TheMythoftheRenaissanceinEurope

ByDrJeremyBrotton
Lastupdated20110217

Theideathatmansimply'refound'himselfduringtheEuropeanRenaissanceignoressomethingquitefundamental.Jerry
Brottonarguesthatimportantdevelopmentsintradeandscience,aswellascontactwithfarflungempires,werethereal
causesofthisseismicculturalshift.

Michelet'sRenaissance
TheEuropeanRenaissanceremainsoneofthemostimportantbutmisunderstoodeventsinthehistoryofwesternculture.The
term'Renaissance'referringtotherevolutioninculturalandartisticlifethattookplaceinEuropeinthe15thand16th
centurieswasfirstappliedaslateasthe19thcentury,whentheFrenchhistorianJulesMicheletuseditinhisHistoryof
Franceof1855.
ForBurckhardt,theRenaissancewasaspecificallyItalianphenomenon...
TheRenaissance'...wentfromColumbustoCopernicus,fromCopernicustoGalileo,fromthediscoveryoftheearthtothat
oftheheavens.Manrefoundhimself',accordingtoMichelet.ForhimthevoyagesofColumbusinthe15thcentury,andthe
scientificachievementsofCopernicusandGalileointhe16th,definedadecisiveshiftfromthenarrow,religiousworldofthe
MiddleAges,andanticipatedthemodernworldofscience,technologyandrationalism.
Michelet'sinventionoftheRenaissancewasrefinedandestablishedbytheSwisshistorianJacobBurckhardt,inhisbookThe
CivilizationoftheRenaissanceinItaly(1860).ForBurckhardt,theRenaissancewasaspecificallyItalianphenomenon,
nurturedinthecitystatesofthe15thcentury,wheretheartistictalentsofthelikesofLeonardo,Botticelli,Mantegnaand
Brunelleschiflourished.
LikeMichelet,Burckhardtbelievedthattheculturalachievementsoftheperiodheraldeda'rebirth'(theFrench'renaissance')
oftheclassicalGreekandRomanvaluesofliterarypurityandaestheticbeauty.Boththesehistoriansbelievedthatthe
Renaissancerepresentedaquestioningofreligiousauthority,andanewspiritofartisticexperimentationandscientific
curiosity,whichwouldultimatelygivebirthtomodern,secularman(accordingtothisperspective,therewaslittlespacefor
womenintheRenaissance).

ThemythoftheRenaissance
Untilveryrecently,thisinventionoftheEuropeanRenaissancehasremainedapowerfulandseductivemyth,whichhas
ignoredmuchofwhatwastrulyrevolutionaryaboutthisextraordinaryperiodinEuropeanhistory.Theproblemwiththe
approachofbothMicheletandBurckhardttotheRenaissanceisthatitreflectedtheirown19thcenturyworld,characterised
byEuropeanimperialism,industrialexpansion,thedeclineofthechurch,andaromanticvisionoftheroleoftheartistin
society.
EversincetheCrusadesofthe12thcentury,Europelookedtotheculturesoftheeastforluxury,wealthandnewwaysof
doingbusiness.
Neitherofthesewritersexploredhowtrade,finance,scienceandexchangewithotherculturesdecisivelyshapedwhatthey
sawastheculturalfloweringoftheEuropeanRenaissance.Onlynow,inourmorecomplexandinterdependentglobalworld,
hasitbecomepossibletopiecetogetheramuchmorecomplexanddynamicpictureofwhatreallydrovethecultural
accomplishmentsofthisremarkableperiod.

Michelangelo'sDavid,Galleriadell'Accademia,FlorenceWhatunderpinnedallthegreat
artistic,literaryandarchitecturalachievementsthatwenowseeasquintessentially'Renaissance'wasanequallymomentous
revolutionintradeandfinance.EversincetheCrusadesofthe12thcentury,apoliticallyfragmentedandeconomically
undevelopedEuropelookedtotheculturesoftheeastforluxury,wealthandnewwaysofdoingbusiness.

Arevolutionintradeandfinance

Ptolemy'sMapoftheWorldEarlyEuropeanmapsshowNorthAfricaandwhat
wewouldtodaycalltheMiddleEastattheheartoftheknownworld.ThiswaswhereSpanishandItalianmerchantstravelled
topurchasetheluxurygoods,likesilk,spicesandceramics,thatwouldtransformthehomesandpalacesofChristianEurope.
ThebazaarsoftheeastalsotaughtEuropeanmerchantsnewwaysofdoingbusiness.Asearlyastheverybeginningofthe
13thcentury,thePisanmerchantLeonardoPisan,betterknownasFibonacci,wastravellingandtradingthroughoutthe
Arabiceast,wherehegainedtheabilitytocalculateprofitandlossusingHinduArabicnumerals.
InhisrevolutionarybookLiberabbaci(1202)heintroducedEuropetotheArabicmethodsofsubtraction,additionand
multiplication,explaininghowhewas'marvellouslyinstructedintheArabicHindunumeralsandcalculation',andhowthey
helpedhiminhisbusiness.OtherEuropeanmerchantsopenlytradedwithMuslim,AfricanandHindubusinessmen,
regardlessofreligiousandculturaldifference.
EuropeansalsolearnedthecommercialusefulnessofalgebrafromthePersianastronomeralKhowarizmi,andadoptedthe
word'cheque'fromtheArabic'sakk'.Internationalfinancebecameincreasinglyliquidandintricateduringthe13th,14thand
15thcenturies,andFlorentinemerchantsbasedintheMedicibankopenedofficesthroughouttheeastfromtheearly15th
centuryonwards.Theyused'billsofexchange',forerunnersofthemoderncheque,tosecurelucrativecontractswithMuslim
merchants,whopossessedtheluxuryobjectsdesiredbytheliteof15thcenturyItaly.

Artandculture

TheRialtoBridgeandtheGrandCanal,VeniceTheresultofthis
increasinglyinternationaltraderevolutionisedtasteinEurope.Veniceinparticularbenefitedfromitsextensivecontactswith
theeast,anditshowedintheincreasinglyOrientalinfluenceofthecity'sarchitecture.OneItalianhistorianwentsofarasto
claimthatVenicecametoresemble'acolossalsuq',soindebtedwasitsopulentbuildingstyletothecommerciallydriven
citiesofCairo,Alexandria,DamascusandAleppo.
Patronsdrewupcontractswithartiststhatspecifiedtheexactamountsofgold,silver,lapislazuliandcochinealtobeusedin
thepainting.
Theimpactwasalsofeltontheartandcultureofthe15thcentury.Religiousandpoliticalcommissionsforaltarpieces,
frescoesandportraitsoftherichandthepowerfulwouldoftenstipulatetheamountsofexpensiverawmaterialsfromtheeast
thatartistshadtousetoincreasetheopulenceandgrandeuroftheircreations.
Patronsdrewupcontractswithartiststhatspecifiedtheexactamountsofgold,silver,lapislazuliandcochinealtobeusedin
thepainting.Formanypeople,thesplendourofthepaintingwasreflectedbythesheeramountofmaterialexpenselavished
onitscreation.

Opulenceinart
TheeffectcanbeseeninmuchEuropeanartthroughoutthe15thcentury.AtypicalexampleisanaltarpieceoftheMadonna
andChild,paintedbytheItalianartistAndreaMantegnainthemiddleofthe15thcentury.ItisatypicallyRenaissance
image,butoncloserinspectionitrevealsitselfasmadeupofextremelyexpensivematerials,aswellasportrayingarich
arrayofpreciousobjects,mostofthemfromtheeast.

Mantegna'sMadonnaandChildfromtheSanZonealtarpiece,LabasilicadiSanZeno,
VeronaTheMadonnaisclothedinopulenteasternsilkandvelvet,andstandsonanexpensiveTurkishcarpet.Thepillars
aremadeofEgyptianporphyry.ThechildrenreadfrombookswithMamluk(Egyptian)bindings.AroundtheMadonna's
headisabandknownasa'tiraz',anArabicinscriptionfromtheKoran.EventhepigmentsusedbyMantegnaemanatedfrom
rawmaterialsindigenoustoregionswaytotheeastofItaly.TherichnessandlavishopulenceofthistypicallyRenaissance
imageemergedasadirectresultofthecommercialexchangeswithoverseasmarkets,mostofthemtotheeastofmainland
Europe.
...thebuildersandarchitectsofthetimelookedtowardsthepowerfuleasternChristianChurchbasedinByzantiumfortheir
modelofarchitecturalgrandeurandartisticbrilliance.
Muchoftheimpetusforthislavishdisplayofartcamefromthegrowthininternationaltrade,butitwasalsotheproductof
growingreligiousandpoliticaltensionsofthetime.Eveninthe15thcentury,theRomanCatholicChurchwasindisarray,
recoveringfrombitterinfightingandfactionalschisms.Rome'sclassicalarchitecturelayinruins,andthebuildersand
architectsofthetimelookedtowardsthepowerfuleasternChristianChurchbasedinByzantiumfortheirmodelof
architecturalgrandeurandartisticbrilliance.
PopeNicholasV(reigned144755)wasanastutepoliticianwhoruthlesslysuppresseddissentingvoicestohisrule.He
embarkedonanambitiousprogrammeofbuildingtocelebratetherenewedsenseofconfidencethathisstrongpapacyhad
broughttotheChurch,andthisultimatelyledtothegreatfrescoes,statues,paintingsandarchitecturalachievementsof
Bramante,MichelangeloandRaphaelinthe16thcentury.

Artisticandpoliticalachievements

Brunelleschi'sDome,FlorenceOtherItaliancitystatesalsolaidclaimto
politicalpreeminencethroughthecommissioningofhugelyambitiousworksofart.InFlorence,thecommercialpowerof
theMedicifamilybankrolledBrunelleschi'sdome(1437),Donatello'seroticstatueDavid(c.1420s),andBenozzoGozzoli's
extraordinaryfrescoesdepictingtheAdorationoftheMagi(1459),whichadornedthewallsoftheMediciPalace.Aswellas
triumphantartisticachievements,thesecreationsallcelebratedthepoliticalandfinancialpowerofthefamilythathad
commissionedthem:theMedici.
Butasthe15thcenturydrewtoaclose,thepoliticalandcommercialmapofEuropewaschanging.In1453Constantinople,
thegreatseatoftheChristianByzantineEmpire,felltotheIslamicOttomanEmpireofMehmedtheConqueror.Inthewake
ofthisconquest,MehmedwassoontorepopulatethecitywithJewish,Arabic,PersianandAfricanartists,writersand
scientists,aswellasChristianandEuropeanscholars,inanattempttorivaltheculturalandartisticpreeminenceofRome,
FlorenceandVenice.
LeonardodaVinci(14521519)wassoimpressedthatheofferedtobuildatechnicallyambitiousbridgefortheTurkish
authoritiesacrosstheBosphorusinIstanbul.In1504LeonardowrotetoSultanBayezidproposinga350metrebridge.'Iwill
erectithighasanarch',hewrote,'sothatashipunderfullsailcouldsailunderneathit'.ButlikesomanyofLeonardo's
grandiosedesigns,itcametonothing.
AsthemilitarymightoftheOttomansmenacedtheItalianstatestotheeastandleviedevergreatercommercialtaxesagainst
itsmerchants,Francealsolaidclaimtotheregion,launchinganinvasionin1494thateffectivelydestroyedItaly's
commercialandartisticauthority.Gradually,artistslikeLeonardoandMichelangelofledtheprincipalitiesandsought
patronageatlargerimperialcourts.LeonardotiedhimselftothegrowingpowerofFrance,andspenthislastyearsworking
fortheFrenchkingFrancisI.

Newworlds
TheRenaissancebegantotakeonafarmoreglobalshape,asartistslikeAlbrechtDrerandHansHolbeindevelopedtheir
ownartisticstylesinnorthernEurope,andthevoyagesofdiscoveryfundedbytheSpanishandPortugueseempiresopened
upnewworldsinthewesternAtlanticandtheFarEast.

Drer'scelebratedwoodcut,recordingthearrivalinLisbonofanIndianrhinocerosin
1515AstheflowofexoticgoodsfromeastandwestreachedthemarketsofnorthernEurope,Drerwasoneamongst
manyartistsrecordinghisdelightat'wonderfulworksofart,andImarvelledatthesubtleingeniousnessofpeopleinforeign
lands'.Hesnappedupporcelain,parrots,sandalwoodandcoconuts,manyofwhichheincorporatedintohisdrawingsand
paintings,includinghisfamousengravingofanIndianrhinoceros.
JustlikeMantegna,BrunelleschiandLeonardobeforehim,Drerwasaworldlyandinquisitiveartist,whowasintimately
connectedtothelatestdevelopmentsintrade,politicsandscienceandthisisexactlywhatgivesRenaissanceartitsvivid
originalityandtechnicalbrilliance.Whatwe'releftwithisavisionoftheRenaissanceasamuchdirtier,moreworldlyplace
thanMicheletandBurckhardtbelieved,butthisonlyaddstoitssingularimportanceinthehistoryofwesternculturallife.