EE 123 Power Electronics

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of California Riverside

Laboratory 1
EE 123
Winter 2013

Instructor: Roman Chomko

LABORATORY 1

MANUAL
Power Characterization.
Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers
CONTENT
Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 3
Hardware ............................................................................................................................. 3
Software .............................................................................................................................. 3
Parts .................................................................................................................................... 3
PART 1. Power Characterization .......................................................................................... 4
1.1 LTspice IV Software..................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Energy and Instantaneous Power .................................................................................. 4
1.3 Average and RMS Power.............................................................................................. 5
1.4 Average and RMS Power.............................................................................................. 7
1.5 Laboratory Procedures and Report ............................................................................... 9
1.5.1 Average and RMS Values of Waveforms...........................................................9
1.5.1 Instantaneous, Average, Apparent Power, and Power Factor...........................10
PART 2. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers and Switches ................................................... 11

2.1 Switches as Controlled Power Regulators .................................................................. 11

2.2 Diode Rectifiers as Uncontrolled Switches ................................................................ 12
2.3 Voltage Controlled Switches ...................................................................................... 13
2.4 Thyristors Semiconductor Based Controlled Rectifiers .......................................... 14
2.4.1 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) .................................................................14
2.4.2 Triacs.................................................................................................................15
2.5 Laboratory Procedures and Report ............................................................................. 16
2.5.1 i-v Characteristics of Diodes, SCRs and Triacs .............................................16
2.5.2 Diode, SCR and Triac Rectification with Resistive Loads...............................18
Presentation and Report .................................................................................................... 19
Prelab ................................................................................................................................ 19

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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Objectives
The objectives of Lab 1 are:
1. Become familiar with LTspice IV software* environment;
2. Understanding of fundamental power characterization quantities such as
instantaneous, average, rms power, power generation and consumption,
power factor;
3. Understanding of the operation principles and i-v characterization of
fundamental power switching electronic components and their
characterization regular rectifiers (diodes) and controlled rectifiers
selected thyristors (SCRs and triacs);
4. Understanding of basic evaluation of power consumption by switching
power components;
Hardware

none

Software

LTspice IV Spice Simulator

EE123 Power Electronics Spice Library

Parts
none

LTspice IV is a registered trademark of Linear Technology

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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PART 1. Power Characterization
1.1 LTspice IV Software
LTspice IV is a freeware computer software implementing a SPICE simulator
of electronic circuits, produced by semiconductor manufacturer Linear
Technology (LTC). LTspice IV provides a schematic capture and waveform
viewer with enhancements and models to speed the simulation of switching
regulators.
LTspice IV is node-unlimited and 3rd party models can be imported. Circuit
simulations based on transient, AC, noise and DC analysis can be plotted as well
as Fourier analysis. Heat dissipation of components can be calculated and
efficiency reports can also be generated.
Since SPICE simulators are all based on the same Berkeleys SPICE core, the
workflow within LTspice IV is very similar to that within other SPICE
simulators. More than that, electronic component model libraries developed for
one simulator are easily transferrable to other simulators.
The primary references which describe the features of LTspice IV are the Help
file (LTspice IV Users Guide) and the LTspice Getting Started Guide which
along with the LTspice IV software can be downloaded from Linear Technology
site http://www.linear.com/designtools/software/. There are multiple LTspice IV
tutorials available on-line, for example, LTspice Tutorial prepared by Terry
Sturtevant of Wilfrid Laurier University which can be found at
http://denethor.wlu.ca/ltspice/.
1.2 Energy and Instantaneous Power

Figure 1.1 Power consumers and generators

Energy is a quantity which characterizes work, performed or to be potentially

performed. It is an indirectly observable quantity which in electronics is
determined by the rate of change of power which is defined for shown voltage
polarities and current directions in (1).

Wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTspice
Wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPICE
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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p(t ) = v (t ) i (t ) =

(1.1)

dW
dt

where p(t) is the instantaneous power measured in Watts [W], v(t) is an

instantaneous voltage across an electric component, and i(t) is the instantaneous
current in the branch where the component is located.
So that total energy generated or consumed with respect to some initial time t0 is
given by the integral of power. The unit of energy is Joule [J].
t

W (t ) = p( )d

(1.2)

t0

The sign of power determines whether a component generates or consumes

power.
(1.3)

if

p(t ) > 0, consumer

p(t ) > 0, generator

1.3 Average and RMS Power

An average of a periodic waveform, and power in particular, is defined by the
time average of the waveform over one period T:
(1.4)

1
P=
T

t0 + T

p (t )dt

t0

Note that a more general definition of the average of a periodic waveform states
that
t

(1.5)

1
P = lim p ( )d
t t
t0

Both (1.4) and (1.5) provide the same result if averaging in (1.5) is done over
many period cycles when the steady-state is established.
The root-mean square (RMS) of a periodic waveform x(t) is defined by (1.6).
(1.6)

xrms =

1
T

t0 + T

t0

x 2 (t )dt =

lim

1 2
x ( )d
t t0

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

Figure 1.2 The RMS values of commonly encountered waveforms.

Taken from M. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications, 3rd ed,
Prentice Hall, 2004.
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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As far as the RMS value of power which is also referred to as effective power, or
apparent power, it is defined as a product of the rms values of voltage and
current. This is to say, if
(1.7)

(1.8)

Vrms =

I rms =

1
T
1
T

t0 + T

v (t )dt =

1
lim v 2 ( )d , and
t t
t0

i 2 (t )dt =

lim

t0
t0 + T

t0

1 2
i ( )d
t t0

then
(1.9)

Prms S = Vrms I rms

Note that the unit of the RMS of power S is Volt-Amp [VA].

1.4 Average and RMS Power

The most suitable waveforms for practical analysis are sinusoidal waveforms. For
sinusoidal voltage and current:
(1.10) v (t ) = Vm cos( t + V )
(1.11) i (t ) = I m cos( t + I )
where Vm and Im are amplitudes, is the angular frequency of oscillations and V
and I are phase delays, the instantaneous power is
1
1
(1.12) p(t ) = Vm I m cos(V V ) + Vm I m cos(2t + V V )
2
2
which due to the amplitude limited oscillation of the second term in (12) leads to
the average (or real, or true) power P measured in units of [W]:
t

1
1
(1.13) P Pave = lim p ( )d = Vm I m cos(V I )
t t
2
t0

[W]

The apparent power S of the sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms gives

It is apparent because rms values of voltage and current are measured with multimeters, and
their product will give the result for the value of power. Note that apparent true.
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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1
1
Vm , and I rms =
Im
2
2
1
(1.15) S = Vrms I rms = Vm I m
2
Remember that
(1.14) Vrms =

[VA]

True Power P (= Pave) Apparent Power S (= Prms)

Another critical quantity is the power factor which is defined as
(1.16) p.f. =

P
= cos(V I )
S

Since cosine is an even function, its value will be independent of the sign of the
expression under cosine. However this is an important piece of information in the
analysis of power systems:
(1.17) if

p.f. > 0, (current) leading (voltage)

p.f. < 0, (current) lagging (voltage)

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

1.5 Laboratory Procedures and Report

1.5.1 Average and RMS Values of Waveforms

a)

b)
Figure 1.3 Schematic for measurement of average and rms values of miscellaneous
waveforms a), and a sample simulation output b).

1. Capture the schematic of Figure 1.3a using LTspice and EE123 PE Library
source components ee123_vsin, ee123_vsaw, ee123_vpwm, mathematical
components ee123_math_ave and ee123_math_rms. And the load resistor
from regular LTspice library.
2. Assuming amplitudes of all voltage generators to be Vp = 170V and
frequency fs = 60 Hz, measure the instantaneous, average and rms values
of a sinusoidal voltage across the load resistor RL over a long period of
time. The results will look similar to the ones shown in Figure 1.3a. For
sinusoidal waveform, compare the results with the theoretical formulas
(1.5) and (1.7). How many oscillation cycles it took for the average and
rms values to be well defined? If needed prolong the simulation time given
by the transient simulation parameters in .tran 0 xxx where xxx is the
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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simulation time in seconds. At which point in time the amplitude of
oscillations become less then 5% of the peak value?

3. Change the load resistor voltage input label (Right-Click over the label) to
sawtooth (VSAW) and PWM (VPWM) input sources, and repeat
calculations using formulas provided in Figure 1.2. For the PWM voltage
generator repeat calculations with different duty cycles**: 10, 30, 50, 70.
For the PWM case, what is the relationship between the duty cycle,
waveform amplitude and the rms value of the amplitude?

1.5.1 Instantaneous, Average, Apparent Power, and Power Factor

4. Capture

the

schematic

of

ee123_meas_wattmeter_p_s_pf

Figure

1.4

and

with

wattmeter

component.

Figure 1.4 Instantaneous, Average, Apparent Power and power factor measurements

5. Measure the load resistor power consumption and compare the results with
the ones obtained from theoretical calculations in (1.13), (1.15) and (1.16).

**

Duty cycle is defined for a periodic pulsed signal as a percentage fraction of time when the
signal is ON with respect to the period of the signal: duty cycle = tON / T x 100%
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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PART 2. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers and Switches

2.1 Switches as Controlled Power Regulators
Consider a basic switch circuit of Figure 2.1. By periodically (or not) turning it on
and off the average power supplied to the load resistor will change even thoug the
supply power source VS provides a constant voltage output. It is not surprising
since the voltage across the load resistor is a PWM (pulse-width modulated)
signal, and the average power is determined by methods already used in Part 1 of
this laboratory.
i

a)

b)

Figure 2.1 Switch as a controlled regulator of average power supplied to a load a)

basic circuit, and b) i-v characteristic

Even though the circuit is seemingly straightforward, it does a very clear

understanding of the power dissipation in switching electric and electronic
components. Lets see this by example.

Example

Assume that the Switch has ON resistance Ron = 1 m, and is nominally rated at
W. It is the means to deliver power to a 1W resistor Rload = 100 from a power
supply VS = 10V which apparently consumes power PRload = VRload IRload =
V2Rload/Rload 1W. Note that even though the switch transfers and can handle 1W
of power to the load resistor, by itself it consumes only a negligible portion of it,
that is, Psw = Vsw Isw 10-7 W, well within its nominal rating.
However, assume now that the load resistance Rload = so that Psw 0.022/10-3
= 400 mW. This is to say, instead of just transferring power to the load resistor,
now the switch acts as a power consumer, consuming 400 mW > 250 mW
(nominal). It cannot dissipate this much power, and it will get burned a short
while after being turned on.

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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2.2 Diode Rectifiers as Uncontrolled Switches

It is not difficult to observe from the i-v characteristic of a switch in Figure 2.1
that its behavior is similar to that of an ideal diode with one exception the
switching action of a switch is independent of the nature of the power source, DC
or AC, while the diode switching action can only be achieved with AC power
sources. This is to say, a regular switch can provide a controlled switching action
(rms voltage output depends on the duty cycle of the switching action) while a
diode can provide only an uncontrolled switching action.

a)
PW L (piecewise linear)
diode

0.7V drop diode

ideal diode

v
d)

c)

b)

Figure 2.2 i-v characteristic of a diode a), and its models b) ideal, c) 0.7 voltage drop,
and d) piece-wise linear (PWL) model.

Note in Figure 2.3 that a diode switch just cuts-off the negative part of the voltage
waveform, and also that the average and rms output voltages cannot be modified.
(2.1)

Vo = Vavg =

(2.2)

1
2

(2.3)

Vrms =

1
V
Vm sin t d ( t ) = m

2 0

[V

sin t ] d (t ) =

I rms = Vm /2 R

Vm
2

Prms = Vrms I rms = Vm2 /4 R

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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Figure 2.3 The output of the diode based voltage rectifier

2.3 Voltage Controlled Switches

Consider a class of the relay type electromagnetic switches whose state of being
closed or open is controlled by the applied voltage. Compared to the regular
(mechanical) switch it has an extra third terminal.
The action of such switches on input waveforms is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.4 Voltage controlled switch action

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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2.4 Thyristors Semiconductor Based Controlled Rectifiers

The lack of diode applicability to controlled switching is compensated by the type
of rectifiers commonly known as thyristors. Thyristors refer to the class of
semiconductor devices which look like a sandwich of p-n layers (pnpn, pnpnpn,
etc.). Here we will consider only two types Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
and Triacs.
2.4.1 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)

Unlike the diode, the SCR will not begin to conduct as soon as the source
becomes positive. Conduction is delayed until a gate current is applied, which is
the basis for using the SCR as a means of control. Once the SCR is conducting,
the gate current can be removed and the SCR remains on until the current goes to
zero. The i-v characteristic of SCR is shown in Figure 2.5.
i

ideal
SCR

non-ideal
SCR

b)

a)

Figure 2.5 i-v charateristics of SCR

Figure 2-6 shows the voltage waveforms for a controlled half-wave rectifier with a
resistive load. A gate signal is applied to the SCR at t = , where is the delay
angle. The average (dc) voltage across the load resistor is

(2.4)

Vo = Vavg

(2.5)

Vrms =

(2.6)

1
V
=
Vm sin t d ( t ) = m (1 + cos )

2 0
2
1
2

[V

sin t ] d (t ) =

Vm
sin 2
1 +
2

2
Prms = Vrms I rms = Vrms
/R

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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Figure 2.6 SCR based controlled rectification a), and its waveforms b).
2.4.2 Triacs

A very important class of controlled rectifiers are triodes which act like SCRs
except that their current can be turned on in both directions. The i-v characteristics
of triacs are shown in Figure 2-7.
i

ideal Triac

non-ideal Triac

v
a)

b)

Figure 2.7 i-v characteristics of SCR

Vm
2

1
sin 2
+

(2.7)

Vrms =

(2.8)

2
Prms = Vrms I rms = Vrms
/R

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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Figure 2.8 SCR based controlled rectification a), and its waveforms b).

Note the similarity in behavior between triacs and SCRs. Note that the i-v
characteristics cannot show a time-dependent nature of switching. So the analysis
of waveforms is essential in all practical applications.

2.5 Laboratory Procedures and Report

2.5.1 i-v Characteristics of Diodes, SCRs and Triacs

Figure 2.9 Circuit for evaluating the i-v characteristic of diodes

1. Capture the schematic of Figure 2.9 using the EE123 PE Library diode
component ee123_diode. To obtain the i-v characteristic it is required to
vary the DC voltage VDD, in our case from 0V to 20V in steps of 0.1V;
2. After the simulation is completed hover with the mouse cursor over over
the resistor to show its current. Then in the waveform viewer hover with
the mouse over the time axis (or just below it) until it changes to a ruler,
Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual
EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

17
then Left-Click to set the axis in Quantity Plotted from time to
v(vd) or whatever voltage label you assigned to the node (see Figure 2.9
for an example).

Figure 2.10 Circuit for evaluating the i-v characteristics of SCRs and Triacs

3. Capture the schematic of Figure 2.10 using the EE123 PE Library rectifier
components ee123_scr and ee123_triac.
4. The i-v characteristics of SCRs and triacs cannot be determined the way
they were determined for diodes. So what we will do, is we will make a
number of measurements for different input voltages using an arbitrary
AC voltage source which will cause different currents at different times.
Then if we plot current vs voltage, all possible permutations will be shown
in the waveform viewer. Note that it is critical to set the tdelay in VPWM
switching sources to a value other then zero. After running the simulation,
repeat the steps of 2. to obtain the i-v characteristics of SCRs and triacs.
Note however that the x-axis voltage should show the voltage across the
rectifiers. In the case shown, v(vsin,vd1) which tells LTspice to show the
voltage difference between nodes VSIN and VD1.
5. How thus obtained i-v characteristics compare to the ones shown in
Figures 2.5 and 2.7?

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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2.5.2 Diode, SCR and Triac Rectification with Resistive Loads

Figure 2.11 Circuit for plotting the waveforms of rectifiers resulting from the sinusoidal
voltage source.

6. Capture the schematic of Figure 2.11 using the EE123 PE Library diode
component ee123_diode and thyristors ee123_scr and ee123_triac.
7. Plot the resulting waveforms and compare them to the sinusoidal voltage
waveform.
8. Explain the shape of waveforms in each case. How would you predict this
behavior from the i-v characteristics of rectifiers. Shown in Figures 2.3,
Figures 2.6 and 2.8, and also obtain in Procedures 2.5.1?

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside

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Presentation and Report

Lab report must be presented according to the general EE123 lab guidelines.

Prelab
1. Study the theoretical materials provided in this manual, and familiarize
yourself with lab procedures.
2. Download and install LTspice IV from Linear Technologys website
http://www.linear.com/designtools/software/
3. Familiarize yourself with the LTspice Users Guide;
4. Study the LTspice tutorials uploaded on iLearn and run a few test cases to
understand how to conduct simulations.

Lab 1 Power Characterization. Diodes and Controlled Rectifiers Manual

EE123 Power Electronics
University of California - Riverside