TRANSDUCERS

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to

another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of
energy to a signal in another.

Electromagnetic:

Antenna

converts

propagating

electromagnetic waves to and from conducted

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries

of automation, measurement, and control systems, where
electrical signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).

electrical signals

Active Transducers
Active transducers convert energy directly from one form to
another. They require no external power source to operate. For
example, a thermocouple converts a temperature differential
directly into an (resistance which can be measured by the
amount of electrical voltage which it passed thru) electrical
voltage.

Magnetic

cartridge

converts

relative

physical motion to and from electrical signals

Tape

head, Disk

read-and-write

head

converts magnetic fields on a magnetic medium to

and from electrical signals

Passive Transducers
Passive transducers produce a change in some passive
electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or
inductance, as a result of stimulation. These usually require
additional electrical energy for excitation.
Sensors
A sensor is a transducer whose purpose is to sense (i.e.
detect) some characteristic of its environs; it is used to detect a
parameter in one form of energy and report it in another, often
an electrical signal. For example, a pressure sensor might
detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to
electrical signal for display at a remote gauge. Transducers are
widely used in measuring instruments.
Actuators
An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or
controlling a mechanism or system.
It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric current,
hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts
that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by
which a control system acts upon an environment. The control
system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic
system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control
system), a human, or any other input.
Bidirectional[edit]
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to
electrical signals and also convert electrical signals into
physical phenomena. Examples of inherently bidirectional
transducers are antennas, which can convert conducted
electrical signals to or from propagating electromagnetic
waves, and voice coils, which convert electrical signals into
sound (when used in a loudspeaker) or sound into electrical
signals (when used in a microphone). Likewise, DC electric
motors may be used to generate electrical power if the motor
shaft is turned by an external torque.

Hall effect sensor converts a magnetic

field level into an electrical signal

Electrochemical:

pH probes

Electro-galvanic fuel cell

Hydrogen sensor

Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices

are generically called actuators):

Accelerometer

Air flow sensor

Electroactive polymers

Rotary motor, linear motor

Galvanometer

Linear

variable

differential

transformer or Rotary variable differential transformer

Applications

Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical

signal using strain gauge

Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to

convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals,
and vice versa. In this example, the first transducer could be
a microphone, and the second transducer could be a speaker.

Microelectromechanical systems

Potentiometer (when used for measuring

position)

Sonar
motion of

transponder (water
conductor/coil

pressure

magnetic

field

electrical signal)

Pressure sensor

Strain gauge

String potentiometer

Tactile sensor

Vibration powered generator

as well as receiving it after sound reflection from

target objects, availing for imaging of those objects.

Electro-optical (Photoelectric):

Loudspeaker, earphone converts electrical

Microphone
electrical

signal

converts

(air

sound

pressure

into

motion of

metal

strings

into

an

electrical

electrical

Laser Diode converts electrical power

into coherent light

signal

Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, p

hotomultiplier converts changing light levels into

(magnetism electrical signal)

electrical signals

Tactile transducer converts electrical signal

into vibration ( electrical signal vibration)

Photodetector or photoresistor or

light

dependent resistor (LDR) converts changes in light

levels into changes in electrical resistance

Piezoelectric crystal converts deformations

of solid-state crystals (vibrations) to and from

electrical signals

converts

Light-emitting diode converts electrical

Pickup (music technology) converts motion

of

lamp

power into incoherent light

an

conductor/coil magnetic field electrical signal)

Incandescent

power into incoherent light

field motion air pressure)

Fluorescent lamp converts electrical power

into incoherent light

signals into sound (amplified signal magnetic

transceiver,

transmitting ultrasound (transduced from electricity)

Electroacoustic:

Ultrasonic

Cathode ray tube (CRT) converts electrical

signals into visual signals

Geophone converts a ground movement

Electrostatic:

(displacement) into voltage (vibrations motion of

conductor/coil magnetic field signal)

Gramophone

pickup

(air

pressure

Electrometer
Thermoelectric:

motion magnetic field electrical signal)

Hydrophone converts changes in water

pressure into an electrical signal

Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

converts temperature into an electrical resistance
signal

Thermocouple

converts

relative

temperatures of metallic junctions to electrical

voltage

Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC

resistor)

correspondingly. The same theory is used in a capacitive

transducer. This transducer is used to convert the value of
displacement or change in pressure in terms of frequency.
As shown in the figure below, a capacitive transducer has a
static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a dielectric
in between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the
diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm and the static
plate changes. This produces a capacitance which is
measured using an alternating current bridge or a tank circuit.

Radioacoustic:

GeigerMller

tube

converts

incident

ionizing radiation to an electrical impulse signal

Receiver

(radio) converts

electromagnetic

transmissions to electrical signals.

Transmitter (radio) converts electrical signals

to electromagnetic transmissions.

A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a change

in frequency according to the change in capacitance. This
value of frequency will be corresponding to the displacement or
force given to the input.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
To learn about a capacitive transducer, it is important to know
the basics of a parallel plate capacitor. Being the simplest form
of a capacitor, it has two parallel conducting plates that are
separated to each other by a dielectric or insulator with a
permittivity of (for air). Other than paper, vacuum, and semiconductor depletion region, the most commonly used dielectric
is air.
Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an electric
field develops across the insulator. This causes the positive
charges to accumulate on one plate and the negative charges
to accumulate on the other. The capacitor value is usually
denoted by its capacitance, which is measured in Farads. It
can be defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the voltage difference between them.
The capacitance is denoted by C. In a parallel plate capacitor,
C = [A*Er*9.85*1012 F/M]/d
A Area of each plate (m)
d Distance between both the plates (m)
Er Relative Dielectric Constant
The value 9.85*1012 F/M is a constant denoted by Er and is
called
the
dielectric
constant
of
free
space.
From the equation it is clear that the value of capacitance C
and the distance between the parallel plates, d are inversely
proportional to each other. An increase of distance between the
parallel plates will decrease the capacitance value

Advantages
It produces an accurate frequency response to both static
and dynamic measurements.
Disadvantages
An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level will
change the accuracy of the device.
As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion in
signals.
What is capacitive transducer?
Capacitive transducers are nothing but the capacitors
with thevariable capacitance. These are m ainl y used
f or the measurem ent of displacement, pressure etc. It is a
Passive type of Transducer.
The capacitive transducer is nothing but the capacitor with
variable capacitance.
PRINCIPLE:

The capacitance of the capacitor varies as the

material comes between two plates of capacitor and
the presence of something is measured by
capacitance.

OPERATION:

When voltage is applied to the conductive objects the

charges get collected on each object. The moving

charges causes alternating current in the space

between them and current flow is measured as
capacitance.

Another arrangement of the coils is shown in figure 3, where

two coils are used. In this circuit the movement of the core
changes the relative inductance of the two coils and over all
inductance of the circuit. This system is used in the devices

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
There are two common type inductive transducers: simple
inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both
have been described below along with their circuits.

along with the inductive bridge circuit. In this circuit the change

Inductive Transducers
The inductive transducers work on the principle of the
magnetic induction of magnetic material. Just as the resistance
of the electric conductor depends on number of factors, the
induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of
variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material,
the size of the magnetic material, and the permeability of the
flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials
are used in the flux path and there are one or more air gaps.
The change in the air gap also results in change in the
inductance of the circuit and in most of the inductive
transducers it is used for the working of the instrument.

In the above arrangements the supply of the current and the

in the induction ratio of the two coils provides the output

proportional to the mechanical input.

output is obtained from the same coil or circuit.

Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers

2) Two-Coil Mutual Inductance Type Inductive

There are two common type inductive transducers: simple

inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both
have been described below along with their circuits.

1) Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers

In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers
simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is
moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path generated
by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and
the corresponding output. The output from the circuit is
calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly
gives the valve of the parameter to be measured.

Transducer

The figure 1 below shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here

In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the

the magnetic material is connected to the electric circuit and it

first coil the excitation is generated by external source of the

is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom there is

power and in the second coil the output is obtained. The output

another magnetic material that acts as the armature. As the

is proportional to the mechanical input.

armature is moved, the air gap between the two magnetic

material changes and the permeance of the flux generated by

As shown in the figure 4 below, A is the excitation coil and B is

the circuit changes that changes the inductance of the circuit

the output coil. The inductance of the output coil changes due

and its output. The output meter directly gives the valve of the

to change in position of the armature which is connected to the

input mechanical quantity.

mechanical element whose motion is to be measured. As the

armature position changes, the air gap between the fixed

In the figure 2, coil is wound around the round hollow magnetic

magnetic

material and there is magnetic core that moves inside hollow

material

and

the

armature

changes.

The

arrangement shown in figure 5 also works in the similar

magnetic material. In the above circuits the change in the air

manner.

gap or the change in the amount of the magnetic material in

the circuit can be used to produce the output proportional to
the input.

Two-Coil
Transducer

Mutual

Inductance

Type

Inductive

There are two common type inductive transducers: simple

inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both
have been described below along with their circuits.

1) Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers

In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers
simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is

Inductive Transducers

moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path generated

written by: Haresh Khemani edited by: Lamar Stonecypher

by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and

updated: 1/29/2010

the corresponding output. The output from the circuit is

calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly

There are two common type inductive transducers: simple

gives the valve of the parameter to be measured.

inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both

have been described below along with their circuits.

The figure 1 below shows the single coil inductive circuit. Here
the magnetic material is connected to the electric circuit and it
is excited by the alternating current. At the bottom there is

Inductive Transducers

another magnetic material that acts as the armature. As the

armature is moved, the air gap between the two magnetic

The inductive transducers work on the principle of the

material changes and the permeance of the flux generated by

magnetic induction of magnetic material. Just as the resistance

the circuit changes that changes the inductance of the circuit

of the electric conductor depends on number of factors, the

and its output. The output meter directly gives the valve of the

induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of

input mechanical quantity.

variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material,

the size of the magnetic material, and the permeability of the

In the figure 2, coil is wound around the round hollow magnetic

flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials

material and there is magnetic core that moves inside hollow

are used in the flux path and there are one or more air gaps.

magnetic material. In the above circuits the change in the air

The change in the air gap also results in change in the

gap or the change in the amount of the magnetic material in

inductance of the circuit and in most of the inductive

the circuit can be used to produce the output proportional to

transducers it is used for the working of the instrument.

the input.