Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
In ordinary classroom practice in American schools it appears that the reigning
conception of curriculum and pedagogy is that of school lunch. It is as if the job of
the teacher were to take packages of mind-food from the freezer (the curriculum),
thaw them in a microwave (instruction), and see to it that the students eat it until it
is finished (classroom management to maximize time on task). If certain
students repeatedly refuse to eat the normal lunch, or eat it very slowly, they are
served specially wrapped packages of the same food, chopped a bit more finely
(remedial instruction). [However,] students can refuse to learn what the school
claims to teach them, not only by not eating by refusing to sit still for
instruction but by going through the appearance of learning without actually
assimilating what was presented in the curricular meal. (Erickson & Shultz, 1992,
p. 467)
The paper reports part of the result of the first authors Ph.D. study at The Chinese
University of Hong Kong under the supervision of the second and third authors.
Literature Review
A number of models have been established to delineate the relationships
among academic engagement, its antecedents (such as perceived control, perceived
competence and autonomy), and academic achievement (Ainley, 1993; Connell &
Wellborn, 1991; Miserandino, 1996; Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992; Patrick,
Skinner & Connell, 1993; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990).
The conceptualisation of student engagement has been slowly evolving in
literature. Newmann, Wehlage, and Lamborn, (1992), for instance, proposed a
theory of student academic engagement that was based on the sociological theory
of Merton (1968) and the psychological theory of Connell (1990). Engagement was
defined as students psychological investment in and effort directed toward
learning, understanding, or mastering the knowledge, skills, or crafts that
academic work is intended to promote (Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992, p.
12). Newmann (1991) also added that engagement is not simply a commitment to
complete assigned tasks or to acquire symbols of high performance such as grades
or social approval. It is not directly observable and is something more than
motivation. Similar definitions were put forth by such researchers as Adams
(1979), Guthrie et al. (1996) and Marsh (1997).
Cognitive
Flexible vs. Rigid Problem Solving
Active vs. Passive Coping with Failure
Independent vs. Dependent Work Styles
Independent vs. Dependent Judgement
Preference for Hard Work vs. Preference for Easy work
Behavioral
Class Participation vs. Uninvolvement
On-task vs. Off-task Behavior
Extra-curricular Academically Oriented vs.
Extra-curricular Non-academically Oriented
Career Plans
Classes Skipped
Tardiness
Emotional
Anger
Happiness
Boredom
Interest
Nervousness
Sadness
Curiosity
Discouragement Excitement
Part of the Rochester Assessment Package for Schools (Wellborn & Connell, 1987)
also measures cognitive, behavioural and emotional engagement. The package
contains a construct which measures ongoing engagement through which the
student prototypes of innovative, enmeshed, conformist, rebellious,
ritualistic and withdrawn are identified (see also Connell & Wellborn, 1991). In a
similar instrument, the Rochester Assessment of Intellectual and Social
Engagement, 37 action items and 36 emotion items were used to identify students
perceived engagement. The factors of curiosity, anxiety, anger, enjoyment and
boredom were identified through factor analysis (Miserandino, 1996). Marks (2000)
also attempted to measure the relationship among student effort, attentiveness,
boredom and completing class assignments. However, there was only one item for
each factor: In social studies/mathematics class, how often do you try as hard as
you can? (student effort); How often do you pay attention in class?
(attentiveness); How often do you feel bored in this class? (boredom in class);
and About how often do you complete your assignments for this class?
(completing class assignments).
In spite of the fact that a number of instruments have been developed in the
area, there has not been much work carried out on the conceptualisation and
instrumentation of engagement in subject areas such as mathematics.
Disengagement in mathematics may be particularly serious since, on one hand, it is
generally perceived that mathematics is a subject for all so that its role in mass
education becomes all the more prominent. On the other hand, it is a common
belief that the acquisition of mathematical concepts requires special talent, a belief
which creates a seemingly contradictory image of a subject for all if they [the
students] do not see the relevance of the subject and cannot cope with the level of
sophistication, [they] will fast become indifferent to, or apprehensive of, the subject
and very likely leave school with an unpleasant imprint of this nightmare called
mathematics (Siu, Siu, & Wong, 1993, pp. 223224).
Thus, there is a pressing need to investigate the notion and constructs of
student engagement in the context of mathematics learning in CHC regions. This is
precisely the purpose of the present research. After developing a validated
instrument, it would be possible to proceed with various kinds of meaningful
research such as cultural comparisons, studies on gender differences and
investigations of possible causal relationship with learning outcomes. Thus, the
establishment of a validated instrument is, in fact, a prerequisite to future
development in field of student engagement with the mathematics curriculum. In
this paper, the researchers report how they identified the possible constructs by
qualitative methods of classroom observation and student interviews, and the
result of the validation of the instrument by confirmatory factor analysis.
Method
The study was conducted in two stages: (1) development of the instrument,
and (2) its validation.
students are streamed into talented or remedial classes during the secondary years,
i.e., after Grade 6). Nine types of student behaviour in mathematics learning in
classroom were identified, namely (a) answering the teachers questions, (b) asking
the teacher questions, (c) listening to the teachers exposition, (d) reading
textbooks, (e) discussing with classmates, (f) doing exercises, (g) doing other tasks
assigned by the teacher, (h) irrelevant behaviour (e.g., gazing out the window), and
(i) others (e.g., preparing for the start of the lesson). The researcher stayed in one
school for two weeks to observe and record the behaviour of eight students in each
class. Follow-up interviews of these eight students were conducted after the
observation(2). Twenty other students in the same class were also interviewed so
that the interviewees comprised a total of nine students with higher academic
standard, ten with medium and nine with low academic standards. The focus of
the follow-up interviews was the students perceived classroom learning and how
they were involved in the learning of mathematics and the interviews were done
individually. Based on the findings, an instrument was then developed by
identifying the dimensions of cognitive, affective and behavioural engagement.
Results
Classroom Observation
The behaviour of the targeted students in the mathematics classroom was
recorded (see Table 1). The results revealed that although the students spent most
of their time listening and doing exercises, their curriculum engagements varied
not only quantitatively but also qualitatively. It was found in the classroom
observation that, for the aspect of listening to the teachers lecturing, the students
varied in attentiveness, concentration span and extent of involvement. Also,
students with higher levels of engagement were more conscientious and were
more actively involved in doing exercises. Furthermore, the degree to which
students involved themselves in after-class learning (including homework and
tutorial classes) also showed some variance.
(2)
The interviews were conducted in Putunghua, the classroom language of the students, the
extracts reported in this paper are translations.
Table 1
Student Behaviour in the Mathematics Classroom
Student ANSR QUES LISN READ DISC EXER TASK IRRT OTHR
(times) (times) (hours) (hours) (hours) (hours) (hours) (hours) (hours)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
8
7
0
5
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
3.0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.2
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Note. ANSR: answering the teachers questions; QUES: asking the teacher questions; LISN: listening to
the teachers exposition; READ: reading textbooks; DISC: discussing with classmates; EXER: doing
exercises; TASK: doing other tasks assigned by the teacher; IRRT: irrelevant behaviour; OTHR: others.
10
Frustration. Despite the high regard for mathematics, some of these students
indicated that they were tired of mathematics and did not have any interest in
learning anything new in the mathematics class. Their only objective was to pass
the time. We may see their frustration from the following responses: There are too
many exercises; theyre very boring; Except for getting through examinations,
mathematics is of no use to me; Learning mathematics makes me tired.
Besides affective engagement, the students learning strategies were found to be
closely related to cognitive engagement. These strategies include methods of
memorisation, practising, preparing for tests, understanding the questions,
summarising what is learnt, relying on parents, relying on teachers, connecting
new knowledge with the old, and synthesising ways of learning. Borrowing the
notions of some researchers in approaches to learning (see, for example, Biggs,
1978; Marton & Slj, 1976), we found that these learning strategies fall into three
categories, which were then adopted as dimensions of cognitive engagement (see
Table 2).
Table 2
Dimensions of Cognitive Engagement
Surface strategy
Deep strategy
Reliance
Memorisation
Practising
Handling tests
11
Items
Cognitive Engagement
Surface
I find memorising formulas is the best way to learn mathematics.
strategy
In learning mathematics, I prefer memorising all the necessary
formulas rather than understanding the principles behind them.
I think memorising the facts and details of a topic is better than
understanding it holistically.
In mathematics learning, it is very useful to memorise the methods
for solving word problems.
In mathematics learning, I prefer memorising different methods of
solution; this is a very effective way of learning.
I think the best way of learning mathematics is to memorise facts by
repeatedly working on mathematics problems.
I think memorising mathematics is more effective than
understanding it.
Deep strategy When I learn mathematics, I would wonder how much the things I
have learnt can be applied to real life.
When I learn new things, I would think about what I have already
learnt and try to get a new understanding of what I know.
When I read mathematics textbook, I would try to pick out those
things which should be thoroughly understood rather than just
reading the text through.
I would try to connect what I learned in mathematics with what I
encounter in real life or in other subjects.
(table continues)
12
Table 3 (continued)
Dimension
Items
I would spend out-of-class time to deepen my understanding of the
interesting aspects of mathematics.
In learning mathematics, I always try to pose questions to myself
and these questions would help me understand the core of
mathematics.
I would use my spare time to study the topics we have discussed in
class.
Reliance
The best way to learn mathematics is to follow the teachers
instructions.
The most effective way to learn mathematics is to follow the
teachers instructions.
I would learn what the teacher teaches.
I would learn in the way the teacher instructs me.
I would solve problems in the same way as the teacher does.
I solve problems according to what the teacher teaches.
In learning mathematics, no matter what the teachers says, I will
follow accordingly.
Affective Engagement
Interest
In the mathematics class, I find the mathematics knowledge
interesting and mathematics learning enjoyable.
I find mathematics learning pleasurable and I am interested in
solving mathematics problems.
I feel a sense of satisfaction when I do mathematics exercises in
class.
I am always curious to learn new things in mathematics and I find
learning mathematics enjoyable.
I feel excited when we start a new topic in mathematics.
I am very interested to know how to solve new mathematics
problems. Mathematics always gives me pleasure.
Achievement Though mathematics learning is tough, I feel happy when I can
orientation
finish the tasks.
Though mathematics learning is boring, I am happy when I get
good results.
Learning mathematics is tough, but to get good results, the effort is
worthwhile.
Learning mathematics is tough, but I am satisfied when I get good
results after making an effort.
Learning mathematics is tough, but I am happy as long as I can
good results.
Though learning mathematics is tough, I get a sense of satisfaction
when I get good results.
(table continues)
13
Table 3 (continued)
Dimension
Anxiety
Items
I find myself very nervous during mathematics tests.
I am worried in mathematics examinations.
During mathematics examinations, when I come across problems
that I cannot comprehend, I will feel very nervous.
I am always afraid that I will get poor results in mathematics tests.
During mathematics tests, when I come across problems that I
cannot solve, I will feel very anxious.
Frustration
I feel uncomfortable when the teacher starts a new topic.
I am tired of learning a new topic in school.
I do not like attending mathematics classes.
I dislike doing mathematics.
I am tired of learning mathematics.
Behavioural Engagement
Attentiveness I listen to the teachers instruction attentively.
In the discussion of new topics, I take an active part and raise my
points.
I really make an effort in the mathematics lesson.
I concentrate very hard when the teacher introduces new
mathematical concepts.
I will use every means to understand what the teacher teaches in
mathematics.
I always take part in the discussion in the mathematics class.
Diligence
For difficult problems, I would study hard until I understand them.
If I cannot arrive at the right answer straight away, I will try again
later.
If I cannot tackle a problem, I would try again later.
If I make mistakes in solving problems, I will work until I have
corrected them.
If I work on problems persistently, I am sure that I will get the right
answer.
If I cannot solve a problem right away, I will persist in trying
different methods until I get the solution.
Time spent
Please let me know the time you spend on mathematics homework
on a normal school day.
In a normal week, besides the time spent on mathematics homework
in the above question, how many hours do you spend on out-ofclass mathematics learning ?
14
Alpha
Cognitive engagement
Surface strategy
Deep strategy
Reliance
Affective engagement
Interest
Achievement orientation
Anxiety
Frustration
Behavioural engagement
Attentiveness
Diligence
Time spent
0.81
0.87
0.81
0.89
0.90
0.83
0.79
0.86
0.81
not applicable
It was seen that the internal consistency reliability indices were generally high,
with a median of .86. These findings were encouraging. We proceeded to test the
instrument by confirmatory factor analysis. A one factor congeneric model
(Jreskog, 1971; Marsh & ONeill, 1984) of the Student Engagement in the
Mathematics Classroom Scale was fitted by the use of LISREL-8 (Jreskog &
Srbom, 1993) (Figure 2), which has advantage over the parallel and tau-equivalent
models since differences in both the factor loadings and residual coefficients are
__
__
__
_
__
X
4
_1_
_2_
_3_
_4_
_1_
_2_
_2
_3
_4
_
_3_
_
3
_4_
X
X
4
_1
15
allowed. To assess the goodness-of-fit, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) were utilised. These indices appeared to be
among the most useful goodness-of-fit indicators (see Bentler, 1990; Marsh & Balla,
1994; Marsh, Balla, & McDonald, 1988; McDonald & Marsh, 1990). The results are
listed in Table 5. It is generally regarded as satisfactory if these goodness-of-fit
indices were close to 0.90 (Bentler & Bonett, 1980) and with the results of Table 5,
we can conclude that satisfactory goodness of fit indices were obtained.
Table 5
Goodness-of-Fit Indices of the Student Engagement in the Mathematics Classroom Scale
Subscale
AGFI
TLI
Cognitive engagement
Affective engagement
Behavioural engagement
0.90
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.92
Cognitive engagement
Surface
strategy
0.16**
0.09*
0.12**
0.06
Deep Reliance
strategy
0.38**
0.18**
0.20**
0.16**
0.20**
0.38**
-0.08
0.08
Affective engagement
Interest
0.08
0.30**
-0.07
0.01
AO
0.10
0.30**
-0.05
-0.06
Anxiety Frustration
-0.06
-0.08
0.10*
-0.01
0.16**
-0.17**
0.10*
-0.01
16
extra work were seen more as duties rather than something of interest. This shows
a marked difference from the significant relationship between diligence and
interest. To have students diligently involved in mathematics learning and
problem solving, interest still plays an important role. Similar results were found
with achievement orientation in which a sense of satisfaction was involved after
mathematics problems were successfully solved. It is envisaged that achievement
orientation is closely related to diligence rather than attentiveness, amount of
homework and of extra work. It has been found in previous research that Hong
Kong students attribute academic success to the level of effort made (Hau & Salili,
1991; see also Wong, 1993). The amount of extra work was not significantly
correlated with many other factors. In fact, it was found that the amount of
homework achieved has nothing to do with attitude or academic achievement
(Wong, 1992).
The correlation coefficients among the subscales of cognitive engagement and
affective engagement were also calculated. They are listed in Table 7. The results
reveal that deep strategy is closely related to all the subscales of affective
engagement, but negatively with anxiety and frustration. It is again, interesting to
note that reliance and surface strategy both have a positive relationship to anxiety
and frustration.
Table 7
The Correlation Coefficients Between Cognitive and Affective Engagements
Interest
Reliance
Surface strategy
Deep strategy
Note. * p < 0.05.
-0.05
-0.16*
0.70**
Achievement
orientation
0.09
-0.04
0.49**
Anxiety
Frustration
0.15*
0.19**
-0.19**
0.20**
0.19**
-0.51**
** p < 0.01.
Discussion
Students enter the school system from different backgrounds, practising
different styles of learning and carrying different expectations from self and others
(parents, for instance). With the implementation of universal education where
everybody stays in school, it is possible that students motivation to learn varies
and their interest becomes diversified. Such diversity in individual differences
could be one of the major issues that classroom teachers have to contend with. In
this light, students curriculum engagement becomes a crucial element in the
design of school curriculum in general and classroom learning in particular. How
we cultivate student involvement in the curriculum may be as important, if not
more important, than the epistemological consideration in the design of school
17
18
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Authors
Qi-Ping Kong, East China Normal University.
Ngai-Ying Wong, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Email: <nywong@cuhk.edu.hk>.
Chi-Chung Lam, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.