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Théorie et méthodes
Abstract. The model for representing intergroup forgiveness suggested by Neto, Pinto &
Mullet (2007a) has been extended through the examination of data from a large sample
(n = 1036) of Asian (Cambodians and East Timorese) and African (Angolans,
Guineans and Mozambicans) adults who have been personally affected by long-term wars
and conflicts in their area. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that a
nine-factor model could adequately fit the whole set of data. Overall, a large majority of
the participants agreed with the view that forgiveness as an intergroup process was
conceivable. For a majority of the participants: (a) the aim of the intergroup forgiveness
process is reconciliation with the former offender; (b) the process does not need to be strictly
conditional on adequate reparation and compensation; (c) it should be democratic; in other
words, forgiveness should not be decided solely by politicians, traditional or religious
authorities; (d) it belongs to the forgiver–forgiven dyad – in other words, interference
from the international community should be minimal; (e) it should be public (and not a
negotiation between members of the elite) – forgiveness should be announced to the whole
community using broad international languages; and (f) it should be an all-encompassing
process, that is, it should encompass all the members of the requesting group, all the
members of the forgiving group and all the offences.
Résumé. Le modèle de représentation du pardon intergroupe proposé par Neto, Pinto &
Mullet (2007a) a été étendu à travers l’examen d’un échantillon large de données
(n = 1036) recueillies en Asie (Cambodge et Timor Leste) et en Afrique (Angola, Guinée-
Bissau et Mozambique) auprès d’adultes ayant directement souffert des guerres et des conflits qui
ont longtemps ravagé leurs pays. Des analyses factorielles exploratoires et confirmatoires ont
montré qu’un modèle complexe à neuf facteurs pouvait rendre compte des données de manière
adéquate. Une large majorité de participants est en accord avec l’idée que le pardon intergroupe
est un concept qui a du sens. Pour une majorité de participants: (a) le but du pardon intergroupe
est la réconciliation avec l’agresseur; (b) le processus de pardon intergroupe ne doit pas être
strictement subordonné à des repartions ou compensations adéquates; (c) ce processus doit être
démocratique, c’est-à-dire que le pardon ne doit pas être décidé par les politiciens ou les autorités
religieuses ou traditionnelles; (d) ce processus appartient à la dyade pardonnant–pardonné – les
interférences de la communauté internationale doivent se trouver réduites au minimum; (e) le
processus doit être public et ne pas résulter d’une négociation secrète entre membres de l’élite – le
pardon doit être annoncé à toute la communauté dans des langues internationales de grande
communication; et (f) ce doit être un processus large englobant tous les membres du groupe
demandeur, tous les membres du groupe qui pardonne, et tous les torts commis.
At the fourth, much more demanding level, reconciliation means the com-
plete termination of enmity, the restoration of friendship and widespread
collaboration for the attainment of mutually defined goals. This level
implies mutual apologies, mutual forgiveness, and deep changes and adjust-
ments to everyone’s cultural values and political attitudes. ‘Reconciliation
suggests that antagonists have been brought into a grander harmony or
unity’ (Digeser, 2001: 65). Crocker saw in this type of reconciliation the
‘thicker form of reconciliation’, which ‘implies forgiveness, mercy, mutual
healing, and a restored sense of common humanity’ (2003: 54). This fourth
level of reconciliation has also been called socio-emotional reconciliation
(Nadler & Liviatan, 2004: 218). Although this definition of reconciliation
has sometimes been referred to as ‘unhelpful’ by some authors (Villa-
Vicencio, 2006: 67), it can be argued that it may precisely be the attainment
of this level of reconciliation that has allowed European nations to build a
common future (see also Neto, Pinto & Mullet, 2007a, 2007b).
Early examples of actions by political leaders that also support the possibility
of forgiveness in political settings have been analyzed by Shriver (1995).
4 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
The fact that such words had been pronounced so few times after the liberation
of the slaves in the South and in spite of all the wrongs that black people ‘so
long and silently endured in this country’ constituted an unprecedented politi-
cal achievement. Contemporary people ‘of all races who do not resonate with
astonishment to these words are historically unmusical’ (Shriver, 1995: 176).
One century later, Martin Luther King’s political action was still com-
pletely in line with the political views and moral stances contained in the
‘Address to the White inhabitants’. Over the 14 years between his initiation
of the Civil Rights Movement in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955, and his
assassination in 1968, King
persisted in his call for a non-retaliatory struggle for justice against laws and antagonists
often backed up by one or another form of retaliatory violence.… King called his church
followers to a moral protest fortified by other forms of pressure which, while short of vio-
lence, constituted real power. (Shriver, 1995: 181)
participate. These first participants, after working with the researchers, helped
to contact other people. Direct contact and mutual reassurance convinced
people to participate in the studies. Special efforts were made to contact peo-
ple from different geographical areas of these regions in order to maximize, as
much as possible, the representativeness of the sample. However, for evident
reasons, the samples were composed only of people who were literate.
The material consisted of several different questionnaires, which had, how-
ever, 82 items in common. These common items referred to the meaningful-
ness of intergroup forgiveness and possible representations about granting
intergroup forgiveness (if this concept was deemed meaningful). A large scale
was printed at the end of each item. The two extremes of the scale were
labelled ‘Disagree completely’ and ‘Completely agree’. The questionnaire
was written in Cambodian, in Portuguese (the official language of Angola,
Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique) and in Tetum (the official language of East
Timor). The material had also been submitted to several knowledgeable indi-
viduals from each country in order to detect any possible inconsistency.
The data were gathered from September 2003 to April 2006, depending
on the country. Each participant responded individually in his/her own home
or at the university, depending on which he/she found most convenient. The
experimenters asked participants to read the questionnaire items – sentences
expressing feelings or beliefs on intergroup forgiveness – and to rate his/her
degree of agreement with each statement.
Forgiveness should be announced from .86 .05 .07 .07 .06 .06 .04 .04 .14 .83
the UN.
Forgiveness should be announced from a .85 .01 .04 .07 .06 .09 -.03 .08 .06 .73
regional organization.
Forgiveness should be announced in one .83 .07 -.10 .07 .12 .13 .11 .10 .13 .83
or several broad, international languages.
People from world organization (s) are in .83 .04 .13 .07 .10 .12 .12 .02 .06 .78
the best position to speak on behalf
of the forgiving group.
A vote should take place to decide if .02 .79 -.11 -.01 .11 .03 .12 .07 -.02 .61
the group is going to forgive or not.
There should be a public vote to appoint the .01 .78 .02 -.06 -.01 .04 .10 -.04 -.03 .50
individual who will speak in the name of
the group who is asked to forgive.
Public discussions should be organized to .08 .60 .27 .17 -.08 .19 .05 -.00 .05 .52
decide if the group is going to forgive or not.
Forgiveness may be subjected to certain .07 .80 .13 .03 .05 .03 .12 .23 .11 .91
conditions
Forgiveness should be accompanied by .05 .07 .85 .08 .00 .02 .02 .01 .07 .78
proposals for new forms of collaboration.
Forgiveness should be accompanied by -.07 .09 .81 .05 .07 .01 .01 .00 .04 .72
proposals for new kinds of alliance.
The granting of forgiveness 9
(Continued)
Table 1 (Conitnued)
Forgiveness should be accompanied by .07 -.02 .84 .05 .10 -.01 .02 .04 .02 .67
proposals for new forms of co-operation.
Forgiveness should be accompanied by .08 .06 .69 -.06 .01 -.01 .06 .14 .05 .51
proposals for new forms of complementarity.
Forgiveness may be granted to only a .09 .12 -.05 .71 -.02 -.06 .12 .06 .12 .50
fraction of the offending group
(a region, a town, a zone).
Forgiveness may be granted by only a .08 -.19 .23 .66 .13 .08 -.03 .01 -.06 .51
fraction of the offending group
(members of a political party).
Forgiveness may be granted to the only .07 .07 .02 .87 .09 .11 -.04 .10 .08 .91
10 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
Forgiveness should be announced before .01 .09 -.12 .01 .12 .75 .17 .01 -.09 .51
the representatives’ Chamber of the
requesting group.
Forgiveness should be announced from .11 -.01 .11 .07 .07 .68 .02 .07 .29 .64
a symbolic or sacred place of the
requesting group.
Forgiveness should be announced from .13 .07 -.03 .04 .05 .70 .11 -.03 .03 .50
the requesting group’s territory.
Forgiveness should be announced from a .15 .11 .10 .12 .10 .82 .13 .04 .23 .95
symbolic or sacred place of the
forgiving group.
Forgiveness should be announced to the .00 .07 -.05 -.05 .12 .10 .80 .03 -.02 .74
members of the government of the
other group.
Forgiveness should be announced to the .04 .03 .07 .08 .12 .04 .80 .03 -.02 .74
other group’s Head of State.
Forgiveness should be announced to .19 .16 -.00 .03 -.06 .14 .58 -.01 .21 .51
particularly respected persons of the
other group.
Forgiveness may be accompanied by .01 .14 .10 -.04 .04 .15 .83 .10 -.00 .78
offers of disarmament
Forgiveness should be accompanied by -.10 .09 -.26 -.03 .25 -.05 .08 .62 -.04 .37
a request for money.
(Continued)
The granting of forgiveness 11
Table 1 (Continued)
Forgiveness should be accompanied by acts .05 .16 .06 -.07 -.02 .08 .09 .72 -.01 .65
of punishment by the requesting group on
the persons responsible for the offences.
Forgiveness should be accompanied by .09 -.07 .18 .23 .03 -.04 .02 .58 .11 .38
business proposals from the forgiving group.
Forgiveness should be accompanied by acts .17 .03 .17 .13 -.05 .06 -.04 .70 .13 .67
of punishment by the forgiving group on
the persons responsible for the offences.
It is the religious authorities that may .17 -.06 .10 .07 .22 .12 -.13 .09 .72 .73
decide to forgive.
It is the traditional authorities that may .03 .10 -.04 -.04 .26 .12 .09 .19 .66 .57
decide to forgive.
12 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
It is the role of the religious persons to .14 -.12 .20 .20 .10 .08 -.08 -.06 .69 .61
speak on behalf of the forgiving group.
It is the role of the traditional authorities .08 .14 -.01 .04 .02 .07 .22 .01 .65 .41
to speak on behalf of the forgiving group.
Explained variance 3.16 2.52 3.05 2.75 2.32 2.46 2.61 1.92 2.27
Percent of variance .09 .07 .08 .08 .06 .07 .07 .05 .06
Cronbach’s Alpha .89 .77 .83 .80 .75 .77 .79 .65 .72
a
I = Role of international bodies, II = Role of citizens (democratic process), III = Process aimed at reconciliation, IV = Global and national process, V = Role of
politicians, VI = Public process, VII = Receivers of the forgiving message, VIII = Process not subordinate to reparation or compensation, and IX = Role of tradi-
tional and religious authorities. The numbers in bold indicate the items with the highest loadings.
Mullet et al. The granting of forgiveness 13
The nine factors were labelled ‘Role of international bodies’ (9% of the
variance), ‘Role of citizens’ (democratic process) (7%), ‘Process aimed at
reconciliation’ (8%), ‘Global and national process’ (8%), ‘Role of politi-
cians’ (6%), ‘Public process’ (7%), ‘Receivers of the forgiving message’
(7%), ‘Process not subordinate to reparation or compensation’ (5%), and
‘Role of traditional and religious authorities’ (6% of the variance). (These
factors will be explained further.)
A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the second half of the
sample. The model tested was the correlated nine-factor model shown in Table
1 (four items for each factor). The fit of the model was good. The GFI and CFI
values were close to .90 (.91 and .89, respectively). The Chi²/d.f. value
(2197/558) was lower than 5 (3.93). The RMSEA value was lower than .08
(.049 [.047 to .051]), and the RMR value was lower than .05 (.049). All path
coefficients were significant, p < .001. Detailed results are shown in Table 1.
Cronbach alpha values were computed; they ranged from .65 to .89.
Raw agreement scores were transformed into three categories. The seven lower
scores were considered as defining the disagreement range; the seven higher
scores were considered as defining the agreement range; and, finally, the three
central scores were considered as defining the neutral range. As a result, what is
called percentage of agreement (or disagreement) in this study is the percentage
of responses that were registered in the agreement (or disagreement) area.
No less than 80% of the participants agreed with the idea that it is possible
for a group of persons to forgive another group of persons. Only 10% of the
participants disagreed with this idea and 10% were indeterminate. When
apologies from the offending group were absent, the agreement percentage
dropped to 48%, 41% of the participants disagreed with the idea and 11%
were indeterminate. The Cambodians, more than the other participants,
insisted on the necessary presence of apologies from the offending group (so
that intergroup forgiveness is meaningful). The nine factors are presented
below. All the between-group reported differences were significant, p < .001.
Role of international bodies. This factor loaded items related to the possible
role of third parties and international bodies. One representative item was
‘Forgiveness should be announced from the UN’. From one group to another,
alpha values ranged from .86 to .92. Overall, the participants tended to disagree
with the idea that international bodies may have a role in the intergroup for-
giveness process (42% disagreed, 23% were neutral and 35% agreed).
14 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
Global and national process. This factor loaded items related to the pos-
sible scope of the forgiveness process (e.g. national process versus local
process). One representative item was ‘Forgiveness may be granted by only
a fraction of the offended group, the ones who agree to forgive’. Alpha val-
ues ranged from .67 to .83. Overall, the participants tended to disagree with
the idea that the process may be a fractional process (20% agreed, but 52%
disagreed and 28% neither agreed nor disagreed). The Cambodians and the
Angolans (64% and 64%, respectively) disagreed more frequently with this
idea than the Guineans and the Mozambicans (43% and 40%).
Role of politicians. This factor loaded items related to the possible role of
politicians in the forgiveness process (e.g. deciding or speaking on behalf of
the group). Alpha values ranged from .66 to .83. Overall, the participants
disagreed with the idea that politicians may have a role in the intergroup
forgiveness process (51% disagreed, 26% neither agreed nor disagreed and
23% agreed). Again, the Cambodians and the Angolans (67% and 54%,
Mullet et al. The granting of forgiveness 15
respectively) disagreed more frequently with this idea than the Guineans and
the Mozambicans (42% and 40%).
Public process. This factor loaded items related to the way forgiveness
might be publicly announced (e.g. in which language, from which territory, in
which place). Alpha values ranged from .72 to .81. Overall, the participants
held very different views on the way forgiveness may be publicized (40%
agreed, 32% disagreed and 28% were neutral). The East Timorese tended to
agree (49% agreed) whereas the other groups were internally divided.
At the item level, a majority of participants agreed, however, with the idea
that forgiveness should be announced from the requesting group’s territory
(53% agreed), or a symbolic or sacred place (48% agreed), rather than in
locations or buildings connected with political authorities.
Receivers of the forgiving message. This factor loaded items related to the
identity of the persons or groups of persons to whom forgiveness should be
announced. Alpha values ranged from .71 to .81. Overall, the participants
held very different views regarding the identity of the possible receivers of
the message. As a result, the overall score was neutral.
At the item level, a majority of participants agreed, however, with the idea
that forgiveness should be announced to the other group’s particularly
respected individuals (56% agreed) and that it may be accompanied by
offers of disarmament (56% agreed).
Role of traditional and religious authorities. This factor loaded items related
to the possible role (e.g. deciding or speaking on behalf of the group) of reli-
gious authorities and traditional authorities (the local kings and chiefs). Alpha
values ranged from .63 to .75. Overall, the participants disagreed with the idea
that the traditional and religious authorities may have a role in the intergroup
forgiveness process (26% agreed, 25% neither agreed nor disagreed and 48%
16 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
disagreed). The East Timorese tended to agree (45% agreed), but the Angolans
and the Cambodians strongly disagreed (74% and 62% disagreed).
In summary
The present set of studies concerned the representations people may have
about intergroup forgiveness; that is, it addressed the general conditions in
which a group may decide to forgive another group. Items were phrased in
very general terms, and made simple enough to be understood and answered
by most people. These studies were clearly not about the extent to which par-
ticipants were, individually or as a group, willing to forgive perpetrators of
violence. Directly asking African and Asian people the extent to which they,
as a group, agree to forgive the perpetrators of violence, without preliminarily
examining whether or not the idea of intergroup forgiveness is meaningful for
them and what its meaning could be, would have been imprudent.
18 Social Science Information Vol 49 – no 2
Stéphanie Nann is a post-doctoral student at the René-Descartes in Paris. Her current main
interests include conflict transformation and tropical health. [email: stephanienann@
hotmail.com]
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Laboratory of Ethics and Work (Ecole Pratique des Hautes
Etudes, Paris), by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (grant no. PTDC/
PSI/55336/2006) and by the Université de Toulouse (CNRS, UTM, EPHE).
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