Fragrant Wood Gaharu PDF

IT TO
MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

IN COOPERATION WITH
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION
ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

Production and Utilization Technology
for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu)
in Indonesia
FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU:
WHEN THE
WILD CAN
NO LONGER
PROVIDE
by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman
IT TO
MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

IN COOPERATION WITH
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION
ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

Production and Utilization Technology
for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu)
in Indonesia
WHEN THE
WILD CAN
NO LONGER
PROVIDE
by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman
Authors
Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and

Maman Turjaman
Institutions full name, address :
R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation; Jalan Gunung

Batu No. 5 Bogor, Indonesia; e-mail : turjaman@gmail.com
The place and date the report :

was issued
Bogor, July 1, 2011.
Disclaimer
Copyright @ 2011
This Proceeding is a part of Program ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) :

Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of
Gaharu (Gaharu) in Indonesia
Published by
Indonesias Work Programme for 2011 ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I)

R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation
Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor, Indonesia
Phone :62-251-8633234
Fax
:62-251-8638111
E-mail : turjaman@gmail.com
ISBN
978-979-3145-88-4
Cover by
Bintoro
Project number
PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)
Host Government
Indonesia
Name of the Executing

Agency
Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA)
Project Coordinator
Dr. Ir. Maman Turjaman, DEA
Starting date of the project
May 1, 2008
Duration of the project
36 months
ii
PREFACE
The importance of gaharu (eaglewood or aloewood or jingkoh or oudh) for many
users has long been recognized. Gaharu is also considered the worlds most valuable
incence with even higher price for high quality gaharu. Due to its multiuses, demand for
gaharu products continues to increase significantly and may cause rapid depletion of
gaharu trees in the wilds. Natural habitat of gaharu suffers from uncontrolled exploitation,
and as the consequences, some important gaharu-producing trees under a serious
degradation. People who live surrounding the forests are the ones who are affected
directly from the rapid depletion of gaharu because their livelihood depends on the forest.
On the other hand, forests are now receiving more and more attention from
international society because profound appreciation on the function of forest has
increased over the years. Forests are no longer seen as a place for timber production
only, but also for many non-timber forest products. More importantly, forest is seen a
lot as as environmental service provider nowadays. Indonesia is the worlds third largest
area of tropical forest, being endowed with nearly 90 million hectares under forest cover.
With todays international focus on climate change, the forests have become the assets
that contribute significantly to the countrys income.
It is thus timely to promote sustainable production of gaharu as an important
strategy for conserving natural gaharu tree species, thus the forest habitats, and
concurrently fulfilling the demand for gaharu products from cultivation. This project
of ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I): Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable
Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia is targeting to achieve the goals.
Technology for accelerating gaharu production is intensively studied and several gaharu
cultivation plots have been established in several locations in Indonesia. It is our aim
to alleviate poverty of particularly forest community by providing simple technology for
gaharu production as source of income and to stimulate cultivation of gaharu plants as
their valuable backbone commodity.
The objective of this book is to give thorough information concerned with gaharu,
and summarize the findings of the state-of-the-art research on gaharu. A key message
of this book is to stimulate an understanding that the future of gaharu relies solely
on sustainable production of gaharu and habitat conservation, and that technology
intervention plays a major role in the process.
Adi Susmianto
Head, R & D Centre for Forest
Conservation and Rehabilitation
FORDA, the Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia
iii
LIST OF CONTENTS
PREFACE.........................................................................................iii
LIST OF CONTENTS......................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLE...............................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURE.............................................................................. ix
1
2. KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU.......................... 3
3. SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT.......................................... 15
3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissue culture..................................... 15
3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promoted plant growth......................... 16
3.3 Pest and Disease ............................................................................................ 16
3.4 Soil characteristics.......................................................................................... 19
4. GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY.................................. 23
4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools........................................... 23
4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection................................................. 23
4.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum.............................. 24
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU...................................... 31
6. GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING........................................ 39
1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................
7. CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF
49
8. EXIT STRATEGY........................................................................ 51
8.1 The Role of Institution...................................................................................... 51
8.2 Master Plans.................................................................................................... 53
9. CONCLUDING REMARKS.......................................................... 57
GAHARU....................................................................................
REFERENCES................................................................................59
ANNEX...........................................................................................63
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1. Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria and Gyrinops
and distribution..................................................................................................3
Table 2. Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia...........16
Table 3. Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites
in Java Island, Indonesia..................................................................................20
Table 4. Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites
in Java Island, Indonesia..................................................................................20
Table 5. Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on their morphological
characteristics and experiments related with the fungal inoculation ..............24
Table 6. Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drilling
and Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia.................26
Table 7. Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungi
collected from 17 provinces in Indonesia........................................................29
Table 8. Phenol compounds present in the induced gaharu products .........................34
Table 9. Classification of gaharu quality in Samarinda (East Kalimantan).....................41
Table 10. Criteria and classification of gaharu quality.....................................................42
Table 11. Selling price of gaharu in markets of Samarinda, in East Kalimantan.............42
Table 12. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National
Standard (SNI)..................................................................................................43
Table 13. Development of quota and realization related to the eagle wood
export from Indonesia......................................................................................45
Table 14. Several institutions/stakeholder who will carry out the exit strategy
following the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I) project.............................................52
Table 15. Exit strategy based on activities of gaharu development at
the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I).........................................................................52
vii
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1. Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinops versteegii........5
Figure 2. Gaharu trees.....................................................................................................6
Figure 3. Flowering phenology of Aquilaria spp. in natural forest, plantation and
Botanical Garden (a) A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in West Kalimantan;
(b) A. microcarpa in East Kalimantan; (c) A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa,
and A. beccariana in Botanical Garden; (d) A. crassna, A. malaccensis
and A. microcarpa in plantation, Bogor; (e) A. filarial in plantation, Bogor;
(f) A. hirta in plantation, Bogor (Source: Suhartono and Newton, 2001)..........7
Figure 4. (1): Aquilaria malaccensis La,. 1. twig, 2 flower, 3. longitudinal section of
flower, 4. fruit, 5. longitudinal section of fruit. (Source: Plant Resources of
South East Asia 19) and (2): Gyrinops ladermannii.
a- branchlet habit;
b- flower bud (left), opened flower (right); c- seed dorsal view (left), ventral
view (right); d- dehisced fruit emerging from lateral slit of floral tube with
one seed hanging out on funicle; Herbarium specimen Zich 315, CANB
Accession Number 531408. Botanical illustration : Sharyn Wragg. (Zich
and Compton 2001 in Dunn et al., 2003)........................................................12
Figure 5. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO
system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for promoting
growth; (4): Gaharu plantation........................................................................18
Figure 6. Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides;
(2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4):
Hearth-rot fungi..............................................................................................19
Figure 7. An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharu formation.
(1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with 25 cm space in
between holes; (2-3): one ml of liquid inoculum is injected with a syringe;
(4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency of induction is observed by
peeling a tree bark to observe the disease symptom (Source: http://www.
trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpg.........................................27
Figure 8. Technology of fungal induction to stimulate gaharu production.
(1): Bamboo stagger for climbing tree for inoculation; (2): Drilling the tree
and making holes for inoculation; (3): Fusarium sp., gaharu-inducing
fungi grown on agar plate; (4): Wood coloration on stem tissue, an
indication of resin production.........................................................................28
Figure 9. Harvesting procedure of gaharu product from deliberate tree injection
with fungal inoculant. (1): Initial symptom of gaharu formation on stem;
(2): Felling of tree; (3-7): Cutting away tissue to obtain the resinous parts;
(8): Residue of trees that is used for distillation of oil.....................................29
ix
Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an unkown

2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone. Compound (1):
2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone; (2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)
chromones, (2): C19H18O5, (3): C1H14O4, (4): 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxyl derivative of 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7): C18H16O4 (Source: Konishi
et al., 2002).....................................................................................................32
Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu.........33
Figure 12. (4) Figure 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from natural process
and artificial induction. (1): Natural gaharu of West Kalimantan origin; (2):
Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from West Kalimantan; (3):
Natural gaharu of Gorontalo origin; (4): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation
with isolate from Gorontalo (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)........36
Figure 13. Structures of compound from gaharu oil........................................................37
Figure 14. Major constituent genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside compound that
caused mild laxative effect in mice (Source: Hara et al., 2008)......................38
Figure 15. Gaharu products. ...........................................................................................46
Figure 16. Other gaharu products...................................................................................47
Figure 17. Gaharu classes of quality: (a) Tanggung; (b) Kacangan ; (c) Teri and
(d) Kemedangan. ...........................................................................................47
Figure 18. Several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export...................48
Figure 19. Flow-scheme regarding the exit strategy of gaharu development that
will be conducted by the Research Team of FORDA.....................................54
INTRODUCTION
Gaharu (agarwood, eaglewood, aloeswood, jinkoh, or oudh) has long been appreciated
for its multipurpose uses, range from incense for religious and traditional ceremonies,
perfume, medicine and ornamental functions in many countries. The occurrence of thisso-called the wood of the gods has been strongly surrounded by myths and history.
Gaharu use is mentioned in the Old Testament as aloe or ahaloth in Psalm 45:8. Gaharu
is the only tree in the Eastern myth that has been descended to Man from Eden garden
(Duke, 2008). In Egypt and Japan, gaharu was used to embalm dead bodies. In India
and Cambodia, it is used for traditional and religious ceremony.
The resin compound of gaharu is highly commercial. Resin impregnated in the
heartwood a number of gaharu-producing species is due to fungal infection. Two mostly
known genera are Aquilaria and Gyrinops that are native to Southeast Asia with Indonesia,
Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Papua New Guinea being the main
producing countries, and Singapore being the central trade country (Persoon, 2007).
Natural forests have been the main resource for gaharu collection for many years.
However, gaharu hunters usually cut down the whole trees to find the resin and this
practice has diminished gaharu population in the wilds and consequently has led gaharuproducing tree species under a threat of extinction. Major harvesting of gaharu was
recorded between the 1980s and early 1990s in East Kalimantan caused by high demand
for gaharu and was due to diminishing supply from countries like Vietnam and Cambodia
(Barden et al.,2001 in Gunn et al., 2003). This excessive hunting activity has caused
significant reduction of wild gaharu stocks within a short period of time. Similar activity
also occurred in Papua after gaharu hunters landed in 1996 that has led to an ending of
gaharu harvesting from its natural habitat (Persoon, 2007). 1998 was the first officially
recorded year for gaharu discovery and harvesting in Yapsiei, May River and Ama
villages in West Sepik, Papua New Guinea (Gunn et al., 2003). Harvesting of gaharu in
these countries involve professional and traditional collectors. Professional collectors
sponsored by Chinese and bogus trades were sometimes dropped by helicopters to
hunt for gaharu (World Wide Fund for Nature, 1999).
In November 1994, Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. was initially listed in CITES (the
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna),
Appendix II to prevent this species from extinction. However, continual excessive gaharu
exploitations have then put two genera Aquilaria and Gyrinops in CITES, Appendix II,
only ten years later. CoP13 Prop.49 (TRAFFIC, 2004) listed 24 species of the genus
Aquilaria and seven species of the genus of Gyrinops. CITES regulates the permitted
quota for gaharu export in order to sustain gaharu existence, and yet, Indonesia, in
particular, has not been able to meet the quota because it has become more difficult to
collect gaharu from its natural habitat because they are dissapearing.
Due to a significant increase in gaharu demand and high prices of gaharu, efforts
have taken places to implement technology for stimulating gaharu production artificially,
for a much faster process. Traditional wisdom combined with scientific knowledge have
been implemented with numerous approaches to find the most efficient gaharu induction
technology that will be able to fulfill the demand and at the same time conserve the
remnants in the wilds.
This book provides a general overview of gaharu with specific reference to Indonesia
as one of the most important country for gaharu production. Because the future of gaharu
is dependent upon conservation and sustainable production management strategies,
emphasis is given to research and development of induction technology for sustainable
production of gaharu which is the main target of ITTO PD 425/06 REV.1 (I): Production and
Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia.
KNOWING SPECIES
THAT PRODUCE GAHARU
Aquilaria and Gyrinops are the two most important gaharu-producing genera, within
the family of Thymelaeaceae (Order: Myrtales and Class: Magnoliopsida). There are
slight differences in reports on the number of species within each genus. TRAFFICCITES-CoP13 Prop.49 (2004) recorded 24 species belong to the genus Aquilaria and 7
species belong to the genus of Gyrinops (Table 1). On the other hand Ding Hou (1960
in Gunn et al., 2004), reported there are 12 species belonging to the genus Aquilaria
and 8 species belonging to the genus Gyrinops.
These trees naturally occur in at least 12 countries: Bangladesh, Butan, Cambodia,
Indonesia, Lao PRD, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Papua New
Guinea (Barden et al. in Gunn et al., 2004).
Compton (2002) reported three gaharu-producing species originated from Papua
Island. Two species, A. filaria and Gyrinops versteegii are found in Papua (formerly Irian
Jaya) and the only species, G. ledermannii is from Papua New Guinea (PNG, TRAFFIC
PC12 Doc.8.3, 2002). This PNG gaharu species was firstly found and harvested in
approximately 1998 for its resinous wood in the Yapsiei, May River, and Ama Villages
in West Sepik (Gunn et al., 2004). The first reported taxonomic work determined the
species as Gyrinops ledermannii. Later report by Gunn et al. (2004) however suggested
five of the eight species Gyrinops, have been found in New Guinea island: G. ledermannii,
G. caudate, G. podocarpus, G. salicifolia and G. verstegii. Except G. walla found in Sri
Langka, the other seven are distributed east of the Wallace Line which is a transitional
biogeographical zone that marks Asia zone to the west and Australian zone to the east.
Table 1.
No.
Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria and

Gyrinops and distribution
Scientific Name
Synonims
Common Names
Distribution Area
Ecosystem
Extend from
peninsular Malaysia
to Sumatra Common
in Borneo
Found Primary forest

from the low land up
to 825 m, rarely in
swampy forest
Aquilaria beccariana van Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne) Ridley

Tiegh.
var. parviflora Airy Shaw; Aquilaria
grandifolia Domke; Gyrinopsis
grandifolia Quis.
Gaharu; garu tanduk

(Kalimantan); mengkaras
putih (Sumatra); Gaharu,
gumbil, njabak (Malaysia)
Aquilaria hirta Ridl.
Aquilaria moszkowskii Gilg.
Chamdan, audate, ,kayu

Malay Peninsula
Grow on hill slopes,
chamdan, sahare (Madura) (Trengganu, Pahang, from the lowland up
Johore), Singapore, to 300 m
East Sumatra
(Senamaninik), Riau,
Lingga islands.
Aquilaria microcarpa
Baill.
Aquilariella microcara van Tiegh;

Aquilariella borneensis van Tiegh;
Aquilariella borneensis Boerl
Tengkaras (Madura);
hepang (Bangka); engkaras
(Dayak); karas or sigi-sigi
(Bugis); kumbil, garu,
tulang (Madura)
Grows on lowland
Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra (Sijunjung, forest up to 200 m.
Palembang and
Lampung), Belitung,
Bangka and
throughout Borneo.
Fragrant Wood Gaharu:

When The Wild Can No Longer Provide
No.
Scientific Name
Synonims
Common Names
Distribution Area
Ecosystem
Aquilaria cumingiana
(Decne) Ridl.
Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne;

Decaisnella cumingiana O.K.;
Gyrinopsis cumingiana var.
Pubescens Elm.; Gyrinopsis
decemcostata Hall.f.; Gyrinopsis
pubifolia Quis.
Alahan, magaan, palisan

(Tagalog); bago (Mbo),
binukat (Ak. Bis.); butlo
(Neg.); dalakit (S.L.Bis.);
magwalen (Sub.);
pamaluian (Bag.); giba kalo
(Halmahera)
South Borneo
(Sampit region),
Philippines
(common), and
Moluccas (Morotai
and Halmahera)
Aquilaria audate (Oken)

Merr.
Aquilaria filaria (Oken) Merr.,

Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr.,
Cortex filarius Rumph., Pittosporum
ferrugineum var. filarium DC.,
Pittosporum filarium Oken,
Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg, Gyrinopsis
bracyantha Merr.. Gyrinopsis
acuminate Merr. A. _audate_e Quis.J.
Ag (Sorong), bkuin
(Morotai), lason (Ceram),
kasjik (Tehid), malowassi
(Uliansers)
Philippines,
in lowland forest, up
Mollucas, West New to 130 m.
Guinea
Aquilaria brachyantha
(Merr.) Hall.f.
Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr.
Aquilaria urdanetensis
(Elmer) Hall
Gyrinopsis urdanetensis Elmer
Aquilaria citrinaecarpa
(Elmer) Hall.f
Gyrinopsis citrinaecarpa Elmer
Aquilaria apiculata Elmer
Mindanao: Bukidnon in dry and mossy

province
forest at 1100-1800
m.
10
Aquilaria parvifolia (Quis.)

Ding Hou
Luzon
on forested slopes at
1000 m.
11
Aquilaria rostrata Ridl.
Malay Peninsula
(Pahang, Gunung
Tahan).
12
Aquilaria crassna Pierre

ex Lecomte
Cochinchina and
Cambodia
13
Aquilaria banaense
Phamhoang Ho
Viet Nam
14
Aquilaria khasiana H. Hall.
India (Khasia).
15
Aquilaria subintegra Ding

Hou
Thailand
16
Aquilaria grandiflora Bth.
China.
in primary forest at
low and medium
altitudes.
Luzon: Cagayan
Province
in primary forest at
low and medium
altitudes.
Mangod, makolan (Mbo)
Mindanao: Mt.
Urdaneta
in the mossy forest

on exposed ridges,
about 1700 m.
Agododan (Mbo)
Mindanao
on moist compact
soil of forested
ridges, about 1300
m.
17
Aquilaria secundana D.C.
Moluccas
18
Aquilaria moszkowskii
Gilg
Sumatra
19
Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg
New Guinea
20
Aqularia bailonii Pierre ex

Lecomte
Cambodia
21
Aquilaria sinensis Merr.
China.
22
Aquilaria apiculata Merr.
Philippines
(Mindanao)
23
Aquilaria acuminate
(Merr.) Quis.
Philippines (?).
24
Aquilaria yunnanensis
S.C. Huang
China
KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU
No.
Scientific Name
Synonims
Common Names
Distribution Area
Ecosystem
25
Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg) Gyrinops wala (non Gaertn.) Koord.;

Domke
Branchythalamus versteegii Gilg;
Aquilaria versteegii Hall.
Ketemun (Lombok); ruhu

wama (Sumba); seke
(Flores)
Lesser Sunda
This species
scattered from the
Islands (Lombok,
Sumbawa, Flores, lowland up to 900 m.
Sumba); North
Celebes (Minahasa)
and West New
Guinea. This
species closely
related to Gyrinops
podocarpus which
also found in West
New Guinea.
26
Gyrinops moluccana
(Miq.) Baill
Buru and Halmahera in rain-forest
27
Gyrinops decipiens Ding

Hou
Central Celebes
in rainforest, 100 m.
(Wavatoli, Palarahi),
28
Gyrinops ledermanii
Domke
New Guinea (Sepik

R., Mt. Pfingst)
at slope in dense
virgin forest, foot
of the mountain, at
0-200 m.
29
Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl.
Western New
Guinea (Utakwa,
Nabire)
in fringing rainforest, 300 m
30
Gyrinops _audate (Gilg)

Domke
Brachythalamus versteegii Gilg;

Aquilaria versteegii Hall.f.
New Guinea (Sidai,

Mt. Arfak)
at primary forest
5-20 m
31
Gyrinops podocarpus
(Gilg.) Domke
Brachythalamus podocarpus Gilg;

Kokkoree (Asmat)
Aquilaria podicarpus Hall.f.; Gyrinops
ladermanii (non Donke) Merr & Perry
West New Guinea

(Ramoi, Sorong,
Monep, Idenburg)
in primary forest,
from lowland up to
750m.
Lachnolepis moluccana Miq.;

Aquilaria moluccana Hall.f.
Niwawur
(Source: TRAFFIC-CoP13 Prop.49, 2004)
Figure 1.
Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinops

versteegii.

Figure 2.
Gaharu trees.
Gaharu-producing species is characterized by small flower similar to that of jasmine

and the fruit is bitter (Figure 1). The fruit does not fall when it is ripe, but it tossed the
seeds to the surrounding ground (Prosea, 1999). Gaharu tree was firstly introduced by
Arabic in Aceh, Sumatra. From here, the tree spread to the southern part of Sumatra,
Kalimantan and Papua. In 1991, gaharu tree was found in Kayan Mentarang National
Park, East Kalimantan.
Gaharu is commonly found in primary and secondary forest at 850m above sea
level (asl) with 1,500 6,500 mm/year with 14-28C (Prosea, 1999). Gunn et al. (2004)
reported the range of gaharu occurrence is about latitude 27N to 10N30S and longitude
75E to 149E.
The most important genus, Aquilaria is typical of understorey species (Figure 2).
Aquilaria malaccensis, A. beccariana, A. crasna, A. filarial, A. hirta, A. microcarpa are
of six Aquilaria species native to Indonesia (Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton,
2001). These six species are primarily found in lowland and upland Sumatra, Kalimantan,
Maluku and Papua (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
Generally, flowers grew on terminal branches among the foliage, but a few flowers of
A. crassna occur along the trunk (cauliflory) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Flowers are
50 to 10 mm long. Suhartono and Newton (2001) who observed reproductive ecology
of Aquilaria spp. in 1997-1998 reported that flowering and fruiting of Aquilaria spp. were
around June-July in West Kalimantan, September-October in East Kalimantan, September
and December in Bogor Botanical Garden, and April to December in plantation area
about 2 km north of Bogor (Figure 3) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Generally, the onset
of flowering to produce seed takes about three months in plantation area (Suhartono
and Newton, 2001). Further Suhartono and Newton (2001) noted that smaller trees of
A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa produced more seeds than larger and older ones.
Seeds of Aquilaria had no dormancy (recalcitrant) and will germinate soon after seed
maturation.
Figure 3.
Flowering phenology of Aquilaria spp. in natural forest, plantation

and Botanical Garden (a) A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in West
Kalimantan; (b) A. microcarpa in East Kalimantan; (c) A. malaccensis,
A. microcarpa, and A. beccariana in Botanical Garden; (d) A. crassna,
A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in plantation, Bogor; (e) A. filarial in
plantation, Bogor; (f) A. hirta in plantation, Bogor (Source: Suhartono
and Newton, 2001).
Upon ripening, fruits of Aquilaria spp. split loculicidally in half from the apex, and the
seeds are hanging on thin threads for about one hour before the threads break and the
seeds are scattered (CIFOR, 1996 and Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
Below is specific description of species belonging to mostly the genera Aquilaria
and Gyrinops as well as other less important gaharu-producing species.
1. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam
Aquilaria malaccensis is one of the most important gaharu-producing tree. Flowers
are green to dirty yellow. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occurs between
September and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of
Bogor occurs April to December (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In natural forest,
seed production of A. malaccensis > 40 cm dbh (diameter breast height) declines,
while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-30 cm dbh showed to produce more seeds
than those of comparable size grown in natural forest. It was estimated that this
species of 20-60 cm dbh produced less seeds than A. microcarpa, between 3,900
and 13,270 seeds/tree. Seeds start to germinate 15 day after sowing (Suhartono
and Newton, 2001).

a. Distribution and Habitat

Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in India, Burma, Malaysia, Phillipines and
Indonesia. In Indonesia, it is found mainly in Sumatra (Sibolangit, Bangka, Jambi,
Riau and South Sumatra), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Papua.
Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in primary and secondary forests, mainly
in lowland and on hillsides at altitude of 200-750m asl. It grows well in sandy
soils and areas having Koeppen climate type A-B with temperatures of 14-32C
and annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 mm.
b. Botanical description
Aquilaria malaccensis reaches up to 20 40 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. Young
bark is light brown with fine hairs, older bark is smooth and whitish in color.
Without resin, wood is white, light and soft, however resinous wood is hard, dark
and heavy. Leaves are characterized by alternate, elliptic or lanceolate, 3-3.5
cm wide and 6-8 cm long with 12-16 pairs of veins. Inflorescens a terminal or
axillary umber. Flowers hermaphroditic, up to 5 mm long, fragrant and yellowish
green or white (Figure 4).
Fruit is green in color, egg-shaped capsule, leathery exocarp with fine hairs, 4 cm long
and 2.5 cm wide. There are two seeds per fruit. Seed is blackish brown incolor, ovoid,
and densely covered with red-brown hair. There are approximately 1,500 seeds per
kg. At the age of 5-6 years, the tree starts flowering and fruiting, and medium size
tree is reported to produce about 1.5 kg of seed during good seed years. Seasons
for flowering and fruiting are dry season. In Sumatra, flowering and fruiting season
is twice a year. The seasons are July-August and March-April for flowering which
have mature fruits in November-December and July-August, respectively. Mature
fruits have blackish brown colour and they should be collected directly from the tree
(Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
2. Aquilaria crassna
This species is the most widely known gaharu species from Indochina (Adelina, 2004).
The Vietnamese government has enlisted A. crassna as endangered (Burfield, 2003).
Aquilaria crassna is found widely in Thailand (Nobuchi and Siripatanadilok, 1991).
Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs April to December
(Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In general, seeds germinate 9 15 days after sowing
and this species had the highest germination success (92%) compared with the
other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
3. Aquilaria microcarpa
Flowers are white to yellow in color. Season in Botanical Garden occurs between
September and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of
Bogor occurs April to December. In natural forest, seed production > 50 cm dbh
declines, while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-<40 cm dbh showed to produce
more seeds than those of comparable size grown in natural forest. It was estimated
that this species of 20-60 cm dbh produced between 13,260 and 19,280 seeds/
tree (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In general, seeds germinate 9 15 days after
sowing (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
4. Aquilaria beccariana
Flowers are green to yellowish in color. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occurs
between September and December. In general, seeds germinate 9 15 days after
5. Aquilaria filaria
Flowers are white to yellowish green in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2
km north of Bogor occurs all year around. In general, seeds germinate 9 15 days
after sowing and this species had the lowest germination rate (53%) compared with
the other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).
6. Aquilaria hirta
Flowers are white in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor
occurs during rainy season in January. Seeds start to germinate 9 day after sowing
7. Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) Domke
a. Distribution and Habitat
Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) is found in eastern part of Indonesia: Sumbawa, called
Seke, in East Alor, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, and Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada,
2007).
In Sumbawa, G. versteegii grows on the hillside (400-800m above sea level)
ranging from Tartar village (Doro Tambiung Mountain) in West Sumbawa to Lambu
village (Doro Saboke Mountain) in East Sumbawa. These plants grow in secondary
and primary forests with high humidity, with Ficus sp., Eugenia spp., Garcinia sp.,
Calophyllum spp., Maranthes corymbosa Bl., Sterculia foetida L., Schleichera
oleosa (Lour.) Oken., etc. (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).
In Sumba, this plant grows on brown, thin humus soil found in primary forest in
Riwuta and on the foot of Meja Mountain, West Sumba. In Alor, this plant was
planted in field with Erytrina sp., and the soil around the seedlings was mulched
with rice straw and sprinkled well with water.
In Sumbawa and Alor Island, this species grows as shrub, 1-4m height, 1-10 cm
diameter, while in Flores Island, it grows as trees.
In Sumbawa the description of the shrub was 1-4m height, 1-10 cm diameter,
the plant still young, it was not in flowering yet. Young branchlets pubescent,
bark gryish. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves
and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath,
shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate, 8.7-15 by 2.2-5.2
cm; base cuneate, apex up to 0.5-1 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veins
similar, numerous, slightly oblique and parallel, 24-46 pairs; petiole, short, 3-6
mm, pubescent.

In Flores the the tree is found to have 10-17 m height, 25-30 cm diameter.
Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous,
pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and
light green in beneath, shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, ovateoblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1-5 cm; base cuneate, apex up to 2 cm
narrow- 366 acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous, slightly oblique and
parallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent. Fruits yellow or orange, slightly obovoid
or ellipsoid, 2-2 by 1-1 cm, shortly acuminate to the apex, attenuate to the
base. Seed ovoid, Plano convex, 9 by 6 mm, with a caruncle-like appendage at
the base, 2 mm thick.
In West Sumba, shrub or tree of this species is found, 2 m up to 25 m height,
diameter 3 cm up to 40 cm. Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaves
chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath,
glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath, shinning and dark green
above, elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1-5 cm; base
cuneate, apex up to 2 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous,
slightly oblique and parallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent.
8. Gyrinops decipiens Ding Hou
a. Distribution and habitat
This plant was found in primary forest with thin humus on the side and the top
of the Ganda Dewatan mountain in Buttu Ada and Salusampe, Salubaka and
Tampakura villages, Mamuju, the Tapusaang mountain in Karama village, Mamasa,
and the Kapusaan mountain and the Tunggumanu mountain in Karosa in West
Celebes. Gyrinops decipiens was also found in Kulawi, Tuwulu village, the Ulu
Karosa river, Tembok Jerman and Lengke mountains around the Towuti Lake in
Central Celebes; and in mountains in North Luwu in South Celebes (Mulyaningsih
and Yamada, 2007).
Shrub to tree, 2 m up to 17 m height, diameter 3 cm up to 30cm. Branchlet fissure
shallow to deep, light to dark gray, glabrous to pubescent. Leaves chartaceous to
subcoriaceus, above glabrous, below pubescent scattered on the vena, shining
on both surfaces, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate 7.5-23.5x 2.6-6.8 cm; base acuteacuminate, base caudate (0.52.0 cm long). Vena parallel, 23-39 pairs, elevation
visible on below and obscure on above. Inflorescent axilar or terminal on the
short branchlet in the axilar, umbel, consisting of 1-6 flowers, pedicle 2-5 mm,
pubescent, brachtea opposite on the base of pedicelus, a crescent, rounded
and thick on the apex of pedicle; pedicelus 1-3 mm. Flower like club, calyx tube
pubescent outside, 4-6x2 mm long, calyx lobe 1,5x1 m. Fruit ovoid-oblong,
1-1.5x0.8-1.3 cm, color orange when fruit mature, two locus, 1-2 seeds each
fruit. Stipes 7 mm, emerges on the base to mid of calyx lobe. Seed planocovex,
6x(5-7)mm, caruncle 5 mm. Flowering and Fruiting season on July-August.
Mulyaningsih and Yamada (2007) divided this plant into two varieties, i.e., gaharu
beringin and gaharu cabut. Gaharu beringin or Gyrinops decipiens var. microphylla
Mulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: tree, fissured bark deep. Leaves
subcoriaceous relative small, lanceolate, 7.5-17.5x2.6-4.5 cm, vena 23-30 pairs,
petiole 3-5 mm, pubescent. Gaharu beringin is produced during the decay process
10
in specific wood. Since 2003, in some villages such as Dara, Maepi and Lere, North
Luwu (South Celebes) and Tampalopo and Tampakura villages, Mamasa (West
Celebes) cultivated this species. Gaharu cabut or Gyrinops decipiens var. macrophylla
Mulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: Shrub, fissured bark shallow. Leaves
chartaceous, more weigh, elliptic-oblong, 14.5-23.5x6.0-6.8 cm, vena 36-39 pairs,
gaharu forming in whole wood tissue of plant.
9. Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl.
a. Habitat and distribution
Gyrinops salicifolia grew in Dosay village, Sentani, Papua. This plant was
cultivated by a person as decoration plant, because of its good canopy
and leaves. Gaharu from Sentani and Jayapura was taken from this hill
(Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).
Slender shrub, up to 2 m. Branchlet light brown, pubescent. Leaves sparsely
pubescent on the midrib and sometimes on the nerves and veins beneath,
1
lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 1-10 by / -1 cm; base cuneate apex acuminate
5
and pointed; nerves and veins similar and equally strong, slightly visible beneath,
obscure above; petiole - mm.
10. Gyrinops ladermannii Domke
Gyrinops ladermannii resembles G. salicifolia, but it grows as shrub of small trees
with 7-10 m high and 13-15 cm in diameter. The leave is broader, the angle of
leave and ranchlet is larger (Figure 4). Branchlet has darker color, and the wood
is harder. This plant grows in secondary forest with Callophylum sp. on lime soil
with thin humus. It was found on a hill in Maribau village, 50-200 m above sea
level, Sentani, Jayapura, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).
Leave subcoriaceous, obovate-oblong to lanceolate, 6-12 kali (1) 2-5 cm;
pubescent scattered on vein and midrib beneath and glabrous above. Base
acute-cuneate, apex acuminate to caudate, nerves spread, visible, dense, curve,
ascending face to tip. Inflorescentia pseudo lateral or terminal, sessile, consisted
of 2-3 flowers, pedicellus thin, 3-5 mm. Calyx tube cylinders, 13 mm long, diameter
1 mm. Calyx lobe ovate, 1-2 kali mm, outside acute, pubescent, inside
obtuse, tomentose. Petaloid square, 3/5 x mm, obtuse, villous. Stamen sessile,
1
oblong, 1-1 x / mm. Fruit pyriform 1 x cm (included stipe 3 mm and apex
5
up to 4 mm acuminate or caudate), pannose, irregular, wrinkled to transversal.
Seed 2 or 1, one abortion, 9 mm long (included caruncle 3 mm), villous.
11

Figure 4.
(1): Aquilaria malaccensis La,. 1. twig, 2 flower, 3. longitudinal section

of flower, 4. fruit, 5. longitudinal section of fruit. (Source: Plant
Resources of South East Asia 19) and (2): Gyrinops ladermannii.
a- branchlet habit; b- flower bud (left), opened flower (right); c- seed
dorsal view (left), ventral view (right); d- dehisced fruit emerging
from lateral slit of floral tube with one seed hanging out on funicle;
Herbarium specimen Zich 315, CANB Accession Number 531408.
Botanical illustration : Sharyn Wragg. (Zich and Compton 2001 in
Dunn et al., 2003).
11. Gyrinops caudate (Gilg.) Domke

Gyrinops caudate was found in Agat, Mappi and Boven Digul and Merauke, West
Papua. It grows in primary forest in the swamp, 5-20 m above the sea, among
the sago plant, the most common soil type is sandy clay over clay. Cultivation
was found in Aboge and Ecy village, District Assue, Mappi (Mulyaningsih and
Yamada, 2007).
Shrub or tree up to 17 m by 36 cm. Branchlets grayish, whitish pubescent and
glabrescent. Leaves chartaceous, glabrous, dull beneath and shining above,
elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, rarely lanceolate, 6-13 by 1-4 cm; base cuneate;
apex up to 1 cm, acuminate; nerves and veins scarcely distinguishable, numerous,
parallel, visible beneath, obscure above; petiole 3 mm. Inflorescences axillary
or on the terminal of short branches, 12-18 flowers, peduncle 2-8 mm. Flowers
c. 5 mm pedicelled 5-7 mm, floral tube copular, 3-4 mm long, calyx lobes oblong,
1 mm long, petaloid appendages transverse oblong, c. mm long; stamen
subsessile, slightly longer than the appendages. Ovary ovoid, densely pillose; style
very short; stigma capitate. Fruit protunding from the flower, rhombicus-oblong,
1
contricted from the base to apex, pubescent, 2 / cm included 5 mm stipes,
5
apex acuminate, two locus with 2 seeds. Seeds ovoid, apex acuminate c. 5 mm
included caruncle 1 mm. Flowering and fruiting season on August-September.
12
12. Less important gaharu species

a. Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Exocoecaria agallocha is called gaharu buaya (crocodile gaharu) because its
gaharu production smells like fired wood and less fragrance. The smoke can
irritate eyes (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). The price is usually low and the
product is used for mixing material of joystick (hio) or incense. This plant can be
found along beach and composes mangroves in Somau Island.
b. Wikstroemia androsaemifolia Decne
i. Distribution and habitat
This species is found in primary forest in Meja Mountain. Gaharu from
Wikstroemia androsaemifolia, known as male gaharu or red gaharu is less
preferable because of its spicy smell and the smoke irritates eyes (Mulyaningsih
and Yamada, 2007).
ii. Botanical description
Shrub, young branchlets slightly flattened at the nodes, densely appressed
pubescent, glabrescent. Branches terete, reddish brown, glabrous; axillary
buds densely covered with golden-coloured hairs. Leaves papery, glabrous,
rarely sparsely hairy on the lower surface and especially on the nerves and
veins of young leaves, in dry state light-greenish, light brown or greenish-brown
to brownish and shining on the upper surface, pale greenish, light-yellowishgreen or light-brown and dull on the under surface, elliptic or ovate-oblong,
1-5(8-) by -2(-4) cm; base acute, apex acute to narrow-acute, very
rarely obtuse; nerves 8-11 pairs, elevated below and slightly depressed
above, obliquely spreading towards the margin and the curved upward; veins
almost as distinct as the nerves, loosely reticulate beneath, obscure above;
petiole 2mm.
c. Phaleria capitata Jack
Phaleria capitata grows in Kapusaan Puncak and Tiga Puluh Puncak Mountains,
Mamasa, West Celebes and in some villages around the Towuti Lake in Central
Celebes.
This species is also called gaharu buaya and less preferable because the fragrance
is not good. The gaharu is used as a mixture in the making of joystick and for
craft (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).
d. Phaleria microcarpa
Phaleria microcarpa was found in Papua with local name gaharu puk-puk. It
produced smoky, bitter and unpleasant fragrant when burnt. It does not have
commercial value. The bark was used to create bilums (traditional woven
carrying bags) in the upper Sepik, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).
e. Phaleria nisdai Kanehira
i. Habitat and distribution
This plant distributes in Papua New Guinea and was cultivated in Yomdory
village Biak Papua.
13
ii. Botanical description

Shrub c. 2 m, branchlets reddish-brown. Leaves lanceolate, ovate-oblong,
8-14 by 2-4 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate and narrow c. 1 cm,
glabercent on the both surfaces, dull beneath, nerves 5-9 pairs, elevation,
decendent, veins reticulate, beneath distinct, obscure above. Inflorescences
terminal and or at a long axils of branchlets, umbelliform, 10-12 flowers,
one peduncle each nodes, peduncles 6-8 mm, small bracts at the base,
involucral bracts 2, 2 by mm opposite, oblong, persistent or caudocous
when anthesis. Floral tube c. 1 cm, Floral tube gradually enlarged towards
the top, glabrous outside. In side, calyx lobes oblong or ovale 4 by 2 mm
glabercent on the both surfaces, papillate, appendages petaloid, stamens,
styles exerted up to 6 mm, ovary. Fruit obovate slightly compressed and
constricted from the base to apex, usually 2 fruits opposite each peduncle,
yellow when ripe, 3-4 by 5-6 cm, two locus usually with 2 seeds. Seeds
subglobous c. 2 by 1 cm slightly compressed.
14
SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT
Although gaharu has been known since ancient times, intensified research on a
broader aspects of gaharu has just begun in the last ten years. One of these aspects
is silviculture of gaharu. Research conducted by R & D Centre for Forest Conservation
and Rehabilitation, FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry found that propagation of gaharu
plants is not difficult. Gaharu can be propagated from seeds and cuttings. However,
cultivation of gaharu plantation in a large scale has a high risk of pest and disease attack.
This chapter provides silvicultural practice for gaharu plant.
3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissue

culture
Seeds of gaharu are collected while they are still hanging on their mother trees
because gaharu fruits crack and throw their seeds before they fall to the ground.
Seedlings, on the other hand can be collected from underneath their mother trees. To
date, propagation from seeds is still much cheaper than cuttings because seeds stocks
are still abundant in the field and can be harvested every year from mother trees in the
field. Gaharu seeds, however, is recalcitrant and its germination is affected by storage
periods and conditions. A study by Subiakto et al. (2009) revealed that germination
percentage of non-stored seeds (direct seeding) was 82% and down to 42% after being
stored for 8 weeks at room temperature. Germination was further declining to 24% if
the seeds were stored in refrigerator at 4C for 8 weeks.
Study on vegetative propagation by using cuttings was done by adopting by KOFFCO
(Komatsu-Forda Fog Cooling) System (Figure 5). Using this system, Subiakto et al. (2009)
found that the best growth media and watering interval for gaharu shoots cuttings were
mixtures of coconut dust and paddy husk of 1 : 1 ratio, and twice a week of watering,
respectively. These treatments showed the highest rooting percentage, i.e. 69%.
Tissue culture of A. crassna and A. malaccensis was studied by Tientum in 1995.
Shoots of A. crassna grown on Woody Plant Medium with and without auxin, produced
roots. But addition of 0.5 mg/l IBA stimulated the highest rooting percentage. The
author found that survival rate of A. crassna plantlets was 90% after transplantation to
the field. In vitro propagation of Aquilaria agalocha by He et al. (2005) on MS medium
supplemented with 1.3 micromol/L BA (6-benzylaminopurine) generated many shoot
buds in the first 7 weeks, and 1.3 micromol/L BA+0.5 micromol/L NAA (naphthaleneacetic
acid) elongated the buds in another 7 weeks, 2.3 shoots 2 cm in length per explant
were obtained within 14 weeks. Plantlets were rooted on 1/2 MS medium after being
immersed in 5 micromol/L NAA for 48 h, 96.7% of the roots grew up two weeks later.
All plantlets that survived acclimatization grew well in the pots.
15

3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promoted

plant growth
In 2002, Tamuli and Boruah observed the association of arbuscular mycrorrhizal
fungi (AMF) with gaharu tree in Jorhat district of the Brahmaputra Valley. They isolated
different AMF but found that Glomus is the dominant genus. Among the Glomus spp.,
Glomus fasciculatum is the most dominant followed by Glomus aggregatum. Further
studies revealed that AMF and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) promoted
early growth of gaharu seedlings. Inoculation of AMF, Glomus clarum and Gigaspora
decipiens, increased growth of 180 days old A. filaria, under greenhouse conditions
(Figure 5). Growth acceleration was indicated by percentage of AM colonization up
to 93%, plant growth (height, diameter and biomass dry weight), survival rate, and
nitrogen (70-153%) and phosphorus (135-360%) concentrations (Turjaman et al., 2006).
Two PGPR, Burkholderia sp. CK28 (IAA-producing bacteria), and Chromobacterium sp.
CK8 (mycorrhization helper bacteria) accelerated height growth of Aquilaria sp. in in the
nursery. Percentage of height increase over non-inoculated control seedlings ranges
from 12.2 to 38.7%, five months after inoculation. Effect of inoculation was no longer
observed after seedlings were transplanted to the fields, probably due to interaction
with soil microflora (Sitepu et al., 2009).
3.3 Pest and Disease

Gaharu plants cultivated in a large scale is prone to pest and disease attack. Some
important pests and diseases have been found attacking several locations of gaharu
plantations in Indonesia with various level of attack (Table 2; Figure 6).
Table 2.
No.
Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia
Pests
Host
Location
Damage
intensity
Pest
1. Heortia vitessoides
A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis, Bogor, West Java

A. crassna, Gyrinops sp.
A. malaccensis
Sukabumi, West Java
A. microcarpa
Carita, Banten
+++
A. microcarpa,
Central Bangka
++
A. malaccensis,
Bodok, West Kalimantan
++
A. beccariana
West Kalimantan
++
A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa
Kandangan and Barabai,

South Kalimantan
8. Stem borer
Gyrinops sp.
North Sulawesi
Gyrinops sp.
Bali
Gyrinops sp.
Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara
11. Stem borer
Gyrinops sp.
Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara
12. Mildew
A. microcarpa
Carita, Banten
13. Mildew
A. microcarpa
Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan
14. Heart rot
Gyrinops sp.
West Nusa Tenggara
Disease
Notes: Damage intensity: +: weak, ++: medium, +++: severe (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)
16

Pest and Disease
The most important pest found to date is identified as Heortia vitessoides Moore
(Odontiinae, Crambidae) (Irianto et al., 2010). The pest (previously Tyspana vitessoides),
has caused severe damage to many gaharu plantations in Indonesia in the past three
years, i.e. in Forest Area with Specific Purposes (Kawasan Hutan dengan Tujuan Khusus,
KHDTK) Carita, Banten Province; Bodok, Sanggau, West Kalimantan Province; Kandangan,
Barabai, South Kalimantan Province; Malino, East Kalimantan Province; Bali Province;
and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara Province; and South Sumatra (Erdy Santoso, Pers.
Comm.). In 2008, the percentage of pest attack in gaharu plantation in KHDTK, Carita,
reached 100%, many of the trees defoliated, and about 20 trees died because of recurring
attack on newly emerging leaves. This pest has also been reported to have distributed
in Fiji, Hongkong, Thailand, and North Queensland (Austtralia) (Herbison-Evams and
Crossley, WWW page).
The caterpillars of this species are pale green with a broad knobbly black line
along each side. Their head is brown. The caterpillars live in a group in a shelter made
by joining a number of leaves together with silk. The caterpillars drop on silk threads
if disturbed. When mature, the caterpillars descend and pupate in the soil. The adults
have a striking pattern on the forewings of black on pale yellow. The hindwings are white
with a broad black margin. The moths have a yellow and black banded abdomen. The
wingspan is about 3 cms. The eggs are yellowish-green, and are flattened. They are laid
in an overlapping cluster, like tiles on a roof (Herbison-Evams and Crossley, WWW page).
A study by Irianto et al. (2010) investigated pest management strategy to control the
population of H. vitessoides. This study found that application of a mixture of systemic
and contact insecticides with addition of leaf fertilizer and plant sticker effectively
controlled high population of the pest. A biological control approach was also studied
by using ants, predator of the pest, that build a nest on gaharu trees and keep the plant
protected from the pest. This experiment is still underway but seems encouraging.
Cultivators of gaharu plants need to be aware and familiarized themselves with pest
and disease of gaharu plants, and take appropriate control action to prevent from severe
loss. Socialization of pest and disease management has been done by PD 425/06 REV.1
(I) project in collaboration with R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation,
FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry, to local forestry offices at the provincial level, gaharu
plant growers and general stakeholders.
17

Figure 5.
Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO

system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for
promoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation.
Figure 4. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO

system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for
promoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation.
Page | 37
18

Soil characteristics
Figure 6.
Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides;
(2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4):
Hearth-rot fungi.
3.4 Soil characteristics

Soil is important ecosystem element that influences the growth of gaharu plant. Soil
is originated from the process of rock decay and the process is influenced by climate,
topography, soil organisms, and time. The characteristic of soil is specific and has an
effect on vegetation composition above the soil. It is important to know the characteristics
of soil that is suitable for gaharu plant. A study by Paoli et al. (2001) found that gaharu
tree of Aquilaria malaccensis has a wide distribution suggesting it could be cultivated
on many soil types, especially upland marginal soil. Pratiwi et al. (2009) analyzed
physical and chemical characteristics of soil in three gaharu plantation sites. The study
indicated that gaharu grew quite favorably in flat to undulating landscape, low to high
temperature (20-32oC), and high rainfall (> 1500 mm/year), hard soil texture (clay), fast
drainage, pH of about 4.5-5.1, very low to high base saturation (1.2%-78.8%) and low
toxic element (Table 3 and 4).
19

Table 3.
Depth
(cm)
Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java

Island, Indonesia
Physical
characteristics
Carita, Banten
Value
Category
Kampung Tugu,
Sukabumi
Dramaga, Bogor
Value
Category
Value
Category
Texture ( %)
0-30
30-60
> 60
Sand
8.33
Silt
25.1
Clay
8.33
Clay
12.78
12.59 Clay
18.73 Clay
66.57
79.08
68.49
Sand
8.55
6.33
9.95
Silt
22.1 Clay
11.98 Clay
5.9 Clay
Clay
69.35
81.69
84.15
Sand
6.01
5.13
11.54
9.09 Clay
26.37 Clay
Silt
36.51
Clay
Clay
57.48
85.78
62.09
0.9
0.93
0.97
30
0.87
0.84
0.86
60
0.96
0.9
0.83
Bulk density
Porosity (%)
0
65.86
64.99
63.43
30
66.99
68.45
67.59
60
63.85
66.21
68.75
(Source: Pratiwi et al., 2009)
Table 4.
Chemical characteristics
Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java

Island, Indonesia
Dramaga, Bogor
Carita, Banten
Kampung Tugu, Sukabumi
Horizon 1 Horizon 2 Horizon 3

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)
pH H2O 1:1
4.70 (L)
4.60 (L)
4.50 (L)
4.60 (L)
4.50 (L)
4.60 (L)
5.10 (L)
5.10 (L)
4.60 (L)
Corg (%)
1.43 (L)
1.03 (L)
1.03 (L)
2.31 (Md.)
1.51 (L)
0.71 (VL)
1.60 (L)
2.07 (Md.)
1.01 (L)
Ntotal (%)
0.15 (L)
0.12(L)
0.11 (L)
0.17 (L)
0.14 (L)
0.08 (VL)
0.15(L)
0.18 (L)
0.11(L)
1.30 (VL)
1.7 (VL)
1.70 (VL)
1.20 (VL)
1.20 (VL)
3.90(VL)
3.70 (VL)
3.40(VL)
4.17 (L)
5.32 (Md.)
1.49 (VL)
1.01 (VL)
1.00 (VL)
16.98 (H)
16.99 (H)
14.64 (H)
10.52 (VH) 10.94 (VH) 10.05 (VH)
PBray (ppm)
1.70 (VL)
NH4OAc pH 7
(me/100 gr)
Ca
5.29 (Md.)
Mg
1.19 (Md.)
1.09 (Md.)
1.70 (Md.)
0.75 (L)
0.53 (L)
0.52 (L)
0.44 (Md.)
0.44 (Md.)
0.58 (H)
0.16 (L)
0.14 (L)
0.13 (L)
0.71 (H)
0.40 (Md.)
0.22 (L)
Na
0.30 (L)
0.26 (L)
0.26 (L)
0.20 (L)
0.22 (L)
0.21 (L)
0.36 (Md.)
0.43 (Md.)
0.22 (L)
13.11 (L)
13.03 (L)
41.07 (VH)
36.48 (H)
39.35 (H)
14.49 (VL)
14.27 (VL)
69.56 (H)
78.84 (VH)
63.86 (H)
KTK
KB (%)
20
17.75 (VL) 16.61 (Md.) 16.99 (Md.)
15.77(L)
40.68 (Md.) 35.88 (Md.) 46.26 (Md.) 16.49 (VL)

Soil characteristics
Chemical characteristics
Dramaga, Bogor
Carita, Banten
Kampung Tugu, Sukabumi

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)

(0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)
KCl (me/100 gr)

Al
3.72 (VL)
4.16 (VL)
4.90 (VL)
0.33
0.36
0.41
0.49
0,05 N HCl
5.84 (L)
7.36 (L)
2.76 (VL)
2.76 (VL)
0.53
6.40 (L)
0.45
0.3
0.3
6.40 (L)
0.42
(ppm)
Fe
2.04
1.8
1.48
1.72
1.04
0.52
0.36
0.32
Cu
3.44
2.64
2.4
1.64
1.68
1.52
1.2
1.12
1.44
Zn
5.24
4.88
5.28
2.6
2.8
1.4
1.56
1.56
Mn
85.6
88.01
79.2
28.48
17.08
16.4
17
22.12
26.36
Notes: VL: very low; H: high; L: low; VH: very high; Md: Medium (Source: Pratiwi et al., 2009)
21
GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY
There are many beliefs on how gaharu is formed and these views have strongly
been wrapped in myth and history. Only in the last few decades that more scientific
approaches have been conducted. Scientists with assistance from the locals have tried
to understand the mechanism involved in the formation of gaharu and conduct research
based on their understanding. Experiments involve laboratory works and setting-up
demonstration plots have been established in some countries, including China, Thailand,
Indonesia, and Cambodia. Approach in these studies is generally done by wounding
trees deliberately with different treatments to induce gaharu formation.
Some extensive researches and their findings are detailed in this chapter.
4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools

Wounding gaharu tree using blade or hammering of nails into the trunks has been
used widely in the past, however gaharu yielded from this treatment is generally of inferior
quality and cannot meet the desired market demand (Persoon, 2007). It will take many
years before high quality gaharu is formed. However, gaharu hunters in Papua New
Guinea, for example Imnai village people (Yapsiei) that deliberately wounded gaharu trees
in an attempt to stimulate gaharu production reported that they were able to harvest
gaharu of B and C grades, three years after this treatment (Gunn et al., 2003). They
believe that following this wounding, muddy water enters the tree through the wound
is responsible for gaharu production. Pojanagaroon and Kaewrak investigated various
mechanical methods in stimulating gaharu formation including making a holes with
screws, wounding using chisels, and bark removal with hatchets. The study found that
methods of injury had influence in gaharu formation and was determined by seasonal
changes, rainy season accelerated gaharu formation faster than dry season. However,
the gaharu produced by this method was reported to only yielded pale fragrant and
small percentage of essential oil.
4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection

This effort involves drilling of trees and keeping the wound open by placing a small
piece of plastic pipe in those holes followed by a chemical injection to stimulate tree
defense mechanism that produces resin. The first project of this effort was initiated in
Vietnam under a supervision from Prof. Robert Blanchette, a wood pathologist from the
University of Minnesota who together with local farmers and Buddhist monks. They
developed experimental plots to stimulate the production of gaharu and after years of
trials, this treatment yielded gaharu. Dr. Blanchette stated that this artificial induction could
yield gaharu ten times faster than natural formation (WWW page: http://forestpathology.
coafes.umn.edu). This finding has gained appreciation and has been considered as one
of the most successful finding (Persoon, 2007). This treatment causes tree to respond
in two defense mechanisms, physical and chemical. The first is phloem cells form callus
and the second, should callus formation is prevented, the tree produces resin.
23

Another country, Thailand being a large producers and consumers of gaharu

traditionally, conducted similar experiment and establish gaharu plantation. The
development of gaharu in this country has been intensive because of the rapid decrease
in gaharu supply from the nature. Krissana Panasin company in Chantaburi, Southeast
Thailand has established gaharu plantation of several hundred hectares. Similar project
has been established in Merauke, Papua, Indonesia by a Catholic Church and in Papua
New Guinea, which involves trials of numerous methods to treat the trees.
4.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal

inoculum
The formation of gaharu is a result of plant defense mechanism towards fungal
attacks by producing resinous compounds as secondary metabolite. In their natural
habitat, the process of resin accumulation as the result of tree-pathogen battle may
take many years and the longer the process takes place the more expensive and highly
valuable the resin is. Many scientists have been passionately trying to understand the
cascade process of this tree-fungi interaction in producing gaharu. Isolation of various
fungi from infected trees have been widely reported (Table 5).
The finding of novel technology to accelerate gaharu formation based on this
mechanism continues to sprout and research has become more intensive. In this
section, some experiments conducted in Indonesia for gaharu induction are presented.
An emphasis is given for induction technology developed by Forestry Research and
Development Agency and a thorough information is presented at the later part of this
section.
Table 5.
No.
Fungi
1. Torula sp.
Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on their

morphological characteristics and experiments related with the fungal
inoculation
Host isolated
A. agallocha
2. Cladosporium sp.
Activity
Author
Formation of gaharu
Bose (1934 in Burfield, 2005a)
Stopped in 1931 due to inoculum contamination
Sagopal (1959 in Burfield, 2005a)
Obtained result but, trees were destroyed.
Burfield (2005a).
Work stopped and no later work yielded positive results

3. Epicoccum
granulatum
4. Pencillium citrinum
Further investigation of gaharu formation by fungus
A. agallocha
Aspergillus tamari
Aspergillus spp.
Prospecting the deliberate tree infection by fungus
Battcaharrya (1952 in Burfield,

2005a)
Sadopal (1960 in Burfield, 2005a)
Showed conflicting results
Varma (1977 in Burfield, 2005a)
Ascribed spiral cavitation of the tracheid walls of the

wood of A. agallocha to P. parasitica
Phialophora parasitica was frequently associated with
better quality portions of gaharu
Gaharu formation rarely occurred in trees under 25
years old, and formation followed injury to the tree, for
example following wind or storm damage
Hawksworth et al. (1976 in

Burfield, 2005a)
Gibson (1977 in Burfield, 2005a)
The causative infective agent for standing trees
Jaluddin (1977 in Burfield,

2005a)
Rahman (1980 in Burfield, 2005a)
Fusarium solani
Botryodiplodia
Theobromae
Philophora parasitica
5.
24
Cytosphaera
mangiferae Died.

Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum
No.
Fungi
Host isolated
6. Aspergillus sp.
A. agallocha seeds
Fusarium sp.
Activity
Author
Tamuli et al. (1999 in Burfield,
2005a)
Tamuli et al. (2000a in Burfield,
2005a)
A. agallocha
rhizosphere
Penicillium sp.
Epicoccum sp.
7. Fusarium oxysporum A. agallocha
Schlect.
Chaetum globosum
Kunze
8. Fusarium xylaroides Aquilaria spp. from
Java, Kalimantan,
Mollucas, Sumatra
Fusarium tricinctum
Succeeded in inoculating healthy wooden blocks so

Tamuli et al. (2000 in Burfield,
that colony growth occurred
2005a)
Colonies were deposited in cultures with the MTCC,
Institute of Microbial Technology (CSIR), Chandigarh
Fusarium spp. Have successfully infected gaharuAgustini et al. (2006)
producing trees in the field and yielded gaharu
products
Colonies were deposited in cultures with the FORDA
CC, Laboratory of Forest and Nature Conservation R&D
Center, Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia
Fusarium solani
Cylindrocarpon
9. Botryodiplodia
theobromae
Curvularia lunata
Aquilaria spp. in
Thailand
Isolation of fungi from tropical rain forest in Rayong,

Chanthaburi, Trad, Nakhon Ratchasima, Krabi, Trang
and Pattarung, Thailand.
Four species: B. theobromae, C. lunata, F. oxysporum,
and Pestalotia sp. were parasitic and others were
saprophytic.
Subansenee et al. (1985)
Fusarium oxysporum
Pestalotia sp.
Cercosporella sp.
Chaetomium spirale
Cladosporium sp.
Phialogeniculata sp.
Pithomyces sp.
Rhizopus sp.
Spiculostibella sp.
Trichoderma sp.
A study by a group of researcher in Laboratory of Biotechnology, Agriculture Faculty,

Mataram University, Indonesia conducted inoculation of fungi for stimulation of gaharu
production. The group found that F. lateritum could be isolated and cultured in potato
dextrose agar (PDA) media and that the fungi could form gaharu after 2-month injection
to 4-year-old trees. Biology Tropical (BIOTROP) reported the use of stressing agent on
a tree prior to fungal injection accelerated the formation of gaharu.
Artificial induction of five-seven year old Gyrinops versteegii trees in Mataram on
Lombok Island and twelve Aquilaria spp. in Pekanbaru, Sumatra by drilling eight 10 cm
deep by 1cm wide holes and inoculating with five Fusarium spp. including Fusarium
trifosfrium has been described by Tabata et al. (2003). The results showed that gaharu
was observed around the drilled sites but uninoculated trees also formed gaharu. A
combination of 2% sugar solution, Acremonium sp. and methyl jasmonate was reported
to produce gaharu of kemedangan quality class IV and that wood discoloration, fragrance
level, and terpenoids contents were independent criteria in determining gaharu quality
(Yunita, 2009).
25

Research and development of artificial induction technology of gaharu in Forestry

Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Forestry has started since 1984, but only
in the last ten years that the activities have become more intensive (Table 6). The first
trial for artificial induction was located in Sebadu Village, West Kalimantan, Indonesia
by injecting five fungal-producing gaharu: Botryodiplodia sp., Fusarium oxysporum,
F. bulbigenium, F. laseritium, and Phytium sp. on a total of 300 trees of 8-year-old A.
microcarpa. Before injection, palm sugar and lubricant were added and mixed with the
fungi. This preliminary study showed that the formation of gaharu was improved by the
addition of palm sugar and lubricant. The three Fusarium species formed larger area of
gaharu on the infected trees (Santoso, pers. comm.). The institution also collaborated
with Provincial Forestry Institute in Kalimantan by injecting Fusarium sp. into 9-year-old
A. malaccensis grown in Sempaja arboretum. After three months, gaharu formation was
indicated by stem cracking and the skin was easily torn. The infected part of stem is
fragrant when it was burnt confirming that gaharu was formed.
Table 6.
Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drilling

and Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia
No.
Location
Gaharu tree species
Number
of trees
induced
1.
Bangka
A. microcarpa
160
2.
Bahorok, North Sumatra
A. malaccensis
50
3.
West Sumatra
A. malaccensis
200
4.
Carita, Banten
A. microcarpa
300
5.
Bodok, West Kalimantan
A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis,
A. beccariana
200
6.
Kandangan and Barabai, South Kalimantan
A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa
800
7.
Muaro, Jambi
A. microcarpa
50
8.
Bali
Gyrinops versteegii
50
9.
West Nusa Tenggara
Gyrinops versteegii
200
10.
Flores, East Nusa Tenggara
Gyrinops versteegii
100
11.
Seram, Molluca
Aquilaria cummingiana
150
(Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)
Novel findings by Santoso et al. have revealed important aspects that determine the
successful of gaharu formation by artificial induction, i.e. methods of injection, fungal
strain type, and growing media for delivering the fungi. Intensive studies for several
years have confirmed efficient gaharu inducing methods (Figure 6, 7, and 8), as follows:
1. Injection hole is of small size of about 3 mm in diameter. The holes will be closed
naturally by the plant, not long after inoculants injection. This closing process of the
injection hole is important in stimulating the formation of gaharu
2. Inoculant is delivered in the form of liquid by injection with a syringe of about 1 ml
per hole
26

3. Type of fungal strain determines the gaharu formed, so screening of efficient strain
using few samples in several locations to confirm its efficiency is essential prior to
establishing large demonstration plots
4. Spaces in between holes should be wide enough (about 25 cm apart) to prevent
from overlapping of vertical disease development from each others hole
5. The quality of gaharu formed becomes higher with longer incubation time. the Gaharu
product harvested after three years of induction using this method was classified
as tanggung a grade higher than kemedangan, while gaharu harvested from shorter
incubation
period
was considered as kemedangan grade A-B.
grade A-B
.
Figure 7.
An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharu

formation. (1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with
Figu
ure 6. An illusstration
of induction
proccedure
for(2-3):
stim
mulation
gliquid inoculum
forma
ation.is(1): Tre
ee drilling
25 cm space
in between
holes;
one mlofofgaharu
injected with a syringe; (4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency
to make
m
about 5 mm diame
eter hole with
h 25 cm spa
ace in betwe
een holes; (2
2-3): one ml of liquid
of induction is observed by peeling a tree bark to observe the disease
inocculum is injeccted
with a (Source:
s
syringe;
(4): one month after
a
inoculattion, the efficciency of ind
duction is
symptom
http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/
obse
erved by media/465.jpg.
peeling a tree ba
ark to obs
serve the disease symptom (Source:
http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publissher/media/4
465.jpg
27

Figure 8.
28
Technology of fungal induction to stimulate gaharu production. (1):

Bamboo stagger for climbing tree for inoculation; (2): Drilling the tree
and making holes for inoculation; (3): Fusarium sp., gaharu-inducing
fungi grown on agar plate; (4): Wood coloration on stem tissue, an
indication of resin production.

Figure 9.
Harvesting procedure of gaharu product from deliberate tree injection

with fungal inoculant. (1): Initial symptom of gaharu formation on
stem; (2): Felling of tree; (3-7): Cutting away tissue to obtain the
resinous parts; (8): Residue of trees that is used for distillation of oil.
In search for gaharu-inducing fungi, thirty six fungi from infected gaharu trees from
17 provinces in Indonesia have been isolated and subsequently identified by means
of 28S rRNA partial gene sequencing(Sitepu et al., in preparation for publication).
Identification was conducted in the Laboratory of Forest Microbiology, FORDA using
FUS1 and FUS2 primers that enabled amplification of up to 460-bp fragment. Most
isolates identified were members of Fusarium solani species complex, only one isolate,
FORDACC-02375, originated from East Kalimantan showed high similarity to Fusarium
oxysporum (Table 5). This study highlighted a rapid molecular identification protocol
for gaharu-inducing fungi over the conventional measure.
Table 7.
No.
Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungi

collected from 17 provinces in Indonesia
Isolate Number
Origin (Province)
Molecular identification
FORDACC506
North Sumatra
Fusarium solani
FORDACC509
Gorontalo
Fusarium solani
FORDACC503
West Sumatra
Fusarium solani
FORDACC512
Papua
Fusarium solani
29
No.
Isolate Number
Origin (Province)
Molecular identification
FORDACC500
Jambi
Fusarium solani
FORDACC501
West Sumatra
Fusarium solani
FORDACC510
Molucca
Fusarium solani
FORDACC497
Central Kalimantan
Fusarium solani
FORDACC499
West Kalimantan
Fusarium solani
10
FORDACC2372
East Nusa Tenggara
Fusarium solani
11
FORDACC504
Riau
Fusarium solani
12
FORDACC514
Papua
Fusarium solani
13
FORDACC502
West Sumatra
Fusarium ambrosium
14
FORDACC515
East Nusa Tenggara
Fusarium sp.
15
FORDACC2379
Molucca
Fusarium solani
16
FORDACC511
West Nusa Tenggara
Fusarium solani
17
FORDACC2370
Bangka Belitung
Fusarium solani
18
FORDACC517
Bangka Belitung
Fusarium solani
19
FORDACC513
Papua
Fusarium solani
20
FORDACC519
West Java
Fusarium falciforme
21
FORDACC2375
East Kalimantan
Fusarium oxysporum
22
FORDACC520
West Java
Fusarium solani f. batatas
23
FORDACC518
Babel
24
FORDACC2371
Babel
Fusarium solani
25
FORDACC2377
West Java
Fusarium solani
26
FORDACC507
Lampung
27
FORDACC498
Central Kalimantan
Fusarium solani
28
FORDACC2369
West Sumatra
Fusarium ambrosium
29
FORDACC495
South Kalimantan
Fusarium solani
30
FORDACC2373
West Nusa Tenggara
31
FORDACC2374
East Kalimantan
Fusarium solani
32
FORDACC508
Bengkulu
Fusarium sp.
33
FORDACC505
North Sumatra
Fusarium solani
34
FORDACC496
South Kalimantan
35
FORDACC516
Babel
Fusarium solani
36
FORDACC2378
West Java
Fusarium solani
Note: FORDA CC: Forestry Research and Development Agency Culture Collection (Source: Sitepu et al., in preparation
for publication).
30
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU
Gaharu is a resinous wood and it is the resin that determines the quality of gaharu.
Many studies have revealed two major constituents of gaharu, i.e. sesquiterpenes and
chromones, as the main source of the fragrant.
About 50 years ago, the chemical content of fragrant gaharu was isolated by Indian
chemists from Aquilaria agallocha ROXB and they characterized several sesquiterpenes
(Konishi et al., 2002). Twenty years later, Japanese scientists isolated and characterized
many sesquiterpenes from two gaharu types, the first, presumably originated from A.
malaccensis and the second, kanankoh (in Japanese) (Konishi et al., 2002). Another
constituent of gaharu was also revealed, i.e. an oxygenated chromone derivative, followed
by isolations of two new chromone derivatives in 1989 and 1990 by Chinese scientists.
Sapwood gaharu exemplifies as merely unexuded resin, but rather it is deposited
in the wood tissues of trees. This resin deposit renders the wood with loose fibers and
white color becoming solidly compact, white in color, and fragrant in smell. This resin
belongs to sesquiterpene group, which is easily volatile (Ishihara et al., 1991). Most of
the compounds in gaharu are identified as sesquiterpenoid group. One of the fragrantsmelling compounds in gaharu was first identified by Bhattacharyya dan Jain as agarol,
categorized as mono-hydroxy compunds (Prema and Bhattacharyya, 1962).
Research conducted by Nakanishi succeeded in characterizing jinkohol (2-hydroxy(+)-prezizane) in gaharu originated from Indonesia, through benzene extraction. This
team also found two new sesquiterpene compounds in Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk.
from Indonesia, comprising jincoheremol dan jincohol II, called as type B to differentiate
it from the type A of A. agallocha Roxb., and isolated alpha-agarofuran and (-)-10-epigamma-eudesmol, oxo-agarospirol as the main constituent at gaharu type B (Burfield
2005b). In Burfield (2005b), it was stated that Yoneda managed to identify the main
sesquiterpene that existed in gaharu type A (in A. agallocha) and type B (in A. malaccensis).
Gaharu type A contained -agarofuran 0,6%, nor-ketoagarofuran 0,6%, agarospirol 4,7%,
jinkoh-eremol 4,0%, kusunol 2,9%, dihydrokaranone 2,4%, and oxo-agarospirol 5,8%.
Meanwhile, in gaharu type B were identified compounds comprising -agarofuran(-)10-epi--eudesmol 6,2%, agarospirol 7,2%, jinkohol 5,2%, jinko-eremol 3,7%, kusunol
3,4%, jinkohol II 5,6% dan oxo-agarospirol 3,1%.
Elucidation of structures of many kinds of 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromone and their
derivative compounds have been thoroughly investigated by Japanese scientist and
his group (Figure 9.) (Konishi et al., 2002).
31

Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an
unkown 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone.

Compound (1): 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone;
(2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, (2): C19H18O5, (3): C1H14O4, (4):
6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxyl
derivative of 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7):
C18H16O4 (Source: Konishi et al., 2002).
Yagura et al. (2005) isolated novel chromone derivatives from gaharu, produced
by intentionally wounding A. crassna and A. sinensis. The three compounds were
characterized as diepoxy tetrahydrochromones have not been reported from natural
gaharu product, i.e. Oxidoagarochromone with molecular formula of A (1) (C17H14O4);
B(2): (C18H16O5); C(3): C18H16O6 .
Results regarding the analysis of GCMS (gas chromatography mass spectrometry)
on 6-month old induced-gaharu brought out 9 chemical constituents, of which only 4
constituents were identifiable that comprised 4-hydroxy-4-3thyl-2-pentanone (5.3%),
Oxirane, 2,3-epoxy butane (0.6%), 2-butoxy ethanol (70.5%) dan 1,2 benzene dicarboxylix
acid (9%) (Figure 10) (Wiyono, 2008).
32
constituents were identifiable that comprised 4-hydroxy-4-3thyl-2-pentanone

(5.3%),
Oxirane, 2,3-epoxy butane (0.6%), 2-butoxy ethanol (70.5%) dan 1,2 benzene
dicarboxylix acid (9%) (Figure 10) (Wiyono, 2008).
(x100,000)
TIC
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2.5
Figure 10.
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu
Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu
Further, results of GCMS analysis on the induced gaharu products
Further, results of GCMS analysis on the induced gaharu products originated from
originated
Dramaga
and Carita2each
comprising
2 sample
trees
revealed
that
Dramagafrom
and Carita
each comprising
sample
trees revealed
that there
were
16 phenol
compounds
belong
to high group,
andbelong
8 phenols
as lowgroup,
group (Table
Scrutinizing
there
were 16that
phenol
compounds
that
to high
and 86).
phenols
as low
that Table 6, it seems that there has occurred a sequence (series) of secondary metabolite
group
(Table
Scrutinizing
that ofTable
6, itand
seems
that
there has
process,
such6).
as the
evolving/release
iseugenol
veratrol
compounds
thatoccurred
function a
as perfumes and medicine, whereby those two compounds are not encountered in regular
sequence
(series) of secondary metabolite process, such as the evolving/release of
wood. The veratrol itself is evolved from phenol compounds that undergo hydrolysis into
catechol,and
which
furthercompounds
through a sequence
of complex
mechanisms,
i.e. Kreb cycle,
is
iseugenol
veratrol
that function
as perfumes
and medicine,
whereby
transformed to veratrol. Likewise, eugenol compounds are evolved from guaiacol (main
those
two compounds
are not
encountered
in regular
wood.
The
veratrol itself is
constituent
of lignin) through
ferulic
acid intermediate
(Waluyo
et al.,
2011).
evolved
from phenol
compounds
that undergo
hydrolysis
catechol,
which further
Results
of identification
on gaharu
resin indicated
theinto
presence
of caryophene
compounds
that typifyofthe
main constituents
for eugenol
which
usually
in clove to
through
a sequence
complex
mechanisms,
i.e. Kreb
cycle,
is exists
transformed
leaves. In gaharu resin were also identified cembren compounds (diterpenoid) that
veratrol.
Likewise,
compounds
evolved
from guaiacol
(main
constituent
comprised
a feromoneugenol
compound
effective forare
termites,
a palustrol
compound
as antitusive,
copaene compounds that can function as essential oil and are rather toxic to be
of and
lignin)
through ferulic acid intermediate (Waluyo et al., 2011).
taken orally if the LD is 5000 mg/kg
Results of identification on gaharu resin indicated the presence of caryophene

Recent study revealed distinct chemical compositions and its relative concentration
compounds
thatwoods
typify the
constituents
which
usually
exists
in clove
of four gaharu
frommain
A. microcarpa
that for
waseugenol
artificially
induced
by four
Fusarium
spp. from four different localities in Indonesia (Novriyanti et al., in press). Analysis using
leaves.
In gaharu resin were also identified cembren compounds (diterpenoid) that
GCMS pyrolysis revealed that Fusarium sp. from Tamiang Layang, Central Kalimantan
had the highest
confirmed
constituent
(12.89%),
gaharuainduced
by Fusarium
sp. as
comprised
a feromon
compound
effective
for but
termites,
palustrol
compound
from Molluca had the highest total concentration of odorant compounds (12.47%).
antitusive, and copaene compounds that can function as essential oil and are rather
Further study done by the same group of scientists at FORDA of the Ministry of
toxic
to be Indonesia
taken orally
if the LD
5000 mg/kg
Forestry,
compared
theischemical
contents of gaharu formed by natural process
andRecent
by artificial
induction
(Santosodistinct
et al., unpublished
The GCMS analysis
study
revealed
chemical data).
compositions
and itsshowed
relative
differences in chemical contents of gaharu harvested from these two processes (Figure
concentration
of four gaharu woods from A. microcarpa that was artificially induced
11).
by fourGaharu
Fusarium
spp.crassna,
from four
different
localities
Indonesia
(Novriyanti
et al., in
(Aquilaria
Aquilaria
sinensis)
is well in
known
as an incense
in the oriental
region such
as Thailand,
Taiwan, pyrolysis
and Cambodia,
and that
is used
as digestive
tradisional
press).
Analysis
using GCMS
revealed
Fusarium
sp. in
from
Tamiang
medicine. Gaharu leaves are drunk as a health tea in Thailand and Taiwan. Charateristic
57
33

sesquiterpenes and chromone derivates have been isolated from agarwood and some of
these have sedative analgesic effects. Phytochemical research has been carried out on
the trunk and resin of agarwood, but little is known about the pharmacological effects
of agarwood leaves (Kakino et al., 2010).
Table 8.
No.
Phenol compounds present in the induced gaharu products
Compound name
High total of
phenolic
H0C18
H0D7
Low total of
phenolic
H0C14
H0D10
benzene, 1,2-dimethoxy- (CAS) veratrol
0.38
0.19
1,2-benzenediol, 3-methyl- (CAS) 3- methylpyrocathecol
0.99
0.47
0.94
1,2-benzenediol (CAS) pyrocathecol
3.53
4.07
1,4-benzenediol, 2-methoxy- (CAS) hydroquinone,

2-methoxy
0.14
1,4-benzenediol/hydroquinone
8.91
10.93
phenol, 4-methoxy- (CAS) Hqmme
6.97
0.87
Caffeine
0.19
phenol, 2-ethoxy- (CAS) guethol
4.66
phenol, 4-ethyl-2-methoxy (CAS) pethylguaiacol
1.10
0.86
10
phenol, 2-methoxy-4-propyl- (CAS) 5-propylguaiacol
0.39
0.18
11
phenol, 2-methoxy- (CAS) guaiacol
12
phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(1-propenyl)- (E) (CAS) (E)isoeugenol
13
phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)- (CAS) eugenol
14
Phenol, 4-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxy-(CAS)
coniferil alkohol
4.23
3.92
15
phenol, 3,4,5-trimethoxy (CAS) antiarol
0.88
1.69
16
quinic acid
5.96
1.19
17
4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 2-methyl- (CAS)

2-methylchromone
1.23
18
4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 6-hydroxy-2-methyl- (CAS)

6-hydroxy-2-methylchromone
0.10
19
benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy- (CAS) vanilin
0.70
20
benzeneacetic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-(CAS)

homovanillic acid
0.56
21
Capcaisin
0.09
22
Jasmolin II (CAS) cyclopropane carboxylic acid,

3-(3-methoxy-
0.22
23
octanoic acid (CAS) caprylic acid
0.16
24
1,3-benzenediol, 4-ethyl- (CAS) 4-ethylresorcinol
1.40
Total
2.20
0.95
0.36
6.41
0.88
3.11
4.43
2.64
1.56
0.85
1.12
1.38
0.19
40.45
39.89
3.56
1.44
2.01
0.69
19.78
22.57
Remarks: Relative concentration in percentage (%); trees with high total of phenolic compounds are presumed as the resistant trees; trees with low lotal of
phenolic compounds are presumed as the vulnerable trees; H0C18 = sample tree with code-number 18, growing in Carita; H0C14 = sample tree with
code-number 14, growing in Carita; H0D7 = sample tree with code-numbered 7, growing in Dramaga; H0D10 = sample tree with code-numbered
10, growing in Dramaga. Source : Novriyanti (2008)
34
(1)
(2)

35
36
(4)
gaharu of West Kalimantan origin; (2): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from West Kalimantan;
(3): Natural gaharu of Gorontalo origin; (4): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from Gorontalo
(Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data).
Figure 12. (4) Figure 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from natural process and artificial induction. (1): Natural
(3)


Gaharu oil for use in aromatherapy has attracted more and more attention
nowadays, especially for psychosomatic disease caused by stress. In the United
Stated, aromatherapy is allowed for clinical use in syndromes, such as Attention Deficit
Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Takemoto et al., 2008). During the
aromatherapy, volatile compound is inhaled and it is important to know its pharmacological
activity. The composition of volatile compounds in gaharu oil varies. Takemoto et al.
(2008) examined two types of gaharu oil, i.e. from a Hong Kong market and originated
in Vietnam, by SPME-GCMS to characterize their volatile compounds. SPME-GC
analysis revealed the composition in the gas phase, as follows: sample originated from
Hong Kong market contained 47.1% benzylacetone, and sample of Vietnam made
contained 61.5% a-gurjunene and 24.7% (+)-calarene as the main volatile components.
GC analyses revealed volatile mass in a liquid extract, as follows: benzylacetone was
accounted for only 0.96%, a-gurjunene for 15.1% and (+)-calarene for 17.3% of the
whole oil (Figure 12). Spontaneous vapor administration system applied using 400l of
gaharu oil showed that these two oil types gave similar sedative activity although the
main component of each oil was different (Takemoto et al., 2008).
Figure 13. Structures of compound from gaharu oil

When used as sedative, gaharu may affect central nervous system. A sesquiterpene
characterized as spirovetivane-type sesquiterpene, (4R,5R,7R)-1(10)-spirovetiven -11-ol2-one at a concentration of 100g/ml, caused an induction effect on brain-derived
neurotrophic factor mRNA expression in vitro neuronal cells of rat (Ueda et al., 2006).
Other part of gaharu tree, leaves have been reported to have laxative effect. Oral
administration of acetone leaf extracts of Aquilaria sinenses gave a mild laxative effect
in mice, but it did not cause diarrhea as a severe side effect and the main constituent
that contributed to this effect was characterized as genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside
(Figure 13) (Hara et al., 2008).
37
Figure 14. Major constituent genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside compound that

caused mild laxative effect in mice (Source: Hara et al., 2008).
38
GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING
Today, the range of gaharu products seems endless from raw materials to various
by-products. Varieties of gaharu products continue to blossom in particular, in countries
where gaharu has been appreciated for many years traditionally and historically. In
Japan, Korea and Taiwan, countries with long tradition of gaharu, for instance, solid
heartwood of gaharu is crafted to form beautiful sculptures, appreciated as natural art.
In these countries also, gaharu is used make beads and bracelets (Persoon, 2007). The
unscented wood of gaharu has been used in Assam for papermaking, while the wood
fiber is used for ropemaking. In Taiwan, gaharu is used as wine ingredient in Chu-yeh
Ching and Vo ka Py. Japan and Arab, however demand high quality gaharu to be further
processed. Most of the resinous woods is processed and formed into chips, oil and
powder (Figure 14 and 15).
Gaharu incense and perfumes are used as a skin daub for embalming, and to give
fragrant to soap and shampoo. Oil is used in the production of perfume as fixative and
other cosmetics. The oil is also used in the production of traditional Chinese and Korean
medicine, medicinal wine and various other products. In Arab, the essential oil of gaharu
is the most expensive oil which can be ten times more expensive than sandalwood oil.
Soap and hand body lotion from gaharu oil have also emerged for beautifying skins. The
oil is extracted from the gaharu through distillation. This delicate process determines
both the amount and quality of oil produced. With the exception of large solid pieces of
gaharu which are traded as individual pieces, most of the wood is ground into very small
pieces or powder, which is immersed in water and left to ferment over time. Then the
material is transferred to distillation kettles and steamed. After heating, the condensed
water and oil are captured in a container where the oil floats on top of the water. The
water is removed and the oil is tapped. The price of high quality oil can be as much as
US$50,000 to US$80,000 per litre. This process can be repeated once or twice depending
on the quality of the water and the costs of the distillation process. The powder which
remains after distillation can be used for low grade incense making. It is estimated that
for the production of one litre of oil 100 to 150 kilos of gaharu is necessary.
A range of capacity in oil production per tree was reported in Cropwatch (2005).
An 80 year old tree could yield 6-9 kg of gaharu oil, although another report in India
suggested yield of 2-7 3.6 kg oil/tree. A much lower yield of 1 kg oil/tree was also
reported.
Most gaharu traders estimate the quality of gaharu organoleptically. Grading quality
based on botanical description and its origin is not in place. A practical analysis of
its chemical content is also highly difficult for practical implementation at the trading
sites. CITES also regulates all parts and derivatives of Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. and
Gonystylus spp. and it also includes: (a) seeds, spores and pollen (including pollinia);
(b) seedling or tissue cultures obtained in vitro, in solid or liquid media, transported in
sterile containers, and (c) cut flowers of artificially propagated plants. Although CITES
has regulated species protected to prevent from extinction, the source of large amount
of gaharu stocks for trading are still illegal and a practical technique to identify its origin
39

is urgently needed. It is suggested that DNA sequence markers and DNA fragment
markers are the solution to prevent illegal trades (Cropwatch, 2005).
Therefore, gaharu has social, cultural and economic value which is considerably high.
Traditionally, gaharu is utilized among other things in the form of incense for religious and
ritual purposes, fragrant producing substance for rooms and bodies, cosmetic materials
and simple medicine. At present, utilization of gaharu has developed extensively for
among other things perfumery, aroma therapy, soap, body lotion, and medicinal materials
which possess properties as anti asthma, anti microbes, and stimulator of nerve works
and digestion. Increase in gaharu trade since the last three decades creates scarcity in
the production of gubal gaharu from nature. According to some information, gaharu
price with super quality in local markets of Samarinda, Tarakan, and Nunukan (East
Kalimantan) reached between Rp 40.000.000,- and Rp 50.000.000,- per kilogram,
followed in terms of rank with that of Tanggung quality with average price per kilogram
of Rp 20.000.000,-, and that of Kemedangan quality (Rp 1.000.000,- to Rp 4.000.000,-),
and Suloan quality (Rp75.000,-).
There are several important substances contained in gubal gaharu, namely
(-agarofuran, (-agarofuran, nor-ketoaaga-rofuran, (-)-10-epi-y-eudesmol, agarospirol,
jinkohol, jinkohon-eremol, kusunol, dihydrokaranone, jinkohol II and oxo-aga-rospirol.
Susilo (2003) explained further that there are 17 kinds of substance occurring in gaharu,
such as: noroxoagarofuran, agarospirol, 3,4 dihydroxy-dihydro-agarufuran, p-methoxybenzylaceton, and aquillochin. Oiler (without year) in Suhartono and Mardiastuti (2003)
stated that there are 31 chemical elements contained in gaharu and the main chemical
constitutents are 2-(2-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethil)chromone (27%) and 2-(2-phenylethyl)
chromone (15%).
Gaharu with its specific aroma is used by people in the middle-east as materials for
fragrance products. In China, gaharu is utilized as medicine for stomach ache, kidney
disturbances, hepatitis, asthma, cancer, tumor and stress. Besides that, gaharu has
been used as raw materials for industry of perfumery, cosmetics and preservatives for
various kinds of accessory.
Because of its fragrant aroma, gubal gaharu is traded as elite commodity for industry
of perfumery, bead rosary, cosmetics, incense, chinese joss stick, and medicines. Besides
that, with the development of science and technology of industry, at present, various
countries utilize gaharu as fragrance producing materials (perfumery) and cosmetics.
There is also development of industry of gaharu utilization as raw materials for herbal
medicine (to cure stress, asthma, rheumatism, gastric and kidney inflammation, malaria,
diseases which should be treated with antibiotics, TBC, liver, cancer, and tumors) which
are still in the process of clinical tests.
Because not all gaharu producing plants contain gaharu, the knowledge and
technique of estimating gaharu contents in gaharu producing plants which are infected
with gaharu forming fungi, need to be mastered, particularly by novice harvesters, so
there will be no mistake of cutting trees which do not contain gaharu. The characteristics
of gaharu producing plants which contain gaharu are among other things: leaves have
yellow color and are shed, tree crown is small and thin, tree branches are many and
broken, there are many protuberances and curved parts along the stem and branches
of the tree, and the bark is dry and brittle and if pulled is easily broken. After those
characteristics are found, wounding test is performed on the tree stem by using axe or
40

machette. To get more assurance, the wood chips are burnt to learn whether there is
discharge of aromatic fragrance which is typical of gaharu.
Gaharu producing tree which has been confirmed to contain gaharu is felled and
subsequently cut into several segments and split to have its gaharu taken out. In Sumatra
and Kalimantan, this kind of technique to harvest gaharu is called servis, puncut or
pahat. Other technique which is practiced in communities of Dayak Kenyah and Dayak
Punan in East Kalimantan is by slicing and cutting the woody parts of gaharu producing
plants which are infected by disease, up to the middle of the stem. This technique is
called tubuk. Wood segments which contain gaharu are afterwards collected and the
wood parts are gradually separated from gaharu by using small knife or concave chisel.
Up to now, gaharu products which are originated from nature are marketed in
the form of lumps. But there are also products in the form distilled oil products. The
technique of gaharu oil distillation could be conducted with two systems, namely hot
steaming and vapor pressure. Price of gaharu oil in Jakarta market is Rp 750.000/tolak
(1 tolak = 12 cc).
Classification of gaharu quality in East Kalimantan, specifically in Samarinda town
and the surrounding areas has not been uniform (Table 8) and the determination of the
quality is conducted visually. Variability and unclear determination of the quality create
differing selling prices for the same class of quality. With the fact that national standard
for gaharu quality (SNI 01-5009.1-1999) has been determined, it is hoped that this quality
standard could serve as reference for gaharu business people, collecting traders, and
gaharu harvesters in determining gaharu quality classes. Table 7 and Table 8 present
criteria and classification of gaharu quality.
In general, gaharu quality could be categorized into six classes of quality, namely
super, tanggung, kacangan, teri, kemedangan, and cincangan and each quality class is
classified further into several sub-classes of quality.
Table 9.
No.
Location
Classification of gaharu quality in Samarinda (East Kalimantan)

Quality Classification
Super
1.
Samarinda
2.
Muara Kaman
3.
Kota Bangun
Super A
Super B
4.
Muara Wahau
Super A
Super B
Tanggung
Super king
Super A
Super AB
Tanggung
isi
Tanggung
kosong
Kacangan
Teri
Kemedangan
Cincangan
Kacangan A
Kacangan B
Kacangan C
Teri A
Teri B
Teri C
Teri kulit A
Teri kulit B
Kemedangan A
Kemedangan B
Kemedangan
community
Kacangan isi
Kacangan
kosong
Teri isi
Teri kulit
Sudokan
Serbuk
Kacangan A
Kacangan B
Teri A
Teri B
Serbuk
Kacangan isi
Kacangan
kosong
Teri Super
Teri Laying
Source : Forestry Research Institute, Samarinda, East Kalimantan (Siran and Turjaman, 2010)
41

Table 10. Criteria and classification of gaharu quality

No
Classification
Criteria
Super
Gaharu has intense black color; is dense, hard, glossy and very smelly. There is no
mixture with wood fiber. Gaharu is in the form of chunks or grains with large size,
whose inner part is not hollow.
Tanggung
Gaharu has brown and black color; is dense and hard; the inner part is hollow,
sometimes is mixed with wood fiber and has intermediate size.
Kacangan
Gaharu has black color and sometimes is mixed with brown color; is mixed with
wood; is in the form of grains as large as peanut or with diameter of around 2 mm.
4.
Teri
Gaharu has black color which is sometimes mixed with brown color; is mixed with
wood; is in the form of grains smaller and thinner than peanut seed, or with diameter
of around 1 mm.
Kemedangan
Wood which contains sap of gaharu
Cincangan
Small segments of wood from gaharu separation
Source: Forestry Research and Development Agency of Kalimantan (Siran and Turjaman, 2010)
Based on market information in Samarinda (Table 9) gaharu price with super quality
could reach Rp 30 000 000 per kg, followed in terms of rank, with tanggung quality with
average price of Rp 10 000 000,- per kg. Gaharu with lowest quality has the price of
around Rp 25 000 per kg, and generally is used as raw materials of distillation to produce
gaharu oil. Visual appearance of several samples of gaharu could be seen in Figure 16.
Table 11. Selling price of gaharu in markets of Samarinda, in East Kalimantan

No
Quality classes
1.
Super King
30 000 000
Super
20 000 000
Super AB
15 000 000
2.
Tanggung
10 000 000
3.
Kacangan A
7 500 000
Kacangan B
5 000 000
Kacangan C
2 500 000
Teri A
1 000 000
Teri B
750 000
Teri C
500 000
Teri Kulit A
300 000
Teri Kulit B
250 000
Kemedangan A
100 000
Kemedangan B
75 000
Kemedangan C
50 000
4.
5.
Price (Rp / kg)
6.
Suloan
Source: Forestry Research and Development Agency of
42
25 000
Kalimantan, 2006

On the basis of Decree of Chief of National Standardization Agency (BSN) No. 1386/
BSN-I/HK.71/ 09/99, there has been decision on National Standard of gaharu quality
with the following title and number: Gaharu SNI 01-5009.1-1999. In this standard,
there are descriptions on definition of gaharu, symbols and abbreviations being used,
terminology, specification, classification, harvesting technique, quality requirements,
sample collection, testing technique, requirements for passing the test and requirements
for marking / labeling. Classification of gaharu quality categorizes the quality into gubal
gaharu, kemedangan, and abu gaharu. Each quality class is further categorized into
several sub-classes on the basis of size, color, content of damar wangi, fiber, weight
and the appearing aroma when being burnt.
According to SNI 01-5009.1-1999, what it means with gubal gaharu is wood which
is originated from trees or part of gaharu producing trees, with strong aroma, marked
with its black color or blackish interspersed with brown color. On the other hand, what
it means with kemedangan is wood which is originated from trees or part of gaharu
producing trees, which posses content of damar wangi with weak aroma, marked
by its color which ranges from grayish white to brownish, coarse fiber and soft wood.
Abu gaharu is wood powder which constitute the remnants from separation of gaharu
from wood. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National Standard
could be seen in Table 10.
Table 12. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National

Standard (SNI)
No
Classification of
quality
Equivalence with
quality standard
in the markets
Color
Content of
damar wangi
Smell / odor /
aroma (being
burnt)
Gubal
Primary quality
Super
Homogeneous black
high
Strong
Quality I
Super AB
Brownish black
sufficient
Strong
Quality II
Sabah Super
Brownish black
moderate
Rather strong
Kemedangan
Quality I
Tanggung A
Blackish brown
high
Rather strong
Quality II
Sabah I
Brown with black stripes
sufficient
Rather strong
Quality III
Tanggung AB
Brown with thin white

stripes
moderate
Rather strong
Quality IV
Tanggung C
Brownish with thin white

stripes
moderate
Rather strong
Quality V
Kemedangan I
Brownish with broad white

strips
moderate
Rather strong
Quality VI
Kemedangan II
Grayish white with thin

black stripes
insufficient
Not strong
enough
Quality VII
Kemedangan III
Grayish white
insuffficient
Not strong
enough
Abu gaharu
cincangan
Black
Primary quality
high
Strong
Quality I
moderate
Moderate
Quality II
insufficient
Insufficient
43

Process of gaharu marketing in various places in Indonesia starts from the activity
of gaharu harvesters who sell the gaharu they collected in the field to collecting traders
in the village or in the subdsitrict. Afterwards, the collecting traders sell the commodity
to larger trader (exporter) in the provincial capital.
In the world of gaharu trade, either in Indonesia or abroad, gaharu becomes prime
commodity and affords high-commercial value, thereby being hunted a lot by consumers.
Gaharu as traded in Indonesia consists of 3 kinds, i.e. gaharu originated from Sumatera
and Kalimntan with the species of Aquilaria malccensis and A. microcrapa; gaharu from
Papua, Sulawesi, and Maluku with the species of Aquilaria filaria; and gaharu with species
of Gyrinops sp. as produced a lot in Nusa Tenggara. When thoroughly scrutinized, the
trade of gaharu as produced naturally in Indonesia since a long time ago has placed a
foothold more on the ecology distribution of those gaharu species.
The marketing of gaharu which signifies as one of the ways of flora and fauna uses is
regulated in accordance with the Government Decree No. 8 in 1999 and the Convention
on International Trade on Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). Therefore,
the uses of gaharu in general should follows its stages and regulations, i.e. quota
determination, its procurement from the nature or cultivation (breeding), transportation
for the domestic distribution as well as for distribution abroad/overseas.
The domestic marketing of gaharu begins from the procurement activities,
transportation, and domestic distribution, until ultimately the consumers. Due to the
technology development, the gaharu as traded inside Indonesia (domestic) currently
is not only limited to chip shapes or pieces with variety of classes, but also already
oriented to its derivative products, such as oil, soap, polishing agent, whitening-cream,
lotion, hio, mosquito repellents, face cleaner, and drugs for therapy aroma. Even, until
this occasion, there have been developed the leaves from the species Aquilaria sp. and
Gyrinops sp. as the ingredients for tea beverages, due to high anti-oxidant content in
those leaves.
Viewed from the business/enterpriser actors, there are a lot of parties involved in
gaharu trade, either individually, in group, or in institution. Since the number of enterprise
actors, such as gaharu seekers and collecting traders in the upstream (forest or village
around the forests) are greater to those of middle-scale or large-scale traders who stay
in the regency or province capitols, then there is a trend among them to press or bring
down the gaharu price. Therefore, the feature of gaharu marketing Indonesia is more
suitable regarded as monopoly market, which implies the market controlled by the
buyers, since they determine the price as well as qualities of gaharu.
The marketing of gaharu domestically occurs due to the relation between the gaharu
suppliers and the recipient towns/centers. Traditionally, the places serving as gaharu
suppliers comprise Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara, and
West Nusa Tenggara. These places, although situated on the western part of Indonesia,
are easily accessible thereby assisting themselves a lot as gaharu suppliers to Jakarta.
Moreover, added to this, western part of Indonesia, such as Sumatera (including) Riau
also serves significantly as the gaharu suppliers. It is presumed that a lot of gaharu is
traded illegally from Sumatera through Riau to Singapore and Malaysia.
Several problems as frequently encountered in the field are among others difficulty
in determining species/kinds of gaharu, its standard and qualities, and in determining the
44

prices which are appropriate thereby bringing benefits to both parties, i.e. consumers
and producers.
Physically, the gaharu products are difficult to differentiate based on its host-tree
origins. Likewise, from the color and aroma, it is also difficult for the common people
or the early traders to tell difference between various gaharu products. Due to these
concerns, one of the gaharu-yielding tree species may become extinct rapidly, and
therefore such species such as A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, A. filaria, and Gyrinops
sp. are regulated in their trades by the international trade convention, i.e. the CITES,
through the quota system.
According to the ASGARIN (Association of Indonesias Gaharu Enterprises), the
gaharu products as traded abroad follows the tastes of consumers. Gaharu with super
qualities (i.e. superking, super A and AB) is commonly marketed to Middle East countries,
used as materials for religious ceremony, fragrances, and therapy aroma. Meanwhile,
gaharu with medium qualities and lower is exported more to South Asia countries, used
as raw material for the manufacture of perfumes and for ritual ceremony in shapes such
as hio, makmul, etc.
In the last several years, there have been trends that the consumers from Taiwan
imported gaharu in log shape. Gaharu in logs inside which its content is only a little
is used as ornaments placed on a room, provided a little with the carving technology,
thereby giving impression as if luxurious and highly artistic. In Figure 17 can be seen
several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export. The overall value of
that gaharu prices not less than Rp. 600 million. During the last three years, amount
of gaharu in quota and realization as exported is presented in the following (Table 11).
Table 13. Development of quota and realization related to the eagle wood export
from Indonesia
Years
Species of gaharu-yielding trees

A. malaccensis
A.filaria
Gyrinops sp.
2007
30 000 (Q)
23 709 (R)
76 000 (Q)
76 000 (R)
24 000 (Q)
8 000 (R)
2008
30 000 (Q)
30 000 (R)
65 000 (Q)
65 000 (R)
25 000 (Q)
25 000 (R)
2009
173 250 (Q)

74 890 (R)
455 000 (Q)

326 882 (R)
Note : Q = quota; R = Realization.
The above table shows that the quota of gaharu export in 2007 from those three
species was only met by the species A. filaria, while the export realization for A. malaccensis
could not satisfy its quota; and even for Gyrinops sp., its export realization could only
meet 30% of its predetermined quota. On the other hand, in 2008 the export realization
for those three species could satisfy 100% of their predetermined quota. Further, in
2009 there was a sharp increase in export quota for A. malaccensis as much as almost 6
folds, while even for A. filarial there was a 7-fold increase in its export quota. According
to a particular source, that situation occurred because new potency was found, where
previously its inventories were unnoticed; for examples, for the species of A. filarial in
Papua, much of it was still buried far below the swamps there.
45

The ASGARIN stated that the centers of world gaharu trade regarded as very
important are situated at Singapore and Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Those two countries
become the place or the main destination for gaharu export from Indonesia and also from
South East Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia. In Singapore the gaharu that enters
is sorted and packaged, and then re-exported to India, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and
Japan, and a part to Middle East. Meanwhile, the gaharu that enters Saudi Arabia is
distributed again to other surrounding countries, and a part exported to England and
France.
Figure 15. Gaharu products.
46

Figure 16. Other gaharu products
Figure 17. Gaharu classes of quality: (a) Tanggung; (b) Kacangan ; (c) Teri and (d)
Kemedangan.
47
Figure 18. Several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export.
48
CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE

PRODUCTION OF GAHARU
In their natural habitat, gaharu is harvested by felling trees and cutting away
uninfected tissue to obtain the resinous wood. Gaharu is hunted intensively by collectors
due to high value of gaharu and significantly increased demand, while the supplies
from the wilds have become scarce. Other concurrent activities: land clearing, forest
exploitation, forest fire also contribute to the disappearance of gaharu-producing trees
in a relatively short time (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004). In the past, only infected
trees were cut down and harvested for gaharu, however when the trees have become
rare, collectors would cut down also healthy plants regardless the low quality of gaharu
(TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004). When collectors are hunting for gaharu, they will
harvest the whole tree without considering the species of the tree (TRAFFIC, CoP13
Prop.49, 2004). The unsustainable way of harvesting of gaharu by collectors and the
diminishing trees in their natural habitat have placed two genera of gaharu, Aquilaria
and Gyrinops in CITES, Appendix II as threatened genera according to the IUCN Red
List in order to sustain gaharu producing species in their natural habitat. Collectors of
gaharu reported that it has become more difficult to find gaharu compared to previous
years (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004).
Rapid depletion of A. malaccensis was recorded in Gunung Palung National Park,
West Kalimantan, Indonesia and the surrounding area (Paoli et al., 2001). Gaharu was
first harvested exclusively from near villages where trees were abundant. However,
exploitation continued and extended to the protected national park area. In less than
5 years, the scientists reported that most A. malaccensis was removed from the park.
This national park covers a total area of 100,000 ha of a diverse mosaic tropical rain
forest type. At the time of survey, the density of A. malaccensis in was low but the
species was widely distributed in six forest types: freshwater, swamp, alluvial bench,
lowland sandstone, lowland granite, and lower montane. With only 20 cm in diameter
at breast height (dbh) which was below the estimated 35 cm dbh, placed the species
at high risk of extinction because the tree has not reached maturity. In this forest also,
regeneration of Aquilaria was highly variable among forest types and appeared highest
in lowland standstone and lowland granite forest (Paoli et al., 2001).
In order to sustain gaharu production as well as the existence of gaharu-producing
trees, Suhartono and Newton (2001) suggested increasing cultivation of gaharu in
plantations. The capacity of seeds to disperse is limited, therefore a high density of
trees may be established as seed orchards. Since the production rates of seeds and
germination rates are high, it is potential for producing planting stock for commercial
scale.
Botanics Garden Conservation International listed recommendation of essential
efforts to secure and conserve the remaining wild populations of gaharu-producing
species that included, as follows (Gratzfeld and Tan, 2008, www page).
49
1. Strengthen institutional cooperation and coordination. Various stakeholders including

local collectors, processors, traders, government and conservation agencies, botanic
gardens and businesses need to take part in this action.
2. Improve capacity building and intensify training related with gaharu conservation and
sustainable production that may include integrated ex- and in situ species recovery
programs, silviculture and management practices
3. Establish practical conservation and sustainable production in demonstration projects,
aiming to enhance 1): conservation of remaining wild populations of gaharu producing
tree species (e.g. in community managed protected areas); 2): ex situ propagation
of critically endangered species in village nurseries, local botanic gardens, etc.; and
3): subsequent reintroduction into the wild.
Many local community livelihoods depend on the wilds for harvesting gaharu and
serious implementation of conservation and sustainable production practices will help
to provide a complementary approach to harvesting wild trees and to relieve pressure
on the remaining highly threatened gaharu-producing species.
50
EXIT STRATEGY
8.1 The Role of Institution

Several institutions and stakeholders who possibly will participate in activities of
gaharu development following the ITTO PD 425/06 Rev.1 (1) project are presented in Table
12. The FORDA serves as a central institution that has put on the move the activities
of gaharu development by initiating the formation of the so-called Indonesias Gaharu
Forum (IGF), and communicating with Forestry Services at the levels of consecutively
privince/regency, private sectors, and gaharu farmers.
The main key to the gaharu development is that intensity of cultivation and planting
of gaharu-yielding tress should be socialized extensively in order that the availability
of gaharu-yielding trees in the future becomes sustainable. Results of visits to several
locations of natural-gaharu centers turned out that the knowledge of famers in gaharutree cultivation is still limited. Most of the farmers around the forests have not yet known
the shape of fruits and seeds of gaharu trees. The distribution of gaharu trees as so far
naturally scattered in Sumatera and Kalimantan is often encountered growing between
the rubber trees owned by the community. Research results on the field revealed that
the distribution of natural gaharu trees is assistad by mammalian creatures such as
squirrels and forest mice, which assist the distribution (spreading) of gaharu-tree seeds.
At the center of natural gaharu-yielding trees, there have been found such trees but it
is uncertain whether or not they contain gaharu sapwood. In the initial sage, farmers
are asked to make inventories on the nature shrubs that exist around their host trees
which can be used as seed sources. The uprooting of gaharu-tree seeds still becomes
the basis in the regeneration of gaharu-yielding trees. Results of survey conducted by
the research team of the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev.1 (1) found out gaharu-planting pattern
done by the farmers who intercrop gaharu tress between rubber trees or oil-palm trees.
The planting (cultivation) of gaharu trees as intercropped with rubber trees provides the
favorable combined benefits for the related farmers. At present, the farmers obtained
benefits from rubber harvest worth in price more than Rp. 20,000 per kg (of rubber).
This daily revenue is regarded as the fixed daily income of the famers, and the gaharuyielding trees as planted serve as the long-termed investment.
The production of gaharu resulting from the cultivation that will be sustainable through
the bio-inducement technology is determined by the availability of gaharu inoculum.
The gaharu-inoculum availability which is practical, efficient, and cheap implies that
the technology products must reach the user hand. In the near future, the Institute for
Forestry Research has been asked to assist the inoculum production in the gaharuyielding centers. The Exit Strategy that will be initiated incorporates the technology
transfer and establishment of gaharu center at the Institute for Forestry Research (IFR)
in Mataram (West Nusa Tenggara). This institute owns the core researches about NonTimber Forest Products (NTFPs), among others gaharu research. They have prepared
laboratory facilities and capable-human resources. In the future, the Matarams IFR will
focus on endemic species of Gyrinops spp. and fungi for local-gaharu formation, which
will be developed in Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara.
51

Table 14. Several institutions/stakeholder who will carry out the exit strategy
following the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I) project
No
Institution
Exit strategy
Activities
1.
Forestry Research
and Development
Agency (FORDA)
Continuing strategy research on

gaharu development
Arranging and organizing the
master plans
Encouraging PHKA/LIPI (Forest
Protection and Nature Conservation/
Indonesias Scientific Authority) to
formulate special policies on gaharu
resulting from the cultivation
Allocation of research funds

Empowerment of Forestry
Research Institute
2.
Indonesias Gaharu
Forum
Coordination among stakeholders

and preparing action plans for gaharu
development
IGF will prepare data base of

gaharu tree plantation for each
regency in Indonesia
3.
Forestry Services at Make action plans for gaharu plantation

and inoculation program
Province/Regency
levels
Preparing gaharu seeds and

inoculum from the regionalgovernment budget
4.
Private sectors
Cooperation regarding the investment

in bio-inducement activities with farmer
groups
Preparing capital for bioinducement activities and

planting of gaharu seeds
5.
Farmer groups
Extending the planting activities with

particular patterns
Preparing gaharu-yielding
trees
Scrutinizing the proposal of ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I), the exit strategy should
deserve a thorough response or follow-up based on specific activities which have been
done in three years, as follows (Table 13):
Table 15. Exit strategy based on activities of gaharu development at the ITTOs
PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I)
No.
Activities
Exit Strategy
1.
Preparing the demonstration plot
a. Forest area for special purposes at Carita (Province of Banten)

Cooperation between farmer groups and FORDA , which has
been endorsed to manage 24-hectare area of gaharu-yielding
trees. The forest farmer-group will manage and take care of
gaharu-yielding trees, and concurrently the FORDA will prepare the gaharu inoculum together with the training.
The FORDA owns 300 trees which have been induced by the
fungi Fusarium spp. The observation is conducted each year
to measure the qualities of gaharu as formed.
b. Regency of Kandangan/Barabai (South Kalimantan)
Agreement on the cooperation between gaharu-enterprise
group (called Nanda Agribiz) and 44 members of farmer group
who own over 400 trees which have been induced by the fungi
Fusarium spp.
c. Sanggau (Kalbar)
The farmer group who has owned over 200 gaharu-yielding
trees which have been induced. They have conducted cooperation with private sectors to induce 3,500 trees. In 2011, as
many as 600 gaharu trees will be induced.
52
EXIT STRATEGY
Master Plans
No.
Activities
Exit Strategy
d. Lombok island (West Nusa Tenggara)
The Forestry Research Institute in Mataram focuses on
research dealing with non-wood forest products (NWFP). In
the early stage, this institute has owned over 180 gaharu trees
already induced with the fungi Fusarium spp. Number of gaharu trees to be induced will increase, in cooperation pattern
with farmer groups.
2.
Development on the gaharu-inoculation techniques

which is effective and
efficient
The inoculation techniques have been adopted by several stakeholders in regencies and forest farmer groups. The FORDA researchers have supervised these activities. The ASGARIN (Indonesias Gaharu Enterprisers) will recommend its members in adopting
this technology.
3.
Development on inoculum
which affords prospect for
large-scale endeavor
FORDA will conduct technology transfer to several Forestry Research Institutes (FRI). As of this occasion, the FRI of Mataram will
be ready to accept this input technology, since the have already
prepared laboratory facilities and capable-human resources.
4.
The realization of training in gaharu-inoculation

technology
The FRI of Mataram is ready to continue the training for farmer

groups in areas of West Nusa Tenggara.
Divisions of investment and research services will continue socializing the inoculation technology for several provinces.
5.
Selection of effective
inoculum
The development on the selection of isolat Fusarium spp., which

nowadays comprises 54 isolats, will be continued and trial-tested at
the gaharu-yielding trees in several gaharu-production centers.
8.2 Master Plans

Activities regarding the development on the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I) has aroused
some research ideas that deserves responses and follows-up, as addressed in organizing
the Master Plan for Research and Development (R & D) on gaharu commodity. Several
related R & Ds which have not yet been conducted and are urgently needed comprise
among others analysis on genetic variability using DNA analysis; and ex-situ conservation
using representative genetic matter obtained from several populations which are
separately designed between populations as an attempt to save them from extinction,
and concurrently to support the breeding programs. Tree breeding (improvement) that
represents the test on the clone resulting from the combination of species and isolat
should deserve a continuation using the so-called genetic-gain trial-test to look into the
species as well as the isolat that afford the best qualities, and finally this ends up with
finding the superior (exotic) clone.
The laboratory of forest microbiology (under the Center for Research and Development
on Forest Conservation and Rehabiliation) has collected 54 isolats of fungi Fusarium
spp. from the entire Indonesia, and so far only 8 isolats which have been trial-tested
in the field. In activities of the ITTOs PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I), there has been initiated the
potency of pests that attack the gaharu-yielding tree species, particularly the leaf-eating
larvae; and also research has been conducted to deal with those larvae using predators
of red-colored ants and microbes. In addition, it is needed to conduct research with
different bio-physic environments. Aspects about the grading of gaharu with the standard
based on gaharu aroma are different for particular species and isolat origin, which
differ from one another. Therefore, it is essential to conduct research to answer the
53

interaction between genetic factors and environments (breeding/improvement). Besides,

the key active substance that brings about gaharu aroma needs thorough identification
particularly when linked to the derivative products such as oil, soap, cosmetics, drugs,
etc. Standardization of product qualities comprising gaharu chips deserves a thorough
determination, thereby not causing the loss to farmers. The strategy of research and
development on gaharu is presented in the schemes as follows (Figure 18).
Genetics matter
sources (demonstration
plot/community)
Plot
Ex-Situ Conservation
54 Isolats at
RDCFCR
DNA Analysis
clone test on the

combination of species
and isolat
Research:
Bio-physic environments
Social, economy, and
culture aspects of the
community
Institution
Policies
genetic gain trial
Superior clone
Penelitian:
SNI (Indonesias
National
Standard)
Insitution
Marketing
Policies
Research :
SNI (Indonesias National
Standard)
Instittution
Yield (Recovery)
Active Substancesf
Marketing
Policies
Post-harvest gaharu
industry
Figure 19. Flow-scheme regarding the exit strategy of gaharu development that
will be conducted by the Research Team of FORDA.
Multidisciplinary research on gaharu products beginning from the upstream until

downstream should start right away. This research intends to yield gaharu products with
high qualities, in which the markets take very-great interest. The integrated research
as such refers to finding superior (exotic) gaharu and the responsive fungi that trigger
(induce) gaharu formation, by scrutinizing in depth the chemical compounds that are
formed based on biochemical analysis. Judging from the visit by the research team
to Singapore and Taiwan, it tuned out that the gaharu samples that resulted from the
inducement as implemented by the farmers using the technology developed by the
FORDA could be accepted by markets, under the condition that the induced-gaharu
should be synthesized in mass amount and continual manner. They will accept the
induced-gaharu for grocery-scale (in tons of weight) with competitive prices.
The FORDA has planned to realize the Organizing-Team for Master Plans regarding
Research and Development on the sustainable Gaharu in Indonesia. The organizing
54
EXIT STRATEGY
Master Plans
team has the members from the multidiscipline sciences such as sylviculture, tree
breeding (improvement), forest microbiology, forest-soil science, wood chemistry, and
forest pests and diseases. The Master Plans should be elaborated in action plan that
exemplifies the research proposals submitted to obtain finances which are adequate
and with multi-years conduct. The arranging of the master plans is depicted in the plan
roadmap for gaharu research and development in the period 2011- 2025. This roadmap
is based on multi-years research and should be supported by technology, gaharu
products that are yielded, and their marketing. The technologies as developed comprise
the improvement (breeding) of gaharu-yielding trees, biotechnology (DNA analysis for
genetic variability, married system), seeds (vegetative and generative), gaharu inoculum
(optimum inoculum dosage), inducement technology which is selective and effective),
and post-harvest processing. The products as developed include technology (patent
rights), clone of exotic tree species and superior isolat, gaharu-sapwood products,
gaharu oil, cosmetics, and drugs. The marketing aspects as turned out cover locals
(trade traffic in the province, harvesting farmers, collector, processor, trader/merchants),
regional (trade traffic between provinces, harvesting farmers, collectors, processors,
and traders/merchant), and marketing that includes market intelligence and export
(overseas-trade traffic).
55
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Gaharu never fail to position itself as extremely profitable products. Gaharu major
market is international and it is valued per unit weight. However, many gaharu products
are still illegally in the trading sites. DNA fingerprinting has become more advanced and
may contribute to minimize illegal trade. Commission of CITES has regulated gaharu
trade with central target to prevent extinction of wild gaharu stocks, and this needs
participation from all gaharu stakeholders that conduct daily interaction. Although the
stocks of natural gaharu are diminishing, the opportunity to promote sustainable gaharu
production from cultivation is high because gaharu is a renewable product. Cultivation
of gaharu is a promising alternative for planting higher density of plants that can be
induced to produce gaharu.
Cultivation of a higher density of gaharu plants is an alternative for accelerating
gaharu production and appears to be the key to sustain production and conserve
remnants in the wilds. Scientific facts from recent advances in induction technology are
promising in stimulating gaharu production and may contribute to the significantly high
demand-supply gap. Nevertheless, practical knowledge in the management strategy
of sustainable gaharu production shall be returned to its original place, the forests and
the local community to support their livelihoods.
57
58
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61
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bitstream/123456789/14803/1/G09lyu_abstract.pdf
62
ANNEX
63
Annex 1. Flowering and fruiting seasons of Aquilaria malaccensis
65
Annex 2. Flowering and fruting season of A. microcarpa
66
Annex 3. Flowering and fruiting season of Gyrinops versteegii
67
WHEN THE
WILD CAN
NO LONGER
PROVIDE
R & D CENTRE FOR FOREST CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION
FORESTRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (FORDA)
MINISTRY OF FORESTRY
INDONESIA
2011
ISBN 978-979-3145-88-4
9 789793 145884

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IT TO

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU:

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU:

Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and

Institutions full name, address :

R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation; Jalan Gunung

The place and date the report :

Bogor, July 1, 2011.

This Proceeding is a part of Program ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) :

Indonesias Work Programme for 2011 ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I)

PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I)

Name of the Executing

Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA)

Dr. Ir. Maman Turjaman, DEA

Starting date of the project

Duration of the project

7. CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF

Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an unkown

Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria and

Found Primary forest

Aquilaria beccariana van Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne) Ridley

Gaharu; garu tanduk

Aquilaria hirta Ridl.

Aquilaria moszkowskii Gilg.

Chamdan, audate, ,kayu

Aquilariella microcara van Tiegh;

Fragrant Wood Gaharu:

Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne;

Alahan, magaan, palisan

Aquilaria audate (Oken)

Aquilaria filaria (Oken) Merr.,

Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr.

Gyrinopsis urdanetensis Elmer

Gyrinopsis citrinaecarpa Elmer

Aquilaria apiculata Elmer

Mindanao: Bukidnon in dry and mossy

Aquilaria parvifolia (Quis.)

Aquilaria rostrata Ridl.

Aquilaria crassna Pierre

Aquilaria khasiana H. Hall.

Aquilaria subintegra Ding

Aquilaria grandiflora Bth.

Mangod, makolan (Mbo)

in the mossy forest

Aquilaria secundana D.C.

Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg

Aqularia bailonii Pierre ex

Aquilaria sinensis Merr.

Aquilaria apiculata Merr.

KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg) Gyrinops wala (non Gaertn.) Koord.;

Ketemun (Lombok); ruhu

Buru and Halmahera in rain-forest

Gyrinops decipiens Ding

New Guinea (Sepik

Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl.

in fringing rainforest, 300 m

Gyrinops _audate (Gilg)