linear
portion to guide an imaginary line to the strain axis, which multiplies by 100 gives
the percent ductility (%EL).

4. Test Procedure
4.1. Hardness Test
Material: Steel (1), Aluminum (1), Copper (1)
Equipment: Rockwell Hardness tester
Determine the material to set the machine up to measure the Rockwell
hardness to its respective scale (Steel-C, Aluminum-B, and Copper-B). A
maximum load of 100 kg must be applies for the C-scale test onto the sample,
with a 1/16 diameter steel ball, while for the B-Scale a maximum load of 150kg
must be applies onto a sample, with a cone shaped Diamond Head. Place the
sample in the machine and raise it to the tip of the device that will apply the force.
After this, keep raising the material until the machine indicates it is ready. For the
type of machine used to measure the C-scale, zero the scales and wait until the

little black hand is parallel to the adjacent black line. For the machine used to
measure the B-scale, wait until the loading bar hits the indicated barrier. Apply
the maximum load after all measurements are set up correctly and be patient.
After the load is applied gently lift it off. Read the scale/computer screen
(depending on the machine) and record the data.

4.2. Tensile test

Material: Aluminum dog bone (1)
Equipment: Tinius Olsen Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine, Model 602
Record the width, length, and thickness of the centerpiece of the sample.
Turn on the machine and calibrate it by pressing Pump key on the
Remote control, and then pressing the Return key. After pressed, the top of the
machine should return to approximately 0.5 in above the bottom and show the
status on hold.
Insert the sample and check if it is adjusted correctly in the machine. It is
important to note that the grips holding the material must be at least 0.5 in inside
the crossheads. Zero the force reading by using the Zero Force button, and then
make sure the lower part of the sample grips properly. Zero the position reading
by using the button Zero Pos. Once you are ready to start, use the Test/Clear
button. The following steps are from the lab handout for the operation procedure
of test navigator software:

o Click File -> Edit Test Setting. Under the Parameters Tab, choose Test Type
as Metals Tensile w/Position, and Specimen Shape as Flat.
o Under the Graphing Tab, choose ASCII Tab on the left, and change the output
data file according to specimens. Then click Done.
o Back to main Window, and Fill in Width and Thickness of the specimen.
o Click Test Now and follow the instructions given by the Test Navigator.
o Save the proper graphical (stress-strain diagram) and numerical results for lab
report.

Material
Steel
Aluminum
Copper

HRB
92
57
62

HRC
12
N/A
N/A

Pa
655002200
344738000
372317040

Psi
95000
50000
54000

Record the final length of the sample centerpiece. With the data, create a
graph on excel (stress v. strain) and find the Tensile Strength, Fracture Strength,
and Percent Elongation.
Test
1
2
Steel (HRC)
13
10
5.
Aluminum (HRB) 56.93
57.79
Copper (HRB)
61.9
61.87
Discussion and Analysis of Results
5.1. Hardness Test

3
12
57.41
62.03

Average
11.7
57.377
61.933

The results from the hardness test are shown in table 5.1.

Table 5.1

Considering 1HRC is greater than 1HRB, the order of materials from

weakest to strongest in the lab is Aluminum, Copper, and then Steel, as the
indentation on Aluminum was the deepest and the indentation on the steel was
the thinnest. It can be conclude by the results that the deeper the mark left from
the indentation, the softer the material is, which makes sense as the force per
surface area calculates the number. These HRC/B values were converted to
standard stress measurements that can be seen in table 5.2 as the materials
Tensile Strength.

Table 5.2

5.2.

Tensile Test:
This test generated two data, the L and the Force as seen in table 5.3.

Length (in)
0.0464
0.0652
0.077
0.092
0.09815
0.1038
0.1597
0.235
0.395
0.476
0.497
0.514
0.325
Before its fracture, the sample

Force(lb)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2750
2770
2860
2950
2950
2880
2710
Table 5.3
2520
was 3.9775 inches long, 0.502 inches

wide, and 0.1286 inches thick. Therefore, its original cross sectional area is the
thickness multiplied by the width that yielded 0.0646 inches 2. To convert the
simplified table to a stress-strain table, the L was divided by the original length
of the sample (yields strain) and the Force was divided by the original cross
sectional area (yields stress). The new data can be seen in table 5.4 and the
graph made from these values is portrayed by graph 5.1.
Strain (in/in)
0.011665619
0.016392206
0.019358894
0.023130107
0.024676304
0.026096794
0.040150849
0.059082338
0.099308611
0.119673162
0.12495286
0.129226901
0.131489629

Stress (Psi)
7763.468842
15526.93768
23290.40653
31053.87537
38817.34421
42699.07863
43009.61739
44407.04178
45804.46617
45804.46617
44717.58053
42078.00112
39065.52777

Material
Steel

HRB
92

HRC
12

Pa
655002200

Psi
95000

Aluminum T1
Copper

57
62

N/A
N/A

344738000
372317040

50000
54000

315807587

45804

Aluminum T2

Table 5.4

On the graph the stress that correlates to the maximum point is 45.804
kPa, which is the Tensile Strength of this material. The last point at which the
material breaks is the fracture point and the stress value in correlation to that
point is 39.065 kPa, which is the materials Fracture strength.

Stress vs. Strain

50000
40000
30000
Stress

20000
10000
0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

Strain

Graph. 5.1

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

The final Tensile strengths from both tests are shown in table 6.5.
The two aluminums had different tensile strengths (difference of 4.196
kPa). This difference can be explained as the greater number of measurements
for the tensile test, which leads to a more accurate result. The numbers of the

Table 6.5

conversion table from the HRB/C to Pa/Psi were too broad, and can leads to
errors. However, the hardness test was accurate in deciding which materials are
stronger than the others. Both methods are useful in determining strengths of
materials. Overall, for the Hardness test, a thinner mark left from the indentation,
the stronger the material, as for the tensile test it can be seen that it gives more
accurate results due to more measurements and smaller scale-conversions.

7. Bibliography
Callister, William D., Jr. "Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals."
Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction. Ed. David G. Rethwisch. 9th
ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. 169-206. Print.
"TENSILE STRENGTH TO HARDNESS CONVERSION CHART."
TENSILE STRENGTH TO HARDNESS CONVERSION CHART. Mississippi
Welders
Supply,
2013.
Web.
06
Oct.
2015.
<https://www.mwsco.com/kb/articles/19990630e.htm>.
Appendix
BACKGROUND SEARCH
The Rockwell Hardness test can be demonstrated on several different
scales depending on the material one is working with. For the sake of this lab
only the B and C scales will be used; they are represented as HRB and HRC
respectively. The indenters consist of spherical steel balls with diameters of 1/16,
1/8, , and inches in addition to a conical diamond. The minor load is 10 kg
and the major load is 60kg, 100kg, or 150kg depending on the scale in use. The
shape of the indenter and the weight of the major and minor loads determine the
scale for the hardness measurement. The table below shows the various
indenters and loads for the different hardness tests. Here a 1/16 diameter steel
ball and 100kg major load will be applied for Scale B, and a conical diamond and
150kg major load will be applied for Scale C.

The extensive list of hardness scales allows for a wide range of metals to
be tested with this method, but the measured values are recorded under different
conditions. Therefore, the results must be converted to a single scale in order to
compare any hardness measurements. Due to the numerous variables in each
system, there is no direct conversion factor; rather an approximate hardness
conversion across each scale as shown in the Hardness Conversion Table
(Appendix).
The tensile strength measured in Part II of this lab is also related to
hardness because it is a type of resistance to plastic deformation. The two are
related with the following equations:
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
TS (psi) = 500 x HB
Glossary:
Ductility- a measure of a materials ability to undergo appreciable plastic
deformation before fracture; it may be expressed as percent elongation (%EL) or
percent reduction in area (%RA) from a tensile test.
Hardness- the measure of a materials resistance to deformation by
surface indentation or by abrasion.

Plastic Deformation- deformation that is permanent or nonrecoverable

after release of the applied load; it is accompanied by permanent atomic
displacements.
Toughness- (1) the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically
deform before fracturing; (2) the total area under the materials stress-strain
curve taken to fracture.