Debatabase Book - A Must-Have Guide For Successful Debate

1A
THE DEBATABASE BOOK

Must-Have Guide for Su
THE EDITORS OF IDEA dc
Publishedby
i n t e r na t idoenablte ed u c a t ai so sn o c i a t i o n
400
West 59th Street / New Yo
Copyright 2003 by
International
Debate Educatio
All rights reserved . No part be reproduced or transmitted any means, electronic or mech
tocopy, or any information st system, without permission fr
The topics and arguments include represent the work of an interna diverse points of view.
We woul for their contributions: James A Kumar Bekbolotov (Kyrgystan), Ma (UK),
Thomas Dixon (UK), William Endersby (UK), Alexis Hearndon ( Maryia Lahutsina
(Belarus), Rich Jacquleine Rose (UK), Jonathan S (US), Jason Stone (US), Richard Meng
Tan (Singapore), Hayden Tay Robert Weekes (UK), Marc Whitmor liam J. Driscoll (US).
Library
of Congress Catalogin
ISBN:
0 - 9702130 - 9 - 3
Debatabase book : a must have debate / the editors of IDEA .

p . cm .
Summary: Presents background, resources on approximately 15 diverse areas . Includes
the r pro and con, sample motions, print resources .
Includes bibliographical refe ISBN 0 - 9702130 - 8 - 5

1 . Debates and debating . [1 ing . ] I . International Debat
PN4181 . D3945 2003 808 . 53 -- dc21
2002153853
Design
by Hernn Bonomo
Printed
in the USA
IDEA Press Books

Book
TableContentof
Introduction
Debate
topics:
Abortion 21on Demand

Affirmative23 Action Afghanistan,24 Invasion of
African Affairs, 26Outside Intervention in African Languages28 in African Schools AIDS Drugs
for Developing29 Countries Alcohol, 31Banning of
American Culture:33Should It Be Feared? Anarchism34
Animal 35Rights
Arts
Subsidies,37 Abolition of
Assassination39 of a Dictator Assisted40 Suicide
Biodiversity and42Endangered Species Calendar44Reform
Campaign Finance45 Reform Capital Punishment47
Cell Phones, Banning48 of Use in Cars Censorship50of the Arts
Chemical 52Castration
Child Offenders, 53Stricter Punishment for China, 54Fear of
Civil
Disobedience56
Conscription and57 National Service Corporal Punishment:58 Adults Corporal
Punishment:59 Children Corruption,61Benefits of
Covenant 62Marriage
Creationism in64 Public Schools Cuba, Dropping of66 US sanctions on
Cultural Treasures,68 Return of Curfew70Laws
Developing-World 72Debt, Cancellation of DNA Database 74for Criminals
Drilling in the Arctic76 National Wildlife Refuge Drugs in77Sports
Drug
Testing79 in Schools
Economic Development80 vs. Environment Economic Sanctions82 vs. Engagement
Electoral College,83 Abolition of Environmentally85 Linked Aid
Ethical Foreign86 Policy

European Defense87 Force European
Federalization89
Extremist Political91 Parties, Banning of Flat92Tax
Free Speech,94Restrictions on Free Trade95
Gay Adoption97 Gay
Clergy98 Gay Marriage99
Gays
in the101 Military
|3
Gene Patenting102 Genetic

Screening103
Globalization104and the Poor Global Warming106
God,
Existence108 of
Greenhouse Gases:109 Trading Quotas Gun Control111
Hate
Speech112on Campus
Health Care,113Universal Hollywoods116Influence
Human Cloning117
Human Organs,119 Sale of Human Rights:121Existence of
Human Rights: Imposition122 by Force? Immigration, 124Restrictions on
International125Criminal Court Internet 127Censorship
Iraq, Invasion129 of Ivory Trading131
Mandatory Sentencing:133 Three Strikes Marijuana, Legalization134 of
Middle Eastern136 Policy, U.S. Minority 137Languages
Monarchy, Abolition139 of National140Testing
Nation-142States
Nazi War Criminals,144 Prosecution of Nuclear vs. Renewable145 Energy
Nuclear 147Weapons
Nuclear Weapons148 Testing Olympic Dream,150Death of the
Outing Gay 152Celebrities
Overpopulation 153and Contraception Overseas Manufacturing155
Pacifism156
Politicians and157Special Interests Pornography,159Banning of
Priestly Celibacy,160 Abolition of Privacy v162.Security
Private Lives of Public163 Figures, Revealing Prostitution,164Legalization of
Referenda167
Religion: Source168of Conflict or Peace? Religious Belief:169Rational or Irrational?
Reparations171for Slavery
Russian-American Cooperation: Temporary or Long-Term173
School Uniforms174
School Vouchers176
Science: Threat177 to Society? Security and179 Liberty
Self-Determination180 and Nationalism Sex Education182 in Schools
Sex Offenders: 183Publically Naming Single Superpower:184 Beneficial?
Single-Sex185Schools
Smoking, Further187Restrictions on Space Exploration189
Stem
Cell Research and Therapeutic Cloning
191
Surrogate192Mothers Term Limits195
Book
Terrorists, 196Negotiating with Tobacco Regulation:198 Addictive Drug?

UN Security Council199 Veto, Abolition of UN Standing201 Army
Vegetarianism203 Voting, Compulsory205
War
Crimes206Tribunals
Water Resources:208A Commodity? Whaling, Lifting209 the Ban on
Workfare211
Zero
Tolerance213 Policing
Topical216index
|5
Debatabase
Book
INTRODUCTION
Debatabaseis starting pointCommunication,therad torhetoric,partici- a

pating in debates. The volume provides a beginning f debate
those debaters who would like to learn about importa topics being argued in
theCommunication,publicsphererhetoric,.Debatersar use this volume as a methoddebate
ofarediscoveringrelatedconceptsthebas. issues relevant to sometionof andthe
proceedingmoreimportanttodebatetopi being discussed in variousprogressivelypublicforumsnarrowed.It.willBy bepr
debaters a brief look estat someconceptofthecommunicationclamsthatandca used to support or to opporowestmanydebate,of theIintendissuestoargsh about by persons in democraticinterrelatedsocieties;. it will provide some
sketches ofCommunicationevidencethatmaycanbebedefineused support these claims.
wTherebyisvolumesignsis,arehowever,usedto onlycon starting point. Debatersing
interestedthisdefinition,becomingcommunicave good debaters or excellentcept rangingdebatersfromwillhuman,need
tosymbg beyond this volume if meansthey intendthatanimalstobe ableuse to relint ligently discuss these
ofissuestheseinmeansdepthare. a part of
This introduction is bothinendedhumantoandprovidenonhumantheoretanima cal framework within

whichbehaviorsinformationofcertaboutinspeciesargu-mentation and debate
capproachnbeviewed;anestnoofattempttheir younhas been made to provide aofgeneralthose
speciestheory.ofTheargumentareason-tion. I begin with somecalbasictraitsdistinctionsthatallamongmemberth terms
communication, rhetoric,signs indicateargumentation,intrusionand. debate, progress to a
municationdescriptionabilitiesofheelementsincludin argument that are mostcationcentral
aretosomehowdbate,builtand theninto to a discussion of howcally,these alelementscommunicationcanbe strucisn
tured into claims to supportThefeaturedebate thatproposimostionsclearl.F lowing the discussion
offromargumentother formsstructures,ofcommunicImove a more detailed discussionAlthoughof
claimstheabilityandpropositiotouse and finally discuss thenicationkindsofisevidencecertainlyneededabioloto port
claims and propositionsourability. to use symbols a
A caveat is needed befotureallyproceedingandindividuallytothetheoretspec cal portion of this

introductionclearestevidence.Thisintroductionthatdiffer not intend to be a practical,ferentsymbolshow-to isguidethe
topresthenc ation of arguments. It amdoesng intehumand beingstoprovideseparatedthec ceptual groundwork
neededthoughfor
alldebatershumanstoarelearnbornhow
to
create
arguments
accordinglanguage,to
someavarietyofus oflearnmethoR
Introduction|7
and others English. Theareclearestnotthe examplemostcentralofsymbofe communication is languagements.

Languageofrhetoric,isannamelyabstram method of using signs verytoreferusefulto objectstodebaters,.The cobu
of a symbol differentiatesthi rhetintroricdutionfrombecauseother fot communication. Symbols,thanhenceis
rhetoric,argumentationare.abstrBeyo methods of communicationrhetorical. elements that so
Still, all rhetoric thisnotintargumentationoductionalso.Rhetoexcl communication can be dividedmentationto,

choosingvarious justcategorth
two of which
are1 narrativeJustThtosegiveandcntralmetaphorelements. are
a couple
of
examples, andthe reservationsnarrativemode.Theseof rhetele
3
focuses
on sequential phertime,StephenthemetaphoricToulminandintrodmoderevis
4
rhetoric
focuses on comparing30years onelaterthing. to anoth
and
the argumentative mode of rhetoric focuses o
giving reasons. All of ThetheseElementsmodesof ofrhetoricArgumentar in debate, but the mode of rhetoric that is
most
to debate is argumentationAlthough. in this introduc Argumentation is the

terminologyprocesswherebyhas beenhumansmodifiuse reason to communicate clusaimsge theto
onemodelanotherwill.stillAcco ing to this definition,modelthe.focusBecauseon reasonitis onlybecomea feature
that distinguishesonlyargumentationroughapproxifromatiot modes of2 Whenrhetoricpeople.
arguerelationshipswithoneto one anothe another, not only do theyasa
assertdescriptiveclaimsdiagrambuttheyof assert reasons they believeetyoftherasonsclaims. First,tobe itplaud
probable. Argumentationan isargumentprimarelatedytool toof reasdeba but it serves other
activitiesotherimportantaswell.elementsArgumentasu for instance, an importantings
tooloremotionsinnegotiation,unlessthoc resolution, and
persuasionrelated.Debatetoreasoningisanactivity.Secon
could
hardly
exist
withoutthe
linargumentationisticelements.
of Argumentation
is
usefulan
argumentinactivitiesincludeslikesignifnego
tion and conflict resolutiontheyarebecausenotcovered 5itThird,canbybethetheus help people find ways
toappliesresolveonlytheirto differencesthesimples some of these situations,mentdifferencescomposedcannotof
variebe internally and an outsideofevidenceadjudicatorrelatedmusttobetheca These are the
situationsmodelthatmay wenotcallapplydebatewell,. Ti according to this view,comings,debate thisdefinmodeld
hastheprop of arguing about claimsinginsomesituationsofthe keywherelementthe come must be decided
bytheyan adjudfuncticatorontogether.Thefocus.The this introduction is onfollowingthoseelementspages,
illustrateofargume tion that are most oftenment:used in debate.
In some regards this focusThebasicisincompleteToulminmodbelcausid some non-argumentative

melementsof argument:ofcommunicclaim,tion and rhetoric often are dence),usedin warrdebatent,evenand
thoughreserv
1
- As far as I know, no one has successfully organized m overlap so much with one another. For instance, narrati are
frequently found in narratives.
2
- This is not to say that other forms of rhetoric do not on reason is most clearly in the foreground is argumentat 3-The Uses
of(Cambridge,Argument UK: Cambridge University Press, 19 4- Albert R. JonsenTheandAbuseStephenofCasuistry:Toulmin,
(Berkeley:AHistoryUniversitofMor Press, 1988).
5
- Charles Arthur Willard. On the Utility ofCommunicaDescriptiv-tion Monographs,43(November, 1976), 308-19.

8|The Debatabase Book
ment
is
most
easily
explainedInaditionbya
toravelthe
simpleanalogyar.
evidence
is
the
argumenothersstartingargument
pointstructur.Thes
claiinc
the
arguers
destinationpendent.The
argumentswarrantis.
Althoughthemeansth
travel,
and
the
reservationexhaustinvolvesallpotentialquestionsargumenorc
cerns
the
arguer
may
haveoftheaboutmorearrivalcommon atonestheencoudest tion. Toulmins model can be used to diagram the str ture
of relatively simpleConvergentargumentsArguments.
Structure of an Argumentconvergent argument is one bits of evidence converge wit

A simple argument, forclaiminstance,.Inotherconsistswords,ofwhenasina claim supported by a
singlenotsufficient,claim,a pieceitmustof beevidecom a single warrant, and
perhapsofevidence(butinothealways)effort atosi reservation. The following diagram illustrates Toulm
diagram
of a simple argument:
Convergent argument
Simple Argument
Warrant
Evidence
Warrant
+
Claim
Evidence
Evidence
Claim
+
Evidence
Reservation
Reservation
Consider
as an illustration,
Toulmin illustrates this diagram using a simple arg gent argument:

ment
claim that Harry is a British citizen because

Lying
is generally consid ere
was born in Bermuda. Here is how the structure of th of placebos in drug testing r
argument
was diagramed by Toulmin:
some
Simple Argument
of the subjects are led

given real drugs. Therefore,
drug
testing unless the
test
potentially life-sav
Warrant
Pers
ons
born
in
Bermuda generally are
British citizens.
Evidence
Harry was born
in Bermuda.
Warrant
Associations among
lying, placebos, an
inmoral acts.
Claim
Harry is a British
citizen.
Evidence
Lying generally is
an inmoral act.
Claim
Reservation
Placebo
be use
Unless HarrysEvidenceparents
were U.S. citUsingzensplacebos. in
re
medical research
involves lying to
Although this diagram of an argumentReservationclearly illus some of the

trates how an argument moves from evidenceUnlessthetoplaceboclai research subjects.
only method of test via
a warrant, very few arguments are ever quite a
a potentially life simple.
Jonsens model to illustrate a few different argume structures.
For this reason, I have adapted Toulmin and
drug.
Introduction|9
This particular argument begins with two pieces evidence. The first
pieceIndependentinvolvesArgumentsthevalue stat that lying generally is considered an immoral a
Warrant
This
piece of evidence is a statement that is con
with the audiences values regarding lying. The s
piece of evidence is the factual statement that
use of placebos in medical research involves a fo
lying. The second piece of evidence involves the
Evidence
that when a researcher gives a

to a portion of the subjects in a study
of
life-saving drug, that researcher is lying
Warrant
Claim
placebo (e.g., a su
Evidence
jects as they are led to believe that they are re drug that may save their lives. The warrant then bines the
evidence with a familiar pattern of re ingin this case, if an actTakeinforgeneralinstanceis immoralthefol any
particular instancecapitalofthatpunishment:actlikewise i If lying is immoral in general, then using placeb
particular is also immoralOn.moral grounds, capital
The claim results fromabolishedconvergence.If a ofsocithetypiec of evidence and the warranttaking.

aInhumansome life,instances,howc arguer may not wish toaroundhold toandthistakeclaimthe lifeinallof
cumstances. If the arguergrounds,wishescapitaltodefinepunishmentspecifi tions in which the claimunlikedos
othernothold,punishments,thenthe i adds a reservation to dencetheargumentisdiscovered.Inthisaftercase,t
ervation seems perfectlybringappropriatetheunjustly.Evenexecutedthough arguer may generally object to lying
and to the of placebos, the arguer Thismay wishargumenttoexemptabout situatcapit where the use of a
placrebopresenistedhe inonlythe methodfollowinof ing a potentially life-saving drug.
The unique feature of the convergent structure

argument is that the arguer produces a collection
dence
Warrant
that, if taken together, supports the claim
If a murder is wrong
structure of the argument is such that all of

Independent Arguments
th because it takes a life

dence must be believed for thecapitalargumentpunishmenttobeissu ported. If the audience does
notwrongacceptforheanysameone p
of evidence, the entire argument structure falls the other hand, the independent Evidence argument structur
reason.
Capital punish-
such
that any single piece of evidence can provid

ment takes a ficient support for the argument.
Warrant
human life.
Claim
Mistakes in
Capital punis
judgment
ment ought to
should be cor-abolished
An arguer using an independent argument structur
rectable
Evidence
presents several piecesCapitalofevidence,punishmentany one of provides sufficient support
leaves no possibility
for
theargument. In
for the correction of
words,
a debater may present three pieces of evid
an incorrect vere-
and claim that the members of the audience shoul dict.

accept the claim even if they are convinced only single piece of evidence. The following diagram i trates the
structure of an independent argument:
This example of an indeTypesndentofClaimsargumentd structureProposition is based on two pieces

Mostofevidence,authors
edithervide
ofclaimswhich
strong
enough
to
supportthethetraditionalclaimthatcategoriescapitalpuniof ment ought to be abolishedhave. chosenThefirstnot
piecetouseof theseevide involves the value of twotakingreasonshuman.First,life,thewhiletradi second involves the
valueplaceof
forbeingsomeableimportanttocorrectkinda
take.
According
to
thisnotargument,facts,orcapitalvalues,punishmenorpoli ought to be abolished ditionalevenif onlycategoneriesof
havthe noitemp of evidence is believedseekby tothedefineaudienceconcepts.The normoralf stricture against takingto
establishlifeis,relationshipsbytself,a bes reason to oppose capitalSecond,punishmentthetraditionalasisthe
dangcategr making an uncorrectableandmistakepolicy. Thepropositionsstrategic whileadva tage of this form of
argumentconsider
propositionsstructureis
ofbvipolius
Whereas
with
convergentevaluativestructures,propositiontheloss. ofI useon part of the argument endangerspropositions:the
entiredefinition,argument,desc in the independent structure,evaluationthe. argumentThesecategories,canprev even
if only a part of exhaustiveitsurvivesor. mutually exclus
The Toulmin diagramsystemofan foargumthentdiscussionefulof because it illustrates the various parts of an

argu and shows how they functionDefiitionsogether as a whole. Th modifications with
regardDefinitionstoargumentanswerstucturethequestmake it even more useful. Still,purposesthetomodelsay thathas
its6Zishortthe ings. One difficulty withArguingthe Toulminfora claimdiagramof isdefinitha does not provide any
detaposilstingregardingthedefinitionsomeof andthe m ments. Some questions that definitionthediagram.
Inleavescarryiungano-swered include: states that X is defined in
action
humans perform when th
What are the differentpurposekindsofofcommunicatingclaims?7This with
1 How can different claimssentencbe pcositsmbineda definitiontosupport various propositions? Much of the
time arguers per
2 What are the differentpositingformsa ofdefinitionevidence?without
3 What are the differenttosupportkinds itof. argumentativeTheymaydoth
warrants? does not require them to make
1 What distinguishes favgoodr ofargumthentsdefinitionfrombad. The
ones?
create a frame of mind in the
lead the audience to demand a
the
definition. For instance,
Claims and Propositions
United States succeeded in de Conceptually claims

andsicianspropositionscalledintactarethedilatisame
kind of argumentative elementstial-birth 8.BothTheiaboraredefinitioncontrovers.wa statements that need
reasonbecauseforit
supportdominated.Bothe
claimdisc
and
propositions
are
creatturned
bythea
controverrelationshipyawaybetwf evidence and a warrantand.Frequently,towarda particulardebaterscombinmedic
several of these statementsabortionto forcessupportcouldanotheruse morsta ment. Each of the
initiface,lstatthementsdefinistionaclaimofintaand concluding statement isascalledpartialpropositi-birthabortion. m
- Perhaps a more accurate way of stating the question is X. This way of phrasing the question more clearly identifi more fully
later.
7
- Sonja K. Foss, KarenCotemporaryA.Foss, &Persp.RobProspectrtivesTrappHeights,on.RhetoricIlli 1991, pp. 14
- David Zarefsky, Definitions. Keynote address to the T August 1997.

Introduction|11
that
no further argumentis wasnot requiredcontested. by an aud
An
argument to supportthe adefinclaimtionf shortcudefinitionsth
becomes necessary when avoidingtheaudiencecontroverrefusesy. to ac the definition that was
Definitionspositedwithoutimply
avaluespportb
argument.
An
arguers
opponentvalueladenwill.
Forfrequentlyinstance,enc age the audience to demanddefinesupportthemedicalfora procedurdefinit When
antiabortion
advocaextesractiondefinedas
theirpartialposition-birt
pro-life,
some
in
thebirthproinfanticide,choicemovementthe objeval claiming that pro-choicewith infanticidesalsoproare-lifelikely.I like this
one,
the
entirecal
aprgumentocedurecans
turnwell.onInwht
or
not
the
arguer
is
ablesucceededtosuccesinsfullyhortcuttingsupport of definition. avoiding the value controve
In those instances whendefinitionanarguer. chooses to co struct an argument to supportSoclaims

deofinitdefion,nitionthe ar ment frequently revolvestheyaroundprobablythe arereasonableneslessimpo the scope
and breadth completedofthedefinitionwithsupporting.Isthe de tion so narrow that it
areexcludesimplicinstanctlyusesd ofas thedesc that ought to be included?furtherIs argumentsthedefinition. so b
that it fails to exclude instances that do not p belong to the concept? DescriptionsThus,inconstructing an a
ment for a definition, anDescriptionsarguermightmaypositcharacterde tion, then argue that
object,thedefinitionconcept,isorreasonabevento terms of its scope andconcepbreadt,h.orIneventfact,itselfthis.is
terion implicit in theincludeobjection to defining ant tion as pro-life.
ChoiceTheadvocatesriflepurportedclaimedtotha definition of pro-lifenedywas requiressonarrow minimumscopeo
it excluded pro-choice shotsadvocates.. So in some cas the arguments supporting Affirmativeclaimof
actiondefinitionprogra important. In other cases,includethe hiringdefinitiquontasbecomes. dence (sometimes
implicit)Jackfor Rubyfurtherwas argumentsspottedina whether a claim of
definitionminuteswasafteractuallyPresidentmade.Ke Definitions themselves frequently are important but they
are also importEachnt ofto thesubsequentstatementsargume tative moves.
Definitionstheyareprovideimportantverbalbecauseaccot often do the work of argumentsomethingwithout.They
opareningclaimsth
because they9 areand controversbecauseth arguers position to as much controversy as would
erwise
be
expected.
Definitionsreasonsformaysupportavoid.controveBeca
in
two
ways:
by
implyingotdescriptionscontroversial,and allby impldesc
values. arguments. Many or even m
Definitions imply descargumentativeiptionsby includingbecausetheley
ments in the definitioninstthatnce,properlyifa personrequiresimplevi tiary support. For instance,hecolorsan
rosesarguerofflowearemightred;thatsclaivio affirmative action is unfairperson andwouldmightnot defineordinarilyaff
tive
action
as
racial
thesepreferdensceriptionquotas.
Whethe
mative
action
programs
requireOnekindracialofdescriptivepreference c is a matter of much controversytoricalfact.But.Allif statementthedefin
- With regard to the first example, some people claim t account the fact that a shooter must reacquire the subjec tive action argue
that hiring quotas are required only f the primary source of the claim regarding Jack Ruby was A was mistaken in his report.
cal
be
claims. To be
a historicalevaluatingclaimthat aobjectstatement.In mt
controversial
and
mustneed requiretodescribeeasonaffiormativeitss
port. The statement, Othat.J.itSimpsoniseitherwon goodthe orHeisbad-man Trophy, is not
controversialAscientificanddescriptithereforen canno an argumentative claim.anOnargumentheothero chand,be
theusedstast ment, O. J. Simpson killdevelopmentdNicole ofBrownanotherSimpsokind, o not only is
controversial,the primarybutalsodetrequrmiresnantanof argho present to reasons
supporcultinguralorisdeanyinterestingit. cl Another kind of descriptionperspectiveisa.
claimPeopleofcanscientifargue fact. Scientific facts geneticarestatementsexplanationthat orcommandthecu belief
of the scientificclaimcommunity:frequentlyThehasEarthbeen isuset third planet from the sunmorality.A
claimof10homosexualitySoofinscientificthecase. offa a controversial
scientificminantsstatementofhomosexuality,believedby theas tist or a group of
scientisimports,antbutfornotitsyetownacceptedsakean entire scientific community:potentialColdclaimsfusionas
canwellbe. pr duced in the laboratory.DescriptiveLikeoher hisfactoricalualstatemecla all scientific
statementsbecauseare nottheyclaimsmake statementsofscientif either because they areeventnot
controversialoccurredasassertedorbecausean do not require reasons asto evidencbegivenininmakingtheir
fsurtherpport say, The Earth is the thirdLee planHarvety fromOswaldthekilledsun, not a claim because it
isnedynot. controversial and bec a person making that statementO.J. wouldSimpsonnotmurderedbexpecteNic
to give reasons to supportand itRonald.But Goldmanthestatement,. fusion can be produced in U.a
SMl.addoxboratory,shipsandTurnerwereJoyis attackedcont versial statement, and theby
thescientificNorthVietnamesecommunity inwoult challenge anyone making that statement to support i with
reason and evidenceEach. of these are interestin
Illustrating differentof exampleshistoricalof factdescriptive.These claan is important in and

offactitselfalsobecanusebe peopleusedasfrequeevid argue about
descriptiveuativeclaimsargumentswithno.goalForotherinstan to try to settle a
controversyMaddoxandTurnerregardingwereJoyattackedanaccountby science or history. As
Vietnamesejustoneexample,wasusedseveralbyPresidhun books and articles havethebeenSenatewrittenand
thepresentingHouseofmanR different accounts of TonkintheassassinationsGulfResolutionof JohngivingK nedy,
Robert Kennedy, andto pursueMartin Lutherwar KingVietnam.But beyond being important mentsfortheirthat ownthe
sake,attackdescriptwasat claims also are importantfakedbecausewere theyused areby opponentsneededwh
arguing about subsequentto kindsshow thatofclaimsJohnonsas wellaction.
Descriptive claims frequentimmoral.y are used as evidence relational and evaluative arguments. A claim descri
ing the nature of an objectRelaionshipfrequenStlyatementsisneeded be arguing that one objectDescriptiveisrelated
claimstoanotharer aboutobje People might need to argue,whatisfortheinstance,essence ofthatX orhiriY quotas are
essential
featuresdependon,of
butaffirmativegobeyond,actionthe
descriptive
claim)
beforeth
relationshiptheycanarguebetweenthat affirXan tive action leads to differentialshipassert treatmconnentciofn pberstw
hiring
pools
(relationalevents,claim)or.
phenomenaSimilarly,.
peopleLiked
need
to
describe
an
objectofrelationshiporphenomenonca priorbeimportto
10
- Some argue, for instance, that because the tendency for be considered moral or immoral.
Introduction|13
they can serve as evidencewas thefor murdererthedevelopment.Ina draof ative claims.

Considersonthesetriedclaims:onthe glove in
1 Secondhand smoke contributesappearedto significantbetoosmalyl to
health
problems.
dence allowed the defense
1 The scandals of theinClinquitone poetadministrationclanguage: ar like those of
Nixonmustadminisacquit.rationAccording. to
2 Advertising has changedglove thewas roleasignof womenofSimpsonint
U.S. defenses claim, the glove
was a clear case where the
All of these are claimsthe ofrelationshipbetweenbecauseth assert a relationship sonsbetweenguilttwo
orobjectsinnocenceorcon. (secondhand smoke and healInthe, SimpsonClinton example,andNixon,th
advertising and women).tantThe becauserelationshifipst wereassertebel these examples are of
twoficientkinds:to establishofcontingencyguilt a
the
similarity.
the nature of the argument)

claim of sign also can
be u
Contingency
different claim. Say,
for
Some claims of relationshipthatPhotographsassertrelationshifromthe contingency. The secondhandshowe
thatsmokingPresidentialexampleandca the advertising exampleadultererareofthis.Thekindphotograph.Inea
these claims assert thadultery,oneobjectbut givenorphenomenontheir dependent on another
ininfidelityoneway.or Oneanothercould. thenSign cause are two ways objectsport
canevaluativebedependentargumentono another via some form of contingencybeingPresident. since he
Relationshipsare oneof signwaytheto showclaimthatof signone becomes e thing is dependent on
anothertiveclaimthing..
Relationships of sign may
Consider
these:
1 The pain in your childstionhipsabdomenof causeprobably.Themeanre she has appendicitis.appendicitis
is one of both
2 The palm print on theis aMannlichersignofthe-Carcanoappendricitfle proves that Oswald handlcaused
ofthetheriflepainsupposedly.Acausa used to shoot PresidentinvolvedKennedyin. the example of
man and Brown-Simpson or i Both of the previous
Oswaldsttementspalmareprintclaimson abouthe
relationships of sign.printThe andpainthein bloodytheabdomenglove sign of appendicitis
iswerdependentnotcauses11onThus,theof belieftherelationmurd child actually has
abdomisignalarepaindifferentanda belieffromreli relationship between thattermspainof
andtheirherfocusappendix.. belief that Oswald handledCausaltherelationshipsrifleareimportantthatupposein
was used to shoot PresidentofargumeKenntedy. Theis dependentkindofc the belief that he
actuallyinstanceleftto histhe palmnext.printAfe murder weapon. utory causes, necessary and
Arguments of sign perlayedcauses,-veryand importantmotive respo haps crucialrolein the
criminalContrialbutoarefryO.causesspecialJ.Simpsonkind for the murder of Ron statementsGoldmanand.
NicoleInmanyBrownormos-Simpson. The prosecutionthe claimedcauseofthatan effectthepresenc.Ce a bloody
glove near Simpsonscertain homeeffects;was aothersign condtha
11
- One can make a case for a causal relationship between murder caused blood to get on the glove. The causal rela
although one could say that the act of murdering Preside This last claim is a weak one since the palm print could
rence
of
those
effects.willFinally,producesomeconditiongoodeffectpr
tates
that
effect.
Forcommercialsexample,considerclaimthatthesetheirthre
sible
claims
about
the
causesoneof
toheartloseattacks:weight. Th
1 Genetics are the causecausalof conditionheartattacanks.then be
2 A high cholesterolvincediet buyerscancauseto tryheartheirattackdie.
3 Vigorous exercise causesclaimheartisthaattacksregardless. of
ing the proposed diet will le We know that some
peopleStatementsaregeticallyareaboutcausalmotivereclaimspre-disposed to heart attacksthe
thaneffectsothersof.humanIf agentperson.
already is predisposedthosetoheartalreadyattacksdiscussed,regularlyare sumes a diet high in
cholesterol,logicalphenomenathatdiet.Thecontriburelati the likelihood of heartdieattack,exercise,.Supposeanda
heartpersondis a heart attack while onshipsamorning.Variousjog.elemenWhats wasin tha cause? Genetics? Diet?
otherExercise?elementsTheinanswerthatsameis thasy three factors may havemotivesbeencontributoryareakind
ofcausescausal. N single cause may have choiceaused istheinvolvedheartattack,increatinbut
three
conditions in combinationdosenatorsmayandhaverpresulentedativin
heart
attack.
paign finance reform? Why do c
Necessary and frequentlysufficientprodcausesuceealwithdangerous
products? T
singular causes rather questionsthancontributoryinvolve
causalcauses.claiMo
is essential to happinessdifferentisanorderexamplethanofthoseaclaid necessary causation. To
Insayantheatrliermoneyexample,isnecessagenet cause of happiness is not choosetosaythatto causethe
prheartsenced money automatically leadstems tochoicehappinessfrequently.Theclaiman i does, however, imply
thatminingwithoutwhat actionsmoneyhappinessleadto w is impossible. If one claimwantedthatto
makerepresentativesclaimofsu ficient causation usingmotheivatesamethexample,tostallone campamight claim that
money is thethatkeytheto profhappinesstmotive.Dependininduce on how one interpreted
tothatproduceclaim,dangerousitmight productsmeanh money brings happiness quregardlessstionsthatof otherdeal
withconditiomoti In that case, one wouldarguinghavemadebouta claimtheeffectsabout aofs ficient cause. Like other
causal claims, c
Necessary
and
sufficientusefulcausesasevidenceareusefulin
thewhenco
arguing
about
relationshipsclaims.betweenAclaimandbasedamongon
varise-ous
phenomena.
They
arecampaignalsousefulfinanceas reformevidencemight,fro which to construct otheras evikindencesof
toclaims,constructparticulafu claims that evaluate a wisdomcourse ofof reaction-electing.Whenthatan argse
proposes a strategy toticulareliminatecorporationsanundesirabledesireff evidence derived from ationclaimof
aboutunsafea productsnecessarymightcon tion of that effect is denceusefulto. Havingsupportmadeclaimclaimaski a
necessary cause, one corporationcanforward. a proposal to el nate that necessary causeTheandclaimsthus
ofeliminaterelationshipeft For instance, if peopleso believefarhavethatinvolvedovereatingrelations essary condition
of
obesity,relationshipstheycouldofcontingency,usethisca
claim
as
evidence
to
convinceoraffectsothersanotherthat.theyThesneec quit overeating. Thus, generallymaking beenclaimdividedabout
aintonecest sary cause is a good waycauseto.supportHowever,a pclanimsforofelimcon ing an effect. kind of claims
of relationshi
Similarly, evidence derivedquallyfromimportantclaimkindsaboutofa resu ficient cause is a good way to support a

plan for pr ing an effect. If one Similaritycanpresent a proposal that a sufficient cause, one canIn
thenadditionclaimtothatrelationshipsthepropo
Introduction|15
other statements of relationshipbeusedto establishassert evaluarelati of similarity. A claim of similarity asserts

th or more objects or concepts Claims areof Evaluationsimilarin impor ways. Claims of
similarityEvaluativearefrequentlyclaimsgofoundbeyoni
is
called
argument
by
clanaimslogy
ofor
relatioargumentshipby paratot case. Examples of claimsevent,of similarityorconcept.include:Evaluat
1 Abortion is virtuallykindsthe ofsameclaimsasinfanticidebecausethe.

2 The Clinton administrationcombinationis oflikeother defiNixon
administration.
relational statements.
1 Capital punishment isEvaluativestate-sanctionedlaims beamurdera.f
another because they attach Each of these
examplesobjectsshare orcertainevetscharacteris.Still,
First, each example includnumbers andtwo inobjectscharacteristiorconc (Clinton and Nixon, aborteasilyon
andviewedinfanticide,these threand ital punishment and murdater)a.singleSecond,object,each thoseexampl
states that the two conceptsrespect orto objsomectsvalue,are simiand important regards. with respect to some
object
Claims of similarity are useful when an arguer w to do nothing more than ClaimssupportthattheEvaluateidea
thatSingletwo more objects and conceptsSomearevaluativesimilar. claimsAlthoughsim claim focuses on the
sismilarityattachedbetweeninsomethewayobjec(po frequently carries anothersome impliedvalue. claimThese
ofkindsevaluo The claim that capitalobjectpunishmentofevaluaisstionate-sanctiandso murder is not a valueappliedneutral tostatementtheobject:.When c fronted with such a
claim,Capitalmostaudiencespunishmentbeginisimw the assumption that murderPrivateisnegativelyproperty
isvaluedthe cept. An arguer who succeedsCapitalisminupportingisgood.the c of similarity also succeeds in
transferring the n value associated with murderThese toexamplestheconceptofclaimsofca punishment. In all
ofsingletheaboveobjectexamplesallcontainofclas of similarity, the arguer(capitalhas
twopunishmdiffent,rentprivatpurpo show that the two conceptssome orvalueobjectsjudgmenthave similarthat
acteristics, or to show(immoral,thattheevil,two conceptsgood). or are evaluated in similarSomewaysclaims,. like
those m
In some cases, the audiencerather broadmaynotvaluehavejudgmentenough familiarity with eithermoreof

thespcifictwoobjonectss: to und the values associated withCapitalthem. punishmentInsucha caise,un of
similarity is sometimesminoritiesthefirst. step toward p claim of evaluation. ConsiderPrivate
hypproperthetyicalhasclaie states Senator Xs medicalmmoralcarerulingplan isclassimilar. instituted in
Canada. IfCapitalismtheaudienceprovidesknw incenoth about either Senator Xstiveplan. or the Canadian one
arguer might establish this claim to be used as e in a later evaluative
claimThesethatexamplesSenatorcontainXs plav be accepted (or rejected)more. specificInthis thancase the
broadargu present an evaluative claim regarding the success Canadian plan and then
ClaimscombinethattheComparetwoclaimsTwoObjec--on of similarity and one regardingInstead
ofaccevaluatingptanceor arejs
Thus, claims of relationshipcompare twofallobjectsinto threewith rebr categories: sign, causastituteon,

andsecondsimilaritycategory.Ino cases, claims of relationshipthepreviousaresupportedcategory byof ev built on
claims of fact.his Likewise,category relationincludealt clle
and at least one value claimsjudgmentgenerallytobe appliedaremoreto comth objects. Consider

thesecategoriesclaims: of action claims.
1 Lying is more proper Accordingthanhurtingto thissomeonescategoryfeels
ings.
are generally divided into th
1 Reagan was a betteratepresideantglethanobject,Clintonclaims. t
objects, and action claims. Each of these
examplesuativecontainsclaimtwocanobjectssometimes(lyingb
and
hurting
someones
anotherfeelings;evaluativeReaganandclaim,Clinton)lea
and
one
value
judgmentcatedtobeclaimsappliedbuiltto eachon objecweb (more proper and better Inpresident)addition. to the fact
tha
used both as the end product Claims of Action evidence for other
evaluative
Claims of action, sometimestiveclaimscalledareclaimsdependentofpolicon are yet another
categoryandofrelationalevaluativeclaimsclaim:. Depen
1 Capital punishment tsheouldaudibenceabolishedfamiliar. with
2 The United States shoulddescriptiveadopt ofa policytheconceptoffreeto
trade with Cuba.
making an evaluative claim ma make prior descriptive claims These claims
evaluateexamples,conceptforby instance,suggestingonethatc
action be taken with respectmightneedto thattodescribeconcept.certaiBeca an action can be evaluatedishment,only
privatebycomparisonoperty,or coly trast to other possibletrade,actions,or Cubaclaimsbeforeofactionlauchiby sity
compare at least twohseobjectsconcepts.The. claim that tal punishment should
beInabolishedmany,butcomparesnotall theinstancpres ence of capital punishmented withtouseitsa absenceclaimof.
relatiThecl regarding free trade withportCubathe impliesevaluativecomparisonclaim.T a policy of free tradea
withrelationalthepresentclaim policyisand ofis embargo. In this
regard,exampclaimsesofofclactionimsevaluatresingmi claims that compare twothatobjectsapital. punishment is i
In a different regard,by claimsdescribingofactionfeatureare differofca from the other categoriestheof

intentionalevaluative claimstaking inof they rarely state the
ingvaluethatjudgmentfeatureusednegativelytocompar( the two objects. The reasonhuman lifthe valueisan
judgmentimmoral act)is ordinarily stated in theevaluationclaimisarethalltanthactionare nc is frequently supportedis
bynota needvariedty. ofTheothersecondclaim evaluation each of whichis maythe berootrelyingofalloneviladifferis
value judgment. The claimone firstabout mighttheabolitdescribeon oftheca tal punishment, for
example,ertythenmightarguebe thatsuppoprivatetedby other evaluative claimselikefishness (a relational cla
1 Capital punishment andis immoralselfishness. are evil. A

1 Capital punishment betweencontributhees firsttotheargumentbrutalizaan-
tion of society.
first requires relational evi
1 Capital punishment notis.racistInthe. first instance, t
inherent feature of capital p To complicate matterstheevenargummore,ntevaluativeevaluates claimsaneff of
action inherently areWhencomparativearguinganclaimsinherent.Tofeatr in favor of a
particulartionalactionevidenceispossibleisunnecessaronlyin parison to other actionsis.ofFortheinstancfeature,
ratherpreviothan claims imply that capitalBut manypunishtimes,nt isby thelessnaturemoral more brutal, and
more isracistforcedthanto evaluatethealternativesaneffe Because action claims
instances,usuallyrequirethearguermultiple,isrequcom parative claims as evidencebymeansto
ofsupportrelaionalthem,evidenactio
Introduction|17
In
summary,
four
categoriesments:
claimsofevideandceevidenceandclai.
include
definitions,
descriptions,thesetwoelementsrlationalisthasta
(of
contingency
and
ofprovidessimilarity),nformationndevaluatithatc Sometimes claims are thednceendandproductsclaims ofto
argumentsuppor at other times they areevidenceusedasareevidencethefoundationforthe struction of further
claimsproposition.This. intWarrantsoductionand hr sented a category systemlikelyand begunto
toindividualexplain howcre ious types of claims arenotrelatedreceivetotheonesameanotherdetailwh is used as
evidence
for
Whenanotherusing.
Tthis
introductivolume,de
done
little
or
nothing
bertowardthatexplainingitisonlyhowa onestar structs arguments for thesemuch lessvariousexcellenttypes
ofdebaterclaim methods and processes ofthisconstructingvolume.Theythesewillclaimnee the topics of later
chaptersndperhaps. collective res
Theory and Practice
claims
and evidence.
Then, of course, comes the ing where debaters will be
This
essay
has
providevidencesometheprovidedreticalinbackgrouthisv
relevant
to
argumentationresearchindebatingwith.warrantsSpecificallnd provided a discussion ofclaimsthe Toulminandto
modelcombineof thosargu and a more detailed desupportingcriptionofortworefutingofToulminprop
Robert Trapp
Professor
of Rhetoric
Willamette
University
Salem, Oregon, U.S.A.
January
2003
DEBATE TOPIC
Time.com Primer: Understand the Taliban and Afghanistan <http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,175372,0

Article providing background on the Taliban, the problems
United States Department of Defense. <http://www.defens Provides up-to-date news on the military aspects of the c
Further Reading:
Cooley,UnholyJohnStylus,KWars.. 2000.
Gohari,TheM.Taliban:J. OxfordAscent UniversitytoPower. Press Print on Demand Goodson,AfghanistansLarry. Endless War:
State Failure,UniversityRegionalofWa Press, 2001.
Margolis,War atEricthe. Top of the World:
andZedReligionBooks, 2002inAfghanistan..
TheRoutledge,Struggle
2001for.Afgha
Marsden,ThePeterTaliban:.
War
dc
AFRICAN AFFAIRS, OUTSIDE INTE

Africa has had some of the bloodiest and most v people died during the 1990s in a genocidal war Nations
have been criticized for their slowness and former colonial powers have no legitimate ro solutions, not
artificial resolutions imposed by
PROS CONS
Often, only neighboringIs countriestheinvolvementareableoftoAfresic to crises in a timely selfmannerinterest?.Acase inForpointexamplewa South African interventionthein wanr uprisingtheDemocratiinLeso It
stabilized
the
country(DRC)andwas,restoredatleastthe
inrightfpart
thus
preventing
a
potentialtothecivildiamondwar.mines and ot
zones. Some neighboring cou interest in fueling wars th
Regional
intervention
Theis
ofteneffectmoreof
regionaleffectiveblocin
ducing
change.
While
internatiohasbeennial. grForupsexample,suchasZ UN may be successful inMugabekeepinghas
theconsistpeace,ntlytheirgn losophy leaves once theirneighborsoldingerscountrigohomes.. ByTheha regional
groups
intervene,Many
corruptthechangesbut
politicalltheyimpo
remain
after
the
soldierstheirdepartneighbors.Regionaltocondonepoliti ensure political progressZimbabwe,. cronyism, especia
Development Community (SADE many African nations

condon in the country.
The unique situations andThe poweruniqueorganizaunderstionsandingpre in many African conflictsnomoare

bestthan cronyismunderstoodor bydi countries involved anderstheircontinuedimmediatepowerneighbors.Inth.
one-size-fits-all international interventionresponsefailsis tofa
PROS CONS
account
special
circumstancuniquesunderstandingfrequentlymeansresulth
in
the
breakdown
of
negotiationstrieshave alignedormediationthemselves.Afri can leaders are also morewar, likelyescalatingotrustit,
ratherandcoopeth with regional organizations, such as SADEC, than wit international organizations.
African countries must Webe needseen to be sureccessfullythatthepu ing democratic and economicWhile
developmemanycountries.ManymayAfribe-can leaders still carryonly,colonialitis resentmentsgenerallythethatrolm
foreign intervention diffmuniculttyordetermineimpossiblewhet.Thersev ers will be willing tooflistenanotherto
Africancountry approachesisjustif problem, while automaticallydecisiondistrustingcouldbest foreignbemade onb
however well intentionedthe. despots would be a mist
tries would probably be the le ing conflicts have been starte of

neighbors that it was the
Most of the powerful coJunstribecauseand internationaltheinterveningor nizations are loathe
totanksbecomeinsteadinvolvedof negotiatiinhesortn peacemaking (as opposedoesnttopeacekeeping)makeitany
needmoredliken African countries. Activenam isandthedirectclassicparticipationexample infantry and other
elementsinterveneof armiesinguerrillaisrequiredwar fight guerrilla wars suchstage,as
thatinfantrytheinterventionDRC.Thec rent trend away from thisa sortincreasedofmilitaryonlytheintervendeath is ill
suited to addrendingss Africthewanr. problems. Afri countries, by contrast, have already illustrated tha are willing
and able to become involved in this capa as evidenced in the DRC.
Sample Motions:
This House would keep its own peace.
This
House doesnt need the UN/US.
This
House would solve its own problems.
Web Links:
Amnesty International: Democratic Republic of Congo: War index/AFR620361998>
Overview of human rights issues in the Democratic Republic
When All Else Fails, Mugabe Gets Rough. <http://www.lowel Short essay on Robert Mugabes oppressive rule in Zimbabwe.
Further Reading:
Du
Plessis, LManaging.,andM.AfricanHough. Conflict: HSRCThe ChallengePublishers,of 2000Mil
Smock, DavidMakingR.,Wared.and Waging Peace:UnitedForeignStatesIntervenInstituteion oi West, HarryConflictG., edand. Its
ResolutionUniversityinContemporaryPressofAmerica,Africa.1
dc
|27
AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN AFRICAN

Many African schools use French and English in undermine the value of the practice. English is African
nations be putting themselves at a disa native languages in the classroom?
PROS
CONS
The use
of
non-AfricanFluencyanguagesin Englishsuchas confersFrench a
English
in
African schoolsEnglish isa throwbthelanguageckto coloof
ism. They were adopted ofmoreworldby thebusiness,order ofandtheof ruo of the day than for anyas
practicalthoseon theadvantageInternetthey.P give. lish are handicapped.
If the issue is one ofDevelopingunderstanding,African thencountrieit weak argument. Many countriestiona
(ehighly.., JapanindustrializandGe many) have proved thatandtheyGermanyc.be Developingpowerful bothcou
academically and economicallyresourcesbytoteaching a pupilssecon their mother tongue whilehigh
providingproficiencyearlythat andis pco prehensive instruction TranslatinEnglishon ias notasecondonly tedlan
Instruction in the languagesibilityof oftheimportantcuntry scienerve maintain cultural
identity;expertstrainslationthecountryisan. Traneas for turning English textsable
intooptiontheinrequirconversationdlang This may not even be necessaryspeeches. if schools encour
proficiency in English as a second language.
Instead of looking at howThe indigenoussuccessof languagesFirstWorldca into the global society,as

weevidenceshouldforlooktheatsuccesshowEn fits into other societiesguage.Thebecausevat majorityisbasedof
Ao have grown up speakingtiolanalguagessytemsotherthatthanareEnglilac as their first language; thus by
adopting English standard language of your country, you are essent disempowering most citizens in academic,
commerci and even social spheres.
Perhaps English may haveThea influencesrotheof futuretheworldof oping countrieswhen theyignoredare.

powerfulByadoptingenoughan indto compete globally. For theisolatingmoment,yourhowever,countrymanylinga
divided internallymostworldoften.Nonmatterhnichowlinesgood. Ont by respecting peoples
wiethinnicityacountry,(ofwhichyourlangcouan an important
component)inwillnternatioAfricansalevrerlationsbeabl achieve the sort of
nationalunderstandstrengthandnegotiatetocomptein ally. Until then, the use of English will handica help, African
nations.
Making
an
indigenous
languageManyAfricanfirstcountrieslanguagedodon
Englishindigenousasecondlanguagesnguage.Sout.Th
standard
10forofficialeachlanguagesmusthatrema
not
of
exclude
making
education
PROS
high,
more
CONS
but we are
proficient in
respectingpeople pupilstoopt forrightsone ofto these

the dividinglanguage yourthey countrymmonly. Ifusey
their society; this isbefarthemorenorm,beneficialitwould tohavethemto having it relegated tothsecondmostlanguagepracticalstatususefor.Englyo by contrast, is spokenguagemuch otherless frequentlythanEnglishin
Afriwou countries, and making theit asamesecondproblemlanguageofglobalrecognisz this.
Sample Motions:
This House would place its own culture first. This House would put itself first.
This House believes in a language barrier. This House would put English last.
dc
AIDS DRUGS FOR DEVELOPING COUN

The vast majority of people infected with HIV/AID and developing countries are confronting the issue
afford the drugs and that drug companies are maki pharmaceutical companies and to manufacture gener
for poorer markets.
PROS CONS
Without a doubt many ofJustthelikeworldsany pharmaceuticalbusiness,the p companies are making largeneed
profitstorecoupby sellingsignificantdrugsf poor nations that haveresearchgreat andportiondevelopmentoftheir.
Thepop lation infected with HIV/AIDSdrugsis. highlyThisistechnical,anmmoralan exploitation of those
initialAIDSsufferersinancialwhoinvestmentcanleasti
afford
to
pay
for
treatmenttohaveandany
whoreasonhavetothecontinuleast power internationally toopmentnegotiate. cheaper prices.
The countries with theDrugbiggestcompaniesAIDS problemsareasmuchare sua captive market and are
theforcedfreetomarketpaywhateverasany
otherdr
companies
demand
for
theirgallyproductsproducing.Poorgenericnationsdrugsar
thus
justified
in
usingcouragethethreatdrug
ofcompaniesroducingfromgenc drugs to force drug companieseffectiveto medicineslowerpricbecause. t
shown
them that patent protec
Generic drugs would beBecausefarcheapermost ofto theprodruguce compand would avoid the
shippingFirstcostsWorldfromnations,factoriestheyin havEur or America. Generic drugsproducehave
effectivenoresarchmedicinesanddevea opment costs to recoup,thatso notheycornerscould arebe soldcut inforth
|29
PROS CONS
price greatly reduced wouldfrom currentalmos clertainlyvels.Thecutco keeping a person on

AZTufacturingorother generidrugcocktailsdrugss exorbitant; such cost wouldlargebescalegreatlymanufacturedred eveth the use of generic drugsby. contravening internation they would not
benefit from AIDS drugs because companie supply the newer drugs to a formula to manufacture gene
Millions
of
people
willIs
continueitright
tothatsufferthosewhinfele
companies
refuse
to
makeWorldAIDSgetmedicationhugediscountsavailablwh to poorer nations at apaypricefulltheyprice?an
Developedafford.Ar trying to use the millionspay mofre HIVif sufferersthedrug compaasho in their battle to get
theirpricescharityheysaleswant? to po
countries themselves using developing nations could re
savings by buying and using stop mother-to-child transm
Drug companies will notThe losemajoritymoneyofbyThirreducingWorld prices; their market willto

affordexpand.theIf drugspricesevenare atr the drugs will become treatmentsaffordable to
preventmillionsmotheofs ers, many of whom will example,beusing wouldproductsbe likeexpnsivAZT the rest of
their livescomplex. drug cocktails woul
of reach of developing nati have to sell their medicati
affordable to most developi
HIV/AIDS treatments areNo asmattcheraphowas lowthey thecan drugbe present. By buying
theAIDSmedicinestreatments,now,
esptheyciarellyu
preventative
purposes,
enough:developingAs
thenationsnumbercanofredH the chance of future HIVAfricanfectiongrows,inthetheirstrainpopulaon and thus not
need to buybecomthe nextunbearablegeneration.Developiof( tably more expensive) drugspursuing.
preventative measu
ernments will need to use t fullyproducing generic med
savings.
Sample Motions:
This House would insist on cheaper drugs.
This House believes that capitalism lets the sick suffer. This House wants the First World to help.
This House needs help with AIDS. This House would fight AIDS.
Web Links:
HEALTH: Cheaper AIDS Drugs a Myth, Says Medical Aid Age International Press Service article on the controversy s
HIV/AIDS drugs to poor countries.
Further Reading:
Hope, KempeAIDS andR. Development in Africa:Haworth,A 1999Social. Science Per
Intensifying
Action Against Hiv/AIDSWorldinBank,Africa:2000Responding.
Webb, DouglasHIVand. AIDSPlutoin AfricaPress,. 1997.
dc
ALCOHOL, BANNING OF
In almost all countries, adults can buy and consum and places alcohol can be sold). This is a marked Ecstasy
(methamphetamine), and heroin. Alcohol abu responsible for almost 17,000 deaths and hundreds US $19.7
billion, while alcohol abuse resulted in failure of Prohibition in the United States during
PROS CONS
Alcohol is just as potentiallyTheperfectaddictsocietyve asmightmanyproil drugs. Those who
becomesaleaddictedofalcoholoften. However,losetheirin marriages, jobs, families,unlikeandotherevendrugs,their
islivesan.intA proportion of homelessculturpeople. wereTobanmadeit sois becausecomplet of alcoholism. Any
drugwouldthis makeddictriveminalsnd destructofbilli should be illegal. the biggest black market the
In
many
countries
alcoholHumanisbeingsacontareibutorynaturallyfactoin
in
6070%
of
violent
crimes,conflictincludi.Sexandg violencechildabuseare domestic violence, sexumalkeassault,-up,and andwe
domurdernot.needIn aa tion, alcohol is far andto awaythe surfactheleading.At worst,cause ofalcp disorder, street
fights,theseetc.tendenciesInshort,butalcotholat
ismak
the
prime
causes
of
violthenceunderlyingandcrimecause,inmodernofviolsoc
ety,
and
its
banning
woulding
causesimmediatelyarebiologicalreducetheandin dence of these crimes. murder illegal does not eradi
is unlikely that making alcoh do so either.
Although
organizationsThelikeprogressMothers
madeAgainstagainstDrunkdr
Driving
have
successfullydecadesreducedhas thebenumbervery ofencouradrun driving deaths in the Unittinued
toStates,campaigndeathsagainstand serit injuries caused by drunkto hopedriversthatstillcampaignsruntototherest
sands each year. This ings unacceptablewilleventually.Alcoholeradicateshou simply be banned. deaths, while tragic,
are not
take away the civil liberties abiding citizens by depriving drinking
alcohol.
|31
PROS CONS
We need consistency inYes,our wedrugshouldlaws.haveIf marijuaconsist which is not very addictiveis

andbsurdwhichforresultsmarijuanain ally no violent crime alcoholorpublicshoulddisorder,both bneedsleg
banned because of its majorityind-alteringofpeopleffects,know thenow much more so should
alcoholresponsiblybebanned?.
Currently thousands ofThepeopalcoholeare industryemployed isby anth alcohol industry. However,Thus, thenot
factonly thatwouldanbanninimmo industry employs a lotplesofpeoplecivil islibnertiesvera tgooda ment to keep
that immoralalsoindusputthousandsrygoing. ofInsteadpeopl government should fund programs to retrain worker
Tax revenues would be Currentlylostifalcoholgovernmentswere rbaisnne Again, however, this isfromnot

taxesprincipledanddutiesreasonpayabt the proposition, simplyhola wouldpracticalke problemawaya. majoGove
ments could significantlypublicreduceservicspendings.In onadditiopoli and health through the
callreductionformuchin
crimeadditionalandalcopo
related
illness
resultinganewfromclassan
alcoholofillegalban.drug
that would be unprecedented
Sample Motions:
This House would ban alcohol. This House would hit the bottle.
This
House believes that alcohol is the root of all evil.
Web Links:
Alcoholics Anonymous. < http://www.alcoholics-anonymous Offers information on the organizations program and serv
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). < http://www.madd Good source for statistics, laws, and initiatives on drun
The National Clearing House for Alcohol and Drug Inform Excellent source for links to a large number of articles drinking.
Further Reading:
Plant, Martin, andTheDouglasAlcohol.FreeCamReportn,Assn. edsBooks,. 2000.
dc
AMERICAN CULTURE: SHOULD IT BE

The United States has the strongest economy in the American manufactured goods are ubiquitous; Americ
American fast food chains have planted restaurants screens of every continent. The Internet itself is the world
are constantly exposed to the American w The worlds peoples, however, have shown some resi vandalized a
McDonalds franchise. They are not a influence of American culture, which may weaken tr
PROS CONS
American
culture
is
materialisticDemocracyhasandfunctioneindividualisinA
Americans
are
concernedwheprimarilyeelse inwithetheirworldown.Ameriper sonal wealth and well-being,theimportanceandgive
ofinsuffindivcidualentr to the good of society protectingasawhole.individual rights
American culture has a ThestrongUnitedcomponentStates offersviolencereal evidenced by

widespreadzensguntoowneimprship,ovetheir livesdeath. penalty, and the focus
stayoncrimeintheandsameviolencesocialinandAmer can entertainment. Europeanents
orcultures,grandparentsinparticular,.Withun more peaceful and humaneand. a system of higher educat
millions of students, many of America helps hard workers to
American society is drivAmericanby prizesconsumptionandrewardsnotjustc of goods and services,worldbut
alsoininnovationoffood..TheAmerica diet, fast food for theproducmosts pandrt,newis technologiesunhealthya
accounts
for
the
epidemedicineofobesityandpharmaceuticalsinAmerica.B
copying
America,
otherandcountrieslengthenedare livesjeopardizingtheworlt health of their citizens.
American
culture
is
ignorantTheUniteand
Statesarrogantis.
oneAmericanofth
have
little
understandingtolerantofothersocietiesparts. ofThethenatiowor but reflexively assume whotatcameAricanfrom
differentcultureiscountspe to everything else. Americansntreligions;areintentthroughoutuponimposiits their culture on
the worldcomed. immigrants from all ove
identity
is not based on ethn
America seeks to dominateTh theAmricanworld,commitmentbutdoesto noim recognize its responsibilitieseganwithto

the Marshallworld;AmericPlan, not done enough to protectafter theWorldenvironmentWarII.TheorUnitedto eliminate
disease and povertyinhelping othertodevelopcountrithes.eco
Sample Motions:
This House supports the restriction of foreign programs on This House would forbid further construction of golden arch
|33
Web Links:
Anti-Americanism Has Taken the World by Storm. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0%2C3604%2C64556 An

essay by author Salman Rushdie about reasons for anti-
Canadian Nationalism and Anti-Americanism. <http://www. A Web site that examines the possibility of the political identity
and American cultural influence.
Why Anti-Americanism? <http://www.empower.org/patriotis An essay by conservative writer Norman Podhoretz that off
Further Reading:
Barber, JihadBenjaminvs.. McWorld: How Globalism.Ballantine,andTribalism1996.Are
Hardt, Michael,EmpireandHarvardAntonio.UniveNegrsity. Press, 2001.
Huntington,TheSamuelClash Pof. CivilizationsTouchstone,andtheRemaking1998. of
dc
ANARCHISM
Anarchism is a political philosophy that support even a democracy, ultimately serves the interest and early
twentieth centuries but waned after t World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle in 2
PROS CONS
Anarchism is essentiallyAnarchismfightisformarkedhumanbyfrexaced Modern nations, even
thoseunralisticthatclargumentimtobe. Fardemof racies, stifle their
citizenschyallowswiththemoppressivetobedominand machinery imposed by
thethatelites,agovernmentthegoverninghaselimicl It is better to live
withoutandthesuchpoliconteprolsevent.Thisthe mean anarchists stand
forstongcompletetooppresschaos;thetheyweaksup. cooperation and
barterernmentbetweenallowsindividualsindustriesasprot able. Only without controlsandagriculturecanhumans
totrulyharvestlive urally and freely. All advances in art and sci
sible by governments that p resources together. Anarchi
dreamy approach to the seri ernance.
Anarchists
believe
in
Anarchismclasslesswouldsocietynot.
makModerne
racies
are
divided
intoclasslesssocialsocietyseshatisconotti
with
each
other.
Nationswomenhavebecreatedomedominantbarriersoverbe
people
that
cause
hatreduralandintelligence,misery.Anarchyskill,remoc these barriers by removingother theadvantageapparatus.
that ma economic subjection of others possible.
Nations repress their citizensDemocracybyindeedrmovinghas theirmany to govern themselves.

hMowever,stdemocraciesbesolved areby devoinf nothing of the sort.
Arelocalelectionsgovernmentseveryandtwo,by foho
PROS CONS
six years really fullytionsrepresentativeandreferendaof.individualThereis ions? The existence ofnatiospins

docentiorelys.and attempts manipulate the media show how governments are mis-leading the people, not being
controlled by them.
Anarchism has nothing Asto cando withclearlyviolentbeseengroupsfromandr individuals that hijackis anlargelychista
eventsfront for organitheir reasons. The vast majorityindividualsofanarchistsandgroups,are peaceaando protesters
who
would
nevercallsuseforviolencepacifism.
belieAnarchismtheir
a
viable
and
fair
way
mentsoflifesmackthatofallowsdangeroushumansutop and interact naturally.to subvert all the advances m
the last millennium.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that anarchy rules.
This
House would bring down the state.
Web Links:
The Anarchist FAQ Webpage. < http://www.geocities.com/Cap Presents an overview of anarchism in a Q & A format.
Movement for Anarchy. <http://www.anarchy-movement.com/> Contains information on political theories and topics as we
Further Reading:
Goldman,AnarchismEmma. andDover,Other1970Essays..
KropotkiAnarchism,Peter. and Anarchist .Communism:LeftBank ItsBooks,Basics1987and. Pr
Meltzer,Anarchism:Albert. Arguments.K. PrFor. Distribution,andAgainst. 1966.
dc
ANIMAL RIGHTS
In the nineteenth century reformers began urging t Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals farm
animals as well. In the 1970s Australian phil While most people agree that humans have an obliga rights
remains contentious.
PROS CONS
Human beings are accordedHumanrightsbeingsonaretheinfinitelybasisthatm they are able to think

otherandtolivingfeel paincreatures.Many. otherTheir mals are also able to tothinkform(tosocialsome sysextent)ms
withand ra certainly able to feelandpainto. feThelreforeemotionsnonhumanare deveani mals should also be
accordedotheranrimalghts., Tryinge.., to aprevefre healthy life. of unnecessary suffering or t
sonable, but beyond that, non deserve to be given rights.
|35
PROS CONS
Ever since the publicationOriginThatof ofwe Charlesare(incrediblyDarwins dis Speciesin1859 we have

knownmalsthatdoeshumannot meanbeingsthatarethe related by common ancestrythinkingto
allwouldotherleadanimalstoabsu. owe a duty of care to ourthe anrimalghtcousinstolife. of bact
unnecessary animal sufferin tures to which we are dista
We should err on the sideOnlyofhumancutionbeings ascribingwhoarem to human or nonhuman

creaturesrights.Rights.Ifweareplaceprivilehigh standards (such as the socialablitydutoiesthiank,d
moralspeak,resor enter into a social contrcapact)ble onf theenteringascriptiinton tho there is a danger that
theynot onlyare neitheranimals moralbutalsonor infants and mentally
handicappedTheydonotadultsrespectwillourberc sidered to have no rightstional. and entirely instinc
creatures have neither righ like robots than people. Al human

beings (e.g., unborn be given rights, but nonhum that
category.
Cruelty to animals is theUsingsignaimalsofan foruncivilizedourown it encourages

violencecompletelyandbarbarismnaturalin.societyInthe generally. A society thatvive,resparectshuntedanimalsby
predatoand base and violent instinctsand reisourcesamore. civilizedHumanbeingson
this struggle for existenc ashamed of exploiting their cies in
the evolutionary pr
That
a
small
number
ofAnimalextremistsrightsandactivistscriminalsareh
attached
themselves
toterroriststheanimalwhorightsdont
movemencarea
does
not
invalidate
thetionscauselike.WhytheshouldntAnimalLiberani
rights
supporters
and
activiststicsand
detaketh
threats;medicine?PeoTh morally obligated to takeof Animalscareof isthemselvesalsoan inextr way they can
until morextremistshumaneresearchtill availmethodsthema developed and implementedhowever,. which could
not ha
experiments and tests on an reasonable concern, but tal sign
of extremism and irrat
Sample Motions:
This House believes that animals have rights too. This House would respect animals rights.
This
House condemns the exploitation of animals.
Web Links:
Animal Rights FAQ. http://www.animal-rights.com/arpage. Includes about 100 FAQs, biographies of animal rights act
animal rights groups.
EthicsUpdates.Edu: The Moral Status of Animals. <http:/ Includes essays on the moral status of animals as well as rights.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. <http://www. Home page for radical animal rights organization includes n
Further Reading:
Singer,AnimalPeter.Liberation.Avon,1991.
Wise, Steven M.Rattling,andJanetheGoodallCage:.TowardPerseus,Legal2000Rights. for An
dc
ARTS SUBSIDIES, ABOLITION OF

Government support for the arts has a long history Beethoven, Mozart, and Shakespeare. Now, artists,
subsidies or grants from governmental and non-gov by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), whi
supporting artists who produced and exhibited wha rubric of art. Since then, the NEA has focused The cry to
abolish the NEA has subsided and Congr footing, the legitimacy of government subsidies fo
PROS CONS
The financial struggle Thetatcreativeartists processexperienceneedsis tion to weed the good artistsmakefromends
themet,badwhen.Onlywillthosethe who are truly dedicatedcreativewillmakeenergythe sacrifictocompletesneet to
succeed. Others willeralenterfundingotherforccupgrants,tionsfewwhe their creativity and talentstinuetheircan
workberewardedandmaintain.Arti could also find paid employmentliving.Artiststhatwillwillenablebeforcethe to
continue working onabandontheir art. If an artists w is worthy of financial support, that artist will fi patron from the
private sector who will support him her.
Government subsidies forTheartNEAsimplycosts takeeach moneyAmericanawayo from middle-class and

lowAlthough-incomesompeopleNEA mtoneysubsidizisus a self-indulgent hobby arefor traditionallytherich.The
supportedkindofartb the majority of Americansincomes,are interestedmuchofthe in,NEA populbudge movies and
music,
for
workexample,with
isprogramsnotsubslidizedkeart.
Je
as
a
rock
band
should
ncommunityreceivetheatgovernment.Projectsfunds
l
make
ticket
prices
lowedr,enneitherandgiveshouldpeopleoperasacrossor
t
lets.
Let
the
rich
who
tributewantto
toattendmakingthesetheirkindscommuof formances pay full price; why should taxpayers unde write bargain prices
for entertainment for the weal
Subsidies
could
functionArtsasina
Americawayto
arerewardunifyinartist
who
are
creating
what
differentthegovernmentbackgroundsprefers.canIn
comth
way,
subsidies
could
leadan
tosharegovexperienrnmentcensorshipandtal art to silence criticsis. Communistcentraltodictatorshipswhoweare asub
|37
PROS CONS
dized
patriotic
art
buteingssquelched.Supportingindependentartistsa
Having
artists
rely
onvaluesthegovernmentandtransmittingfortheirour
bread
risks
their
artisticgenerationsintegrity;.In
additihowcouldn, f social critics and advocatepatrioticfor becausechnge inart thebuildsy when it is the system
thatditionis.puttingThegrantfoodproncess,the
The
strings
attached
toensuresbsidiesthe
indmakependencethempotenof weapons against democracydanger. of censorship.
Historically, patrons Traditiondidnotsuppisortntheunknownside ofan unproven talent.

Artistsartsgained.SincepatronagetheRenaissanceonly proving their worth. Inbeenthe
supportedcurrentsystembypopes,ofsubk new, unproven, and oftenIn oursubstandademocracy,dartiststhis
burdrec grants. Artists who arensualreadythatsuccessfulthenext Mozartgenera not need the grants tohismeetor
hertheirartistlivingc visioexpens Mozart and Beethoven, if they were living today, w find many opportunities in
the private sector and not need to rely on government subsidies.
Subsidies usually supportThe Mapplethorpeartistswho handve Serrancreate that most people

objectdentsto..RobThertvastMapplethorpemajorityofw his homoerotic photographssubidiesand Andresisart
Serranothatmostwit his photograph of a crucifixNEAhas submmadergedmany inchangeshisow urine are
specific
examplesgrantsofsinceartisthosewhoincidenttaxpaye
supported.
Artists
shouldmembershaveoftheCongressfreedomwhoto calcr any type of art they want,NEAoverbut
thisaxpayerissuemoneyvotedshof not be used to fund projectsinJulythatof 2002are.indecentCongress. Ifm
funds
are
used,
then
thedcencyAmericanand
preospleectcannotbeusedc
they
have
involuntarilyals.upportedOverall,thethecreaartwiorkn ofs verse and vile works. make most Americans proud.
Sample Motions:
This House would tell Congress to stop funding the NEAs This House believes that subsidizing artists is detriment This House
would increase subsidies for artists.
This
House believes that stopping subsidies would harm ar
Web Links:
Libertarian Party Position on Subsidies. <http://www.lp Libertarian Party argues against government funding of th
National Endowment for the Arts. <http://arts.endow.gov Site maintained by the agency in charge of distributing f works and
about the benefits of art in America.
NPRs Talk of the Nation Archive. <http://www.npr.org/r Audio recordingTalkof aofdebateoffthersNationmultipleNPRs

arguments on both
Further Reading:
Bolton, RichaCulturd,e Wars:ed. Documents fromNewthePress,Recent1992Controver. Netzer,
Dick,TheandSubsidizDickMiedtzerMuse:. Public Ashgate,Support for1993the. Zeigler, JosephArts Wesley,inCrisis:et alThe.
National.A EndowmentCappella Boforks,the
dc
ASSASSINATION OF A DICTATOR
Often considered in the context of Adolph Hitler a as Saddam Hussein in Iraq and Slobodan Milosovic
genocide.
PROS CONS
Deaths and much sufferingMurdercouldcan beneverpreventedbejustifiedone man is killed. The

greaterofexecutionergooddemandswithoutasinglethe evb act, especially if it wouldsinkingavertto the
levelimmediateoftheand tain danger of much worsementevilfounded. upon such an ar moral legitimacy,
undermining
making
its failure likely.
Dictatorial systems areKillinghighly thepersonal,individualsoremovingwilla driving force behind suchare

partregimeof awillwiderresultruling ite lapse, allowing a more sharingpopular theand
sameliberalautocraticgovernme to replace it.
the assassinated leaders pla to use the assassination
as t
sion.
Assassination of a dictatorAssassinationmaybetheis onlylikelywaytoto be change in a country whereing
popularepressivefeelingpolicearoundstat prevents any possibilitynalofenemiinternalsor oppositioninternalminor.Co
populaces need a signalorinwrorderngly,toforfindthetheactcourage.An campaign for change. attempt is even more
likely
result.
Dictators
are
a threatSometimestointernationaldictatorshippeace,is
notpre
to their
Theyespeciallytendtoforattackthoseotheroutsidecoun
tries
to
attentiponwersfromhavetheiroftenunpopsupportedlaractio
home,
assassinationsuchispowersjustifiedgeopoliticasameansl
intof
venting
a
mightcraticrapidlyregimebecwouldmeregionalnot.Some global. cessfully held together count
have
own
war
people.
divert
thus
that
descended into civil war
If scruples over the moralityByassumingof ourthe poweractionsto prevetak us from pursuing a

greanterapparentlygood,effectivelygoodcause,opposiwe evil will never be possibleitself..
DictatorsManyterrorists,themselvescrim most ethical standardsandand haveinternclationalimedsimilarconventionlegi
thereby effectively placingtionsthemselves.Onlyif wbeyondrespectthe hp tection of the law. our promotion of these
values
The alternatives to assassiAlternativeson wosuldch alls construcleavea tator in power for

manynomicyearssanctions.Inthataretimepreferablnoton
will
many
more
people
suffresulttounderin
aeventualrepressiveliberalsyst but also the policies slowlypursued. Theby anexamplesout-of-oftouchEaste
unrepresentative regimeYugoslaviaarelikelyin to2000do showseriousthatha
|39
PROS CONS
to the whole nation andlessits cases,economy,changemakingcaneventcom rebuilding much more cosftlyen

quicklyinboth andhumanwithoutandecog nomic terms.
Sample Motions:
This House
This House
This
House
This
House
would
would
believes
believes
assassinate a dictator.
assassinate. . . (supply name of curre
murder isnt always wrong.
violence is sometimes the answ
that
that
Further Reading:
Boesche,TheRoriesbert.of Tyranny:PennsylvaniFromPlatoStateto ArendtUniversity. Pre
Brooker,Non-PaulDemocratic. Regimes: StTheory,.MartinsGovernmentPress, &2000Politi.
Lee,
StephenEuropean. DictatRorships,utledge,191820001945..
dc
ASSISTED SUICIDE
Assisted suicide is currently being discussed a that he or she wishes to end his or her life, i suicide was
illegal in all US states, but in th Jack Kevorkian, have campaigned for a change in and should be able to
die with dignity. In 1997 conservative attorney general John Ashcroft orde terminally ill die. In April 2002 a
district ju first country to legalize euthanasia and physici
PROS CONS
Every human being has aThererightistonolife,comparisonperhapsbetwthe basic and fundamental oftherall

rightsourrights.When. However,youchoo every right comes a choicemay.changeTherightyour tomindspeechata
dol remove the option to remaintodie,silent;youhavethenorightsuch tose brings with it the rightin
tosmeonesabstain.deathIntheis sametopa right to choose to die ofis allimplicitchoicesin they rightmight t
therefore immoral.
Those in the late stages of a terminal disease hav rific future: the gradualIt isdeclinealwaysofwrongthe
body,togivethe of organs, and the needcareforisartificialimmensely lifeflxiblesuppo some cases, the
illnesspreservewillslowlyqualitydestroyoflifetheiras the essence of themselvespatients.Evenneedwhenneverthis
beis innotp case, the huge amounts Societysfmedicationrole requiredistohelpto t trol pain will often leavethey
canthem. Counseling,adeliriouswhicha pable state. Faced withtermsthis,with theirissurelycondition,moreh that
these individuals be allowed to choose the m
PROS CONS
of
their own end and die with dignity.
Society recognizes that suicide is unfortunate bu acceptable in some circumThostanceswho.commitThose

suicidewhoend arethei own lives are not seenattemptasevil.toThetakeillegalitytheirownoflia suicide is therefore
particularlyHowever,if crusomeloneforisthosethreatw disabled by disease andhersarelf,unableyourtomoraldie
withoutdutyis at tance. would not, for example, simpl
on a ledge and threatening to is his choice; and you would suicide
by pushing him. In th try to help a person with a him to die.
Suicide is a lonely, desperate act, carried out in and often is a cry forDemandinghelp.Thethatimpactfamilyon
themmbersfami can be catastrophic. Bya dlecisgalionzingcanassistedbean unbearasuicide process can be
broughtresentoutintoalovedthe onpesn. decisionInome cases, families might
emotionallyhavebeenunawarescarredofortheestrantru feelings of their lovedbeingone.inBeingany
wayforcedinvolvedtoconfrwit the issue of a family cidemembersalso illnessntroducesmay a donewgread good,
perhaps even allowingillmaythebefamilypressuredtopersuadeintondt patient not to end hiswholifeare.
Inototherpreparedcases,to itsuppormak family part of the processness.. EvenThey thecan
mostunderstandwellreguth reasons behind a patienotswaydecisiontoensurewithouttha thisfeelingdi guilt and
recrimination, and the terminally ill pat can speak openly to them about her feelings before death.
At the moment, doctors are often put into an imposs ble position. A good doctAoctorswill rfolerm
mustcloseremainbonds clw
patients
and will
wantoftomedicalgivethemethicsthe isbestto qualidono
of life
possible.
However,not bewheninvolvedapatientin deliberatehaslost
losing his ability to Withoutlivewiththisdignityprinciple,andexpresthem strong desire to die, ldosectorsa
greatarelegdeallyofunabletrust;toa To say that modern mediacceptableinecantotallypartoferadicatedoctorspa is a
tragic oversimplificationthedangerof ofsufferinginvoluntary.Whileeutp cal pain may be
alleviated,Legalizingtheemotassistedonal painsuicideof aa and lingering death, ofburdthen lonssdoctorsfthe.
abilityThedailyto meaningful life, can beservehorrificlife.canAdoctorsbedifficultduty ei address his or her
patientsalsocarrysuffering,theimmensebeit moralphysi emotional. As a
result,ingdoctwhorscanareandalreadycannothelpingdie,a patients to diealthoughbility isof
notactuallylegal,killingassistedpa cide does happen. It wouldiswhybethefarvastbettermajoritytorecogniofme this and
bring the processthelegalizatiintotheopen,of assistedwhereit be regulated. True abusespatientof
thegoesdoctoragainst-patientallheyre tionship and incidents of involuntary euthanasia wou then be far easier to limit.
|41
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize assisted suicide. This House would die with dignity.
Web Links:
Doctor-Assisted Suicide: A Guide to Websites and the Li Links to general information and sites, pro and con, on p
Euthanasia.Com. <http://www.euthanasia.com/>
Provides
medical and legal information from those opposed
FinalExit.Org. <http://www.finalexit.org/>
General site containing information on legislation, euth assisted suicide.
The Hemlock Society. <http://www.hemlock.org/> Right-to-die group provides information on organization s
Further Reading:
Dworkin,
Gerald, REuthanasia.G.Fry, and SisselaPhysicianCambridgeBok-Assist.UniversitydSuiciP
Humphrey,FinalDerekExit:. The Practicalities ofDTP,Self1997-Deliveranc.
Shavelson,AChosenLony.Death: The Dyi.UniversitygConfrontof AssistedCaliforniaSuiciPr
dc
BIODIVERSITY AND ENDANGERED S

Biodiversity refers to the variety of bacteri activities of each species. Scientists believe become
concerned about the decline in the number in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (C species
are disappearing at an alarming rate an decades. Environmentalists are particularly conc poor population
may threaten the existence of o
PROS CONS
The species Homo sapiensTheisideaunprecedentedthatextinctionsanduniqw among all life on Earthter.
Humanis sentienceexaggerationand. intFos ligence far surpass
thoseextinctionsofotherhavcreaturesoccurred.Them have allowed human beingshistorypopulateoflife theon
Earth, oc struct civilizations andthe builddie-outindustry,ofthe dinosaaffur environment in a way
thatdiversity,nootherit specieshasreboundedcan.T great power comes withlastinggreat
responsibharm.Extilincty,ionsand should avoid abusing ourevolutionaryplanet,lestprocesswecause. ir rable
damagedamage like the extinction of speci and the consequent reduction in biodiversity cau by
deforestation, over-fishing, hunting, and the trade in animal products and exotic animals them selves.
Protecting endangered Nospecieciesis onan Earthextensionwouldofp existing system of

ethicsspecies.Justaboveas modernitsown,civilisow
PROS CONS
protects its weaker andFurthermore,lessable members,sincethesoveryhumanb ity should safeguard

theaswelfareoperatedof byother, Darwinianless-priv species. Animals are sentientthefittestcreatures.Life whformsse
welfarwill should protect (even iftheytheyadaptmay ntot newhavechallengesthesame.f rights that we accordtionto
humantosavebeings)theweaker. speci
our pace, they deserve to die others.
The most successful pharmaceuticalsModernscience havehas advancedoftenusedt nature as a starting
pointration.Antibioticsfromnaturewereis nofirstlongd ered through the study cinesoffungi,derivedand frommany
nantitural-cancpr drugs are derived from ithey. barkInanyof case,Amazonthetreesupcomin.Eve time a species
becomes
ingextinct,will
allowscientistshumankindforeverto
ril
opportunity
to
make
a
nrewsortingdiscoveryto.medicines.
As
occupants
of
this
planet,Evenif
wethismustrespecthave
respectwasjustf
other
life
forms,
especiallyatsignificantsincelifecoston.EarthBiodivema the only life in the universespendtaxpayers.Wecan
shmowneythisthatresc by making every efforthealthtopreventcare andthe socialextinctionservico existing species,
therebyfor preserviustoconcentrategbiodiversityonothe.
has not yet sorted out its ow
Maintaining biodiversityEnvironmentalisglobalprotectionproblem and demands a global
solutiondiversity.Thedevelopedarevery worldmuch asholuxl apply pressure on the
developing(FirstWorld)world.Manyto adoptofthesemor environmentally friendlyfinancpoliciesalmeans. of developing
ing them would stunt economi franchise their citizens. It nations to
criticize the lack tion in the developing world, World got to its
current posi Revolution that paid no heed and other such
concerns.
Sample Motions:
This
House believes in biodiversity.
This
House fears the way of the dodo.
Web Links:
Bagheera. <http://www.bagheera.com/inthewild/vanishing.ht Presents information on approximately 30 endangered animals

extinction.
The Born Free Foundation. <http://www.bornfree.org.uk/> Site dedicated to the conservation of rare species in their
EELink.Net: Endangered Species. <http://eelink.net/EndSpp Offers information on endangered and extinct species, laws
supporting biodiversity.
The Natural History Museum, London: Biodiversity and Worl Contains map of global biodiversity as well as information
San Diego Zoo: Endangered Species Report. <http://www.san Offers information on what scientists are doing to understa
Tom Lovejoys Reith Lecture on Biodiversity. <http://news
|43
Lecture
supporting ecosystem management to sustain biodiv
The Virtual Library of Ecology & Biodiversity. <http:// Provides links to hundreds of sites on ecology and biodiv
World Conservation Monitoring Centre: Biodiversity. <ht Presents information on the status, trends, and distribut of
biodiversity.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre: CITES. <http://ww A clearinghouse for data and resources on biodiversity.
Further Reading:
Dobson, CoAndrewservation. Hand.W BiodiversityFreeman,1998..
Eldredge,LifeNilesinthe. Balance: Humanity.Princetoand UniversitytheBiodivePrsityess,
Jeffries,BiodiversityMike. Routledge,andConservation1997..
dc
CALENDAR REFORM
This is an interesting proposition, if one that all failed in the face of tradition, convenienc
TheWorld Calendarisbased on a 52-week, 364-day year, the week and is called Year-End Day.
In leap and October all have 31 days; the other months
TheInternationaldividesFixed Calendartheyear into 13 months outside the months, and a Leap

Day after June would come between June and July, is called So
ThePerpetualhasCalendarfourthree-month quarters, each extra Year-End Day and Leap-Year

Day are inser
PROS CONS
The Gregorian calendarUnderhas 12allmonthsftheofproposdiffedrenc lengths (with no month wouldbeing
havone-twelfthobechangedofthe any uneven half- and quartervanc-years,disturbedandno. standardTheY2K
day of the year or of problemanymonthat. Tthise endmakesof finan1999 planning in particular
readjustingdifficult, andthe pubcalendaricholidca irregular. Some
companiesadministrativeusetheInternatandfionalnanciaF Calendar to pay their
ducingemployees;anewotherscalendaworkisonso basis of 13 months andideagiveunthinkablethelastmonths.
pay Christmas bonus.
The
Gregorian
calendar
Anyis
fixedchoiceonofthea
starting
dap
1
C.E.,
which
has
significancetrary,andonlyalthfoughrChristiantheGre
the
supposed
year
of
Chriginstsin
birthChristian.Astandardhistory,ca for all religions and cnountriesw.Astandardmakes muchcalendamore fos
fixed on a starting pointutterlyinhistoryinappropriate:withsignificDiff all people. holidays, and their calenda
their
traditions.
History and the increasingReformglobalizationisnotremotelyof inevmode

PROS CONS
society have shown us thatofsupportstandardizationforchageis otherinevit Just as the metric

systemgroupis.increasinglyIfaccountingcommonpladepartm calendar reform is surendarstocomedifferent. from
those u they can; calendar years, tax are frequently different anyw
The
calendar
has
been
successfullyCalendarreformreformedhasalsoin
thefailp
the
Gregorian
calendarFrenchwasdevisedrevolutionariesonlyin1582introd(by
Pope
Gregory
XIII).
There1793wouldand
abandonedbecost itin inreform180 ing again, but this wouldUnionbe fiveoffset-day inweeksthe (withoutlongter
savings resulting from weresimplificationtemporarily. implemented.
Sample Motions:
This House would reform the calendar.
This
House believes that the Gregorian calendar makes no se
Web Links:
Calendars. <http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html> Offers information on the history and principles behind var
Calendar Reform. <http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/calend Offers articles on historical calendar reforms as well as c
The Calendar Zone. <http://www.calendarzone.com>
Provides
links to information on calendar reform and a wide
Further Reading:
Travis, TimothyTheFifth.4000,Milenium,. AsterSixRevolooshunairyEspritPress, 1994Ideas.
dct
CAMPAIGN FINANCE REFORM

Political campaigns have changed in nature in the ungentlemanly; today, cross-country trips and e need for
ever-larger sums of money has created a c tremendous influence. Recognizing the natural link donations to
candidates during the 1970s. The hug parties, rather than to the candidates directlya supported a
candidates position, but not the can money and by the need to raise it, and pushed for free to use their money
to advance their politica
PROS CONS
With contributions to aDonorscandidatgive, moneydonorstoeffectiveacandid buy influence (or at leastwith
access,thecandidateswhichmayposibetionhe same thing), so that theireffect,interestsaform areof
sprepreseechanted when laws are made. TheFiresultstAmendmeisinequality:. The wealthy have more influence
than the poor.
|45
PROS CONS
More often than not, televCandisiondates campaignscannotconveyaresupt cial and distorted.

Advertisementspopulacewithoutshouldexpensiveberepl
by
publicly
financed
forumstheelectronicthatwouldandallowprintcandme dates to discuss politicaltheirissuesabilityin toa
substantivcommunicat
The
cost
of
running
politicalAsnoimitcampaignsisplacedhas
gotteonh
high
that
ordinary
citizenswealthycannotcandidatesrunfortoffinace dates need to be personallyfinancewealthyreform
orwillwellputconnepoor to sources of funds. Financeoncontributions,reformwouldat aleveldisa playing field.
The cost of political campaExperigenscehashasforcedshown legislthat spend much of their timean

raisingadvantagemoneyin elections,forheir r tion campaigns. Limitingknowncampaign.Financexprensesform
wilould eliminate this distractioners.to overcome that advant
Large contributions areLegislatorsmadebylargepass organizatilawsthat corporations, unions,

effectstradeassociationsorganizationsandthe.T The size of these contributifreetonssupportmeans
candidatesthatlegis pay more attention to theinterestsorganizations. and less tion to individual voters.
Although Congress passedAnylawsretrictionslmitig campaignaredoomedc tributions almost 30 yearsand

organizationso, the emergencewill neveof ical action committeesexpressandsoftthemselvesmoney
(givenpolitica parties, rather than candidbeplacteds)onhascontributions,madetheori restrictions useless.
fullyReformdisclosedneedtototheclosepubl holes.
Sample Motions:
This House would make all political campaigns publicly fi This House would ban paid political advertising on televi
Web Links:
The Cato Institute: Money and Politics. <http://www.cat Members of the institute offer arguments on why campaign
Hoover Institution, Public Policy Inquiry: Campaign Fi The Hoover Institution at Stanford University offers hist
Public Campaign: Clean Money, Clean Elections. <http:/ Web site of an advocacy group that supports sweeping refo
Further Reading:
Corrado,
Anthony,Campaign etFinanceal.. Reform:BrookingsA SourcebookInstitution, 1997.
Donnelly, MoneyDavid,andet Poal.itics: Financing.BeaconOurPress,Elections1999. Demo
Smith, BradlUnfreey Speech:A. The Folly.PrincetonofCampaignUniversityFinance PrReforss
dc
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
Before Ryan left office in early 2003, he pardoned to life in prison without parole. In a speech just capriciousand, therefore, immoral.
PROS CONS
The principle of capitalExecutionpunishmentis, inissimplestthatcertaiter crimes deserve nothing
Itlessdevaluesthandeaththe respectasajust,we prl tionate, and effective canresponsewesay. Thethatprobkillingems
asisociwr with the death penaltycriminals?areconcernedMore withimportantitsimplis mentation rather than ingits
innocentprinciplepeople.Murderers.Atleastfor their rights as humansexecutedthemomeintthetheyUS
takeintheawaytwen the rights of another humantion.of Byan winnocentelding suchpersona powca erful punishment
as the response to murder, society affirming the value that is placed on the right to l the innocent person. Many more
innocent people have been killed by released, paroled, or escaped murder than innocent people executed.
Capital punishment is 100%Highereffectiveexecutionas ratesdeterrentcana the criminal being executed;rime

ratesthat.killerCaliforniacannotaveracom any more crimes. As a allydeterrentfrom 1952toothers,to1967itanddepenha
on how often the deathofpenaltytheperiodisappliedfrom.1968In untiltheU where less than 1% of
murderersnoexecutionsare.executed,InNewYork,itisf ficult to assess the
truemonthseffectimmediatelyofdeterrencefollowing.But study (Stephen K. Layson,ders
UniversityincreasebyofanNorthaverageCaroo-lina) showed that one execution deterred 18 murders
If and when discriminationImplementationoccurs,itofshouldthedeathbecop rected. Consistent applicationAmerica,

canof sufferthedeathfrompenaltsoci against murderers of allusedracesasa wouldweaponabolagainstshthea cei that it
can be a racistthetoolUS. nearlyMakethe90%deathofthosepenaltyex datory in all capital caseskilling. whites, despite
the f
more
than 50% of all murder v
Opponents of the deathCapitalpenaltypunishmenpreferto costsignoremoreth fact that they themselvesStudiesare

inresponsibletheUSshowforthatits c costs by filing a neverendingtoexecution,successiostn ofbetweappealsn$.1 ons
in many countries Aarecaseovercrowdedresulting andin lifeundrimp-funded. This problem is$500,000madeworse. by
life sentence or delayed death sentences for murderers. Why shoul the taxpayer bear the cost of supporting a
murderer an entire lifetime?
Different countries andDefendantssocieties whocan arehavementallydifferent tudes toward the

justifiabilityanswerYesof toexecutingquestionsmentalin incompetent or
teenagedThismurdererscanlead.Iftosocietyfalse confesoppos such executions, then retardedimplementationpeople
ofhavethebeendeathexe
|47
PROS CONS
penalty in these cases1976is.a problem. For opponent seize on such cases is to cloud the issue; this i
argument against the principle.
Some criminals are beyondBy exrehabcutilitatngcriminalson.Perhapsyou ital punishment should itybe
reservedofrehabilitationforserial. Youkill rorists, murderers of policemen,repentof theirandsocrime,on. serv
and emerge as a reformed an ety.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the death penalty.
This
House would take an eye for an eye, a tooth for a to
Web Links:
Amnesty International and the Death Penalty. <http://ww Presents facts and figures on the death penalty as well a
Derechos Human Rights: Death Penalty Links. <http://www Links to hundreds of sites on all aspects of the death pe
Issues and Controversies: The Death Penalty. <http://ww Provides a good overview of the issue in the US to 1997.
Pro-Death Penalty.Com. <http://www.prodeathpenalty.com> Offers information from a pro-death penalty point of view
Further Reading:
Costanzo,JustMarkRevenge:. Costs andStConsequences.MartinsPress,ofthe1997Death. Hanks, AgainstGarder.the Death
Penalty: Christian.HeraldandSecularPress, A1 Pojman, Louis, Theand DeathJeffreyPenalty:Reiman.Rowman.For and
Littlefield,Against 1998
dc
CELL PHONES, BANNING OF USE I

The use of cell phones while driving has been bl countries are seriously considering prohibiting ban
seems logical to some, others contend that
PROS CONS
Using a cell phone whileClearly,drivingusingis averycelldangerophone Physically holding a handsetousin
somereovescircumstances,onehandfr the controls, making accideousntsmanymoresituations,likely,whilefor ing
is even worse, as atit a alsostandstillrequiresin usersgridlockto attention from the roadfic. Researchlights,
orshowswhilethatdrivin speaking on a cell phonevisibilityhavemuch.Othersloweractionsreactii in braking tests
than tractingnonusers;eating,suchdriverschanginghavet tion times that are
worsearguingevenwiththanpassengersthereactionabo of drunk drivers. children squabbling, etc. W
law
that vic timizes
cell ph
PROS CONS
tions,
while ignoring many ot
Research shows very littleHands-differencefreecell phonbetweensetus,ingw handheld and a handsfreeautomatedcell dialing,phone,inaretermsthe ofan impaired concentrationtoandcommunicateslowerreactionfreely
timeswithout braking tests. For somethereasoncontrolsthe orbraintheirtreatseyes aoft phone conversation
differentlyisnodiffromerencetalkingbetweento talkipas ger, perhaps because thefreepassengercellphoneis andlso
holdingawareofa sible road hazards in asengerwaythenxtelephtoyou;ne incallerfact,ca be and, accordingly,
stopsasyoutalkingmaybewhentemptthed drivertoturn to concentrate. In any addrcase,ss voicethepassengerctivated. techno is often unreliable, thus frustrating drivers, who concentration as a result. Banning one
kind of cel phone while allowing the use of another kind would b inconsistent. In addition, hands-free cell phones c
just as many accidents.
Existing laws are inadequate;Society drivinghasno needwithoutfor dueaspec and attention is a limitedphone
chargeuse;almostthat caneverybe countvery ficult to prove. In anyingcase,withouteveryduetimecare anddriveratte
moving
vehicle
uses
a
cellisdriviphone,g
dangerouslypotentiallybecausdan
ous
situation
is
created.cellThisphone,justifithes lawsspecifictopro being introduced. books. The police should enf
more consistently. Such enfor with energetic advertising ca a

range of potentially danger
New laws would be enforceableBanning bcecausellphonebillinguse byrecordri show when a phone has abelen
ofteninuseit. willTechnologicaljustbe a improvements in photographydriversmayalso.Thisallowis especialltheautomatic detection of driverswhere breakingaccused motoristslawsagainstcould phone use at the wheel.ingIn
alonganycase,tothejustradiobecauseortal is not completely
enforceablecase,thedoeswidespreadnotmeaninthatroduci should be scrapped. many countries and an increas
crime have led to the redeplo who would be needed to enforc

Using a cell phone in theUsingcarcellis unnecessaryphonesontheeveroadyo coped without them 10
yearsforexago,mple,andby littleallowingelsedelaab life has changed radicallyofficenoughrathertothanmakedrivethem
recklindi pensable, so no real lossn timeofpersonal.Driverslibertynowoftenoccurus the banning of cell
phoneaccidentsusewhiletothedrivingemer.encyDrives always have the choice tof
otherspullingdrivingoverandangerouslycalling a parked vehicle. The banloads,willetcalso. protect drivers pressure
from bosses who call them while on the roa requiring their employees to risk their lives for th pany.
The states authority toThecontrolstate hasthe noactionsright ofto driint already accepted, for example,personal
throughlibertiespeed.Cellimitsphon rules against drunk driviving. Dangerousdoes,and drivingsimply bannmee
|49
PROS CONS
the classic liberal testwhileby endangeringdrivingwillnotpenalizejust vidual but others,

includingoutremovingdrivers,the pdassngengersrous pedestrians thus society has a right to intervene tect the
innocent. A new law signals social unac ability and will send a message to drivers; the Ne ban has already
been highly effective.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban drivers from using mobile phones. This House would do more to promote road safety.
This
House would tame technology.
Web Links:
Cell Phones Bans May Not Make Roads Safer. <http://my.w Article on WebMDHealth, discussing how hands-free devi
even more problems.
Driving with Cell Phones: What Have Highway Safety Re BentsF_doc.pdf>
Summarizes findings of highway safety experts on the use
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. <http://www.hwy Contains information on all aspects of highway safety, in
dc
CENSORSHIP OF THE ARTS

While all modern democracies value free expressi a product of its experience and culture. The Un
restrictions on expression. Nevertheless, conser as Robert Mapplethorpes sadomasochistic and hom
disturbed by studies that show a correlation be
PROS CONS
An individuals rights Civilend whenrightsheyshouldimpingenot onbe t safety and rights of othersaclear.
Byandenactipresengt ldawsngerag incitement to racial hatredthermore,and similaraslong hateasnospeeill
acknowledge that freedomthe ofcreativeexpressionprocess,shouldthehap limits. Art should be
subjectdecidingtowhethersameto restricviewth any other form of expressionments.aboutBymakingchild
anpornograpexcept for art, we would be creatingirrelevant legalbecauseloopchiolde pofo tent such as hate
speech, which could seek protec on the grounds that it was a form of art.
Certain
types
of
conteAnt
ag(e-.ratedg.,sexualsystemcontent)isave
unsuitable
for
childrenintodespiteaccounttheirdifferartisticnglevme should be able to developCensorasystemhipalsoof
censorship,deprivespa on age, that protects ourtheirchildren. as they see
vote,
bear arms, and die fo
PROS CONS
they be deprived of the abili their children see? Finally, people are
not forced to view look at something they think
Censorship may actuallyCensorshiphelpartists.farThemoregenerallikelypu is far more likely to ernmensupport

labelserotic art asif unsuitaknow children wont see it! eral public is not going to w
Many forms of modern artContentpush thatthe weboundarconsideres ofacce what is acceptable or beenaim
forregardedthelowestastaboolevel50
ofyeat
This
type
of
content
istroversialunacceptablpie,ceandof
governmenartisou should have the right toetybanwillit.reject it.
Excessive sex and violenceThe correlationinthemediabetweenleadtowatchsim behavior in viewers.

Thmittingsaloneviolentshould crimesjustifyiscensst ship.
studies are not exhaustive, a cial
interest groups. We must tion is different from causat tation is that people with vi likely to be
connoisseurs of
believe that some people are should all of society be pena ways
of reducing the crime ra civil liberties, than censors
Even if some individualsCensorshipmanagetoiscircumventultimatelycensornot ship laws, government

onhasthsentInternet,animportantforexample!message about what society considmerersly
acceptablesendsitunderground.Therole ofa state in setting socialprohibitedstandars artworkshould.notIt beis undefar
mated, and censorship (bepeopleit throughcanjudgebansfororthemselvminimum age requirements) is an important
tool in this proc
Sample Motions:
This House supports censorship of the arts. This House believes that nude art is lewd art.
This House fears that artistic license is a license to kill This House believes that you are what you see.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org> Offers information on laws, court cases, and challenges to
PBS: Culture Shock. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock A companion site to a PBS series on art, cultural values, a
University of Pennsylvania: Banned Books Online. <http:// On-line exhibit of books that have been the objects of cens
Further Reading:
Dubin, ArrestingStephen. Images: Impoli.Routledge,icArt 1994and.Uncivil Actions
dc
|51
CHEMICAL CASTRATION
Many people consider sexual abuse one of the wo punished by chemical castration in addition to sex
drive. During the late 1990s several US sta kinds of paroled sex offenders.
PROS CONS
Because sexual abuse isOura justicehorrficsystemcrime, hasdamaginreje victim both physicallyusingand
psychologically,physicalpainor chemdisf castration is a suitablefavorpunishmentofamore.Inenlightenedmanyinst
counseling cannot cure offthenderpsychological.Whatwouldandhappenhys urges behind these crimesfound.
Chemicaltobeinnocent?castrationImpri
vents
repeat
offenses
(onepreventof
recidivismthemainpurposeswouldbeo punishment) and is a strong deterrent for prospec offenders.
Chemical castration willEvenhelpif offenderschemical castratiobyfreeing from the urges that causeit
isthemstillto repeatfar crudetheir cran Many sexual criminals haveprolongedsaid thatpsychotherapytheywould.
Alli be free of these urgesmenbut placescannot thecontrollegalthemphira much like heroin
addictsandcannotmaygivecontrolthe appearancetheirs.A ical cure for these urges will free the offender.
Chemical castration willTherealsowouldstop bethenowidesprsuchbenead matization of and

violencesexoffendersagainst sexare offendersnotmotiv many cases, they are requiredations.
toChemicalregistercastrationwiththe who may post their nametys.andAlso,addressesviolenceon Webagainssit
or notify their neighborsut. ofSomeprison,exoffendersismotivatedwho served their
sentencesoriginalhavebeencrime,drivennotoutto ofprevt homes. Sex offenders arecal
alsocastrationsubjectistoanviolenceunprov other prison inmates. Ifdeserveschemicalno castrationplacein
weremode duced, the public would no longer see such offend as a threat, and they would be allowed to get on
their lives. Chemical castration removes both the stigmatization and personal suffering of sex offe
Sample Motions:
This House would cure sex offenders by physical means. This House would use cure rather than prevention in deali This House
would chemically castrate pedophiles.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) Condemns Governo www.aclu.org/news/n091796b.html>
ACLU press release presenting arguments opposing chemical
Is Chemical Castration an Appropriate Punishment for Ma Information and links to articles in support of chemical
Further Reading:
Pallone,RehabilitatingNathanel. CrimiTransaction,alSexual 1990Psychopaths..
Prentky,
Robert, andForensicAnne WolbertManagementBurgessPlenum,ofSexual.1999. Offenders.
dc
CHILD OFFENDERS, STRICTER PUNI

Most US states have separate justice codes and ju been rehabilitation rather than punishment; court During
the 1980s and early 1990s, the US experien dropped by the mid-1990s, a series of high-profile In response
nearly every state passed laws making
PROS CONS
The primary purpose of Childajusticecrimesystemisdifferentisthe prevfro tion of crime and the
legalprotectionsystemsof the offendersinnocent. aI to achieve these
purposesfunctioninghatchildrenasmoralshouldagentsnot. entitled to lenient punishmhandlenthem.Theis
purpthroughses rehabiofpun ishment are proportionalishmrenttribution,. deterrence, a prevention of crime.
Rehabilitation should at best secondary aim.
The
just
desserts
theorySubjectiveofpunishmentculpabilityarguesshouldtha
the
retribution
societypunishmenttakesagainstashean
harmoffenderprincis
be
proportional
to
theisharmpunishedhas
morecausedseverthelyvictitha For example, a person ter,who killseven thoughismore bothculpablecauseth a person
who robs or huartse.notBecapableusetheofharmmakingchildrthe cause is the same as thatasadultscaused. Itby
isadultsthe comminabittilit a similar offense, childrenjudgmentsshouldthatnotmakesreceivethem lesspe treatment.
The assumptiworthynthatof childrenlighter punishmentarenotas. morally culpable as adults is false.
Treating children moreThelenideterrencentlythantheoryadultsassumesundr mines the deterrent

valuemittedofaspunishmentaresult.ofA rational1996 survey in Virginia, for10-example,year-old
showedchildrenthatare41%capao youths have at variousculations,timeseitherthenbeenthe inprospectagang
associated with gang activitiesinreform. schoolOfthese,should69% besaidn joined because
friendsspwendingreinvolvedthetimeand in60%jailjoined.I for excitement. This theirclearliberty,shows thatand
ifyoungtheyaduwe do not take crime seriouslywant thbecauseirlibertythey thinkcurtailedthe. tice system will treat
mostthem crimeslenientlyare. committed by p
rational
decisions.
The best way to preventThiscrimeis ain argumenttheshort thatrun iswou lock up the offenders.peopleThis
stforpslifthembecausefromimmedithat-ately harming society. themInthefromlongharmingterm, anyonethese.chilBe
will be reluctant to returnridiculous,tocrimet mustbecauseacceptofth
|53
PROS CONS
memory of harsh punishmentat. best a short-term rem lies in rehabilitation.

Rehabilitation (counselingTheonlyand longpsychiatric-termsolutiontreatm is too lenient. It willof makethe
children.Childrensbelieve thch are spending short periodsthu oftheytimeareatmorecampamenable.Inth more
than half the boysrecidivismwhowere fororderedchildto offendunder counseling rather than
isentesigncedificantlytodetentionlowerthancom ted crimes while in therapychildren.Rehabilitationwhohavehad
counsprog should take place in a butdetentasiongifaicilityantprop.Yortionung ers should be
separatedinfromprisonhardenedwith
hardenedadultcrimiad
but
they
should
not
beincreasegivenlighterrecidivismsentenbecesauset adults who committed theandsamelearncrimesfrom. the
adults.
Sample Motions:
This House would lower the age of criminal responsibility This House would punish children as if they were adults. This House
believes that sparing the rod spoils the child
Web Links:
Cornell Law Information Service: An Overview of Juvenil Quick summary of the theory and current status of juveni
Juvenile Crime/Punishment Statistics. <http://crime.abo Offers links to statistics on juvenile crimes and arrests death
penalty.
National Criminal Justice Reference ServiceJuvenile Ju Provides links to resources on a wide variety of juvenile
Further Reading:
Fagan, Jeffrey, andTheFranklinChangingE.BordersZimring,of edsJuvenile. .Justic Chicago University Press, 1998.
Jensen, Gary, DelinquencyandDeanG. andWavRojeYouthlandk. Press,Crime. 1998. Lawrence, Richard,
SchoolandChristopherCrimeandOxfordLawreJuvenileUceiversity.JusticePress,.
Morrison,As If:BlakeA.Crime, a TrPicador,al,Question1997. of Childhood. Vito, Gennaro,TheJuvetnileal.
Justice.WavelandSystem: PressConcepts.1998and. Issues
dc
CHINA, FEAR OF
Chinas perceived threat to the West stems large violent suppression of democratic reform movemen
aggressive foreign policy during the Cold War ye have created an image of China as a warmonger a
improve relations with the West. However, the fe that China had acquired American nuclear weapon at the
United States.
PROS CONS
China is an economic powerhouseChinaseconomicthatcouldgrowthdwarfisun Western nations. The
biggestaccountedmarketfor onmerelyEarth,3.5%Chinaof already produces one-thirdtotheof
leadingtheworldseconomy,toys theand Uo eighth of its textiles.ingBetween25.6%.1951In
termsand1980,ofGDPthepe omy of China grew at aeighty12.5%-first,annual jusrate,aheadwhichofisG greater even
than the NewarchetypalGuinea. TigerIntermseconomyofinterof Japan. Americas huge
tradeequivalentdeficittowithSouthChinaKoreasuggeand that China could dominatethe
Netherlandsconventional.InChintradingsp relationships and suck foreigninmost Westerndirect
investment,econoies.
However, this was accompanied in which $35US billion left t
Since the middle of thePeopletwentiethwronglycentury,assume Chinathat ha presented a
formidablemilitarythreat..InChinatermshasof t worlds largest
standinginsignificant,armyandposesaccounthreatingforbo in terms of technologytotal,and
regiasonalpposedambitionto33.9%Thesp Cox Report revealed
thatSimilarly,ChinahadChinasacquiredarmsmoderndealin nuclear warheads. In addition,cern.At tCheinasend
ofarmsthesales,twenti ticularly to rogue stateons, transfersthreaten worldconstitutedpeace. 2Its.2 fer of weapons to
PakistanUnitedhasStates,precipitatedbycontrast,anarmst with India and
conflictweaponinKas.hmir,Chinaresultedisasignattwory wars, and bolstered a ProliferationmilitaryregimeTreaty.We
noandlongethe have to fear terror fromTreatythe. EastIthasonly,neverbutdetonatedterror around the world that
flowsict frnorm showCina.any inclinatio
China acts as a destabilChizingnaactuallyinfuenceactsin East Asiastab threat posed to Taiwan regionisclear,.It

nothas onlyconsiderableinthe agi sive statements made byparticularlyChineseleadeNorths, Koreabutalso.No recent
naval maneuvers Chinadesignedhas toarightntimidatetopracticetheTa wanese. In 1997, Chinaovwer,nt itso isfar
byas noto melaunchnscertamis siles over Taipei. undue influence on Taiwan. Bo
the Chinese national constitu a part of mainland China.

China threatens the WesternChina powersactuallyevenhasin athemuchUniteb Nations. As a
permanentrecordmemberthanof eitherSecurityRussiaCounor-F cil, China has repeatedlydividevetoedthe
globeWesternshouldproposalsnot often for petty politicalChinaobjectiveshasmade. manyFor example,efforts ti
peacekeeping operationspeacefor GuatemalabothwithinandandMacedonoutsidea on the ground that
thesewhatevernationsChinatradoeswithin theTaiwanUN NATO had to intervene becauseinKosovotheinUN parthas
verybecauselittl China refused to authorize a UN operation there.
China
is
capable
of
formingChina
exertsadangeroustonishinglypowerbloc
in
East
Asia
that
threatensnationsWestern.Asthe
interlargestsrecip.Chi
remains
both
politicallyveryand
reconomicallyluctantdonor,closeChinato
many
states
that
lack
herselfthesupportalliesof.
WesternFor2,000powersyea Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma,ceptandof NorthinternationalKorea. interde
nomic globalization has modif is no evidence that China has
expansionist philosophy.
|55
Sample Motions:
This House should
This
House
This
House
thinks
treats
regard China as a
global power.
that China is merely a regional power.
China as an equal
power.
Web Links:
Cox Report. http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/resources/19 CNN summary of Cox Report on Chinese espionage.
Sinomania.com. http://www.sinomania.com
News resource devoted to fighting fear of China.
The State-to-State Flap: Tentative Conclusions Abou <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/haq/200001/0001a008. Scholarly

articleHarvard Asiafronm recentQuarterlytheChina-Taiwan relations.
US Has Much to Fear from China. <http://www.capo.org/op 1997 article from the Center for the Advancement of Pale tive.
Further Reading:
Lampton,
DavidTheMaking.,edof. Chinese Foreign andStanfordSecurityUnivePoli
Press, 2001.
Mann, AboutJames.Face: A History of AmericasVintage Books,Curious2000Relation.
Swaine,
Michael InterpretingD.,andAshleyChinasJ.TellisGrandRand.Strategy:Corporation,Past
dc
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE
Civil disobedience is the deliberate disobeying civil disobedience are willing to accept the co Thoreau first
articulated the tenets of civil di when conscience and law do not coincide, indivi was a major tactic in the
womens suffrage move abolition of apartheid in South Africa.
PROS CONS
Elections do not give tThe pevopleic sufficientofthepeopleopporti to express their will. tionsIncertaintake
placecircumstancesregularly,c obedience is a powerfulcanmethodwrite oftheirmakinglocal,the willstat the public
heard. If aexpressinglawisopprthessiveiropinionitcann.L opposed in principle bysentobeyingand serveitin
thepracticepeople..I be broken. ways to express their views
essary. Protests can be ma breaking the law.

Civil disobedience has Peacefulhistoryproftestovercomingisquiteop sion and unpopular policiesfurtherwhereinto
allactualotherlawbreameth have failed. For examplobedience,Mohandcasn devolveGandhis intocivi disobedience
was instrumentalbecounterin-productivewinninglibertybyas India, and Martin LutherandKingsviolencetactics. won
basic for African Americans in the United States. In t cases no other avenue was open to express grievan
PROS CONS
In actual fact, the conflictToooftenwiththisthe productiveauthoritygivevi protest its power and innocenturgency
andmembersbringsof antheissuepubli a wider audience. The oftwomenscausingsuffrageserimovementusinjurie
Britain and the civil sacrificerightsmovemeofinnocentinhelives;Unitep States are both examplesnot ofat
anll.eventually successf campaign that won by its confrontation with authorit where more sedate methods would
simply not have suc-ceeded.
Sample Motions:
This House supports civil disobedience.
This House believes the ends justify the means. This House would break the law in a good cause.
Web Links:
Civil Disobedience Index. <http://www.actupny.org/documen Offers information on the history, theory, and practice of
Further Reading:
Arendt,CrisesHannahof. HarvesttheRepublicBooks,. 1972.
Thoreau,
HenryCivil DavidDisobedience..Dover,and 1993Other. Essays
dc
CONSCRIPTION AND NATIONAL SERV

Many countries throughout Europe and the rest of t normally for 18-year-olds and lasts between one a
performing community service. Since the end of th men are required to register with Selective Servic service
would be good both for young people and th
PROS CONS
We accept the need for Nonationaljustificationserviceexistsinwartime;forco vice in peacetime is justThe
anrmextensiondforces
ofas
theysamestan
It
would
mean
that
the
outcountrytheirwasrolepreparedwithoutforconscremer
gencies
when
they
happen,prefersrathervoluthanteerhavingarmyto. pre pare after the fact.
National service developsForcingvaluableyoung characterpeopleto traitgo Young people learn respectagainstfor

theirauthorwillty, fostersself-discionl teamwork, and leadershiptyskillsandundermines. any real
skills.
The military teaches importantThegovernmentskillswouldthat behelpbetteyou people get
theianlongtrainingrunthisprogramswillreduce.The miu ployment and help the ectionomyal.institution.
jobs.
In
National service helpsPatriotismtopromoteshouldpatriotismnotbe andcenta sense of nationhood. have seen the

detrimental eff
|57
PROS CONS
has
pride
had in other nations, s
should be fostered in
The
individual has a dutyAcitizentogivehas someadutyhingto bpacy
to society, and nationalsocietyservice.Anyallowsservicethisto.theWh through protecting the tarycountry. or
helping with so or environmental projects, national service encou the idea of working as a community.
Sample Motions:
This House would reintroduce the draft.
Web Links:
1 Corporation for National Service. http://www.cns.gov
US government site presenting information on public servi
Draft Registration: The Politics of Institutional Immor Essay in support of dismantling the Selective Service Sys
Further Reading:
Danzig,
Richard,NationalandPetService:SzantonLexingWhat.onWouldBooks,It Mean?1986.
Evers, WilliamNationalM.Service:HooverProInstituteandCon.Press, 1990.
dc
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: ADULTS

Nigeria, Malaysia, Brunei, Saudi Arabia, and Si declared it a violation of human rights. In some sentence.
PROS CONS
Criminals must be punishedPunishing.All formswith painof punishmebarb recognize that with
theiescommissionbuilt
militaryofcriminalmighta
individuals
surrender
ofsomecriminalsoftheiras
humanentitiesrightwi Why, logically, is corporalcivilizedpunishmentsociety anyis thatmore i an infringement of
thesenalsrights.Prisonthanis
prison?necessaryCorpa
punishment
is
an
easy,prevention,strong,visible,andrehabilitatandther
effective
deterrent.
Itleastis
alsoshulda
prnot)portistoopnateto ment for certain crimesUN. Declaration of Human Rig
... cruel, inhuman or degra ment.

Like all forms of punishment,Anyregulationfloggingtendsand whippitobe can and should be
subjectSingapotoresgulationlist.ofIncrimesSinga for example, caning isimpconfinedsedincludesgenrallythe
toranspmal between 16 and 50, withtrafficmaximumoffensenumber.In 1995,of24 a strokes, which must be
cadministerednedfivetimesallforat overstaonce.
PROS CONS
Corporal punishment is Thereausefulare deterrentalwaysalternativeagainstp oners breaking prison usedrulesin.

Sinceprison:theirsolitaryfreedomconfi already gone and their leges,dateofextensionrlease mayof sentence,seemdis
(or nonexistent), littleparticularlyelseremainsvulnerabletohelp tomainab order. who seek to maintain order th
Corporal
punishment
is
Societiesappropriatewithfora
csollemectiveultureme
but
not
for
others.
CitizensishmentoflawWesternthan
democraciessocieties
w
a
great
deal
of
state
havecontrolmoreandcrimeauthoritythanSingaporfrighte
and
hold
very
diverse
viewscorporalon
acceptablepunishment
behaviorbutprecia
appropriate
punishment.ofIna
manybehavioralMiddle
normand.FarTheEastUS-ern countries, however,poralconsensuspunihmentismuchin thegreaterpast;o what is
acceptableandishedaharsher. collective respons exists toward those who breach societys norms. Sin pore has
very little crime in comparison with the U Let the results of its justice system speak for them
Sample Motions:
This House would flog criminals live on national television. This House would bring back the birch.
Web Links:
World Corporal Punishment Research. <http://www.corpun.co Links to hundreds of sites providing historical and contemp
Further Reading:
Newman, JustGraemeand. Painful: A Case forHarrowthe &CorporalHeston, Punishment1995.
dc
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: CHILDREN

The issue of paddling or spanking children is l How can young children learn the difference betwee it a better
environment for learning? With the exc countries now ban corporal punishment in schools a
PROS CONS
Corporal
punishment,
specificallyHittingchildspankisngneverorsimrighl
actions,
can
be
an
effectpunishmentvepunishmenttoteachand deterrechild for childish misbehaviorright.Ifandchildrenwrong isdo
unprovotespon. seriously to verbal warningsthattheoradultlightispundisplhmeased,ntfr teachers or parents,
thencause short,astatesharpof exstimulus,remedisw inflicts pain but no lastingmakes childrendamage,
islessthelikelylast resto cause the child to associateclarity.misbehaviorInolderchildrenwithpunisdi menta crucial
associationcal puinishmentachilds devlikelopmentyto.
thermisbehavior.
|59
PROS CONS
Much of the argument againstNomattercorphowralorderlypunishmentyou mh a hysterical edge.

Corporaladversepunishmenteffects aremustnumeroubeuse part of a wider strategyadultsand whoat
theadministercorrect thetime:b other immediate disciplineacceptablehasfailedinandhumanfterintean warning
and opportunityandforlosetheselfchild-respect;torepentand. person delivering the
punishmentmayleadtomustseverenot misbehavangr the time.
Serious physical injuriesThe oacctural onlyphsicalwheredamagediscip strategic corporal punishment

onbechildrenomeschildcan abeus There is a strict line foundbetweenof thestudentstwoandneedingtoignt
deliberately misleadingnerve. and muscle damage, a Spanking of the buttocks can
nerve.
Corporal
punishment
administeredThebuttocksinarethea
prsexualsencez
at
least
two
adults
issuremuchfromlessadministeringlikelytobecompun lent or lead to sexual suchabuse. puniAtschool,hment
canotheraffec should be present; at hoopme,ntbofth childrenparents. being di
ence of another adult does eration from punishment int case
from Arizona in 1995 Michael Wetton, who had pre lence
against children. He forcing a 9-year-old boy an naked and
be paddled. In th present, but too frightene
He who spareth his rodThehatethDevil hiscan citeson, Scriptubuthe who loveth him is
chastenethShakespearehim.betimes. Prover 13:24.
The Bible frequently condon geous
to the modern sensibi
Sample Motions:
This House would spank its children when necessary.
This
House believes that it is never right to hit a child
Web Links:
Corporal Punishment of Children. <http://people.biola.e Provides links and references to research on corporal p research.
The Sexual Dangers of Spanking Children. <http://silcon Detailed 1996 article on the dangers of spanking.
Ultimate Deterrent: Punishment and Control in English a 1966 article examining disciplinary policy in British an
World Corporal Punishment Research. <http://www.corpun. Links to hundreds of sites providing historical and conte
Further Reading:
Hyman, TheIrwinCase. Against Spanking: How.JosseytoDiscipline-Bass,1997Your. C Rosemond,To SpaJohnk. or Not to.
Spank:Andrews ParMcMentsel, 1994Handbook.
Straus, Murray, andBeatingDenisetheA.DevilDonnellyOut.of Them: Corporal on ChildrenTransaction,. 2001.
dc
CORRUPTION, BENEFITS OF
Public corruption is generally viewed as an obstac and aid agencies as well as donor-states have spe
arguments have been made that because corruption of, public corruption is seen as an unavoidable si
PROS CONS
Corruption reduces bureaCoucracyntriesandwithspeedslowerthelvelsimpleo mentation of administrativecient
bureaupracticraciesgoverandingenjoyeco nomic forces of the marketbeing.. Corruptionpublicin theofficiapubl
acquire incentives to obstcreatecle a todevelopmentinvestment,-friendlcausi system for the economyable.As
resourcesaresult, andcorruptionsubversionsta a chain of benefits foralsoall antheinvisibleeconomic
taxactors,onthemak
overregulated,
efficient.
obstructivedeeplybureaucraciescorruptedstatesmuch couldmore
corruption.
Corruption is
a WesternTheconceptvery ideaand isof ncorrutapplicabtion
to traditional societies,oneswhetreaditionscorruption.Culturaldoesnotre such a negative meaningto.
legitimizeManytraditionalcorruptisoncietieby with a gift culture evidencehaveadifferenthasbeen
undpresenterstandint civil responsibilities thatand etiqcorruptionete. Theis requiredsocialst and political
traditionspracticesofmany. cMountriesreover, areregardinbase the beneficial effect ofqualitycorruptionofhumanand
cultureannot sundervi
its absence.
improvement and is inherently

excuse
for creating cultures
Corruption is a conditionCorruptionofdevelopingisuniversstates,l,andan should be seen as a

childheconomicallyoddiseasedeveloped.Westerndoescoun tries themselves were
oncecorruptionthemost.SomecorruptedFirst Worldsocie of the world. Not only ofis
publiccorruptioncorruptionendemic. Havingunde developed nations, it however,isalso angivesevolutionaryunique
leadvelan precedes development anationdindustrialization.Appropriatepolicies.Corrup-tion is a side effect
tiveofemergingeffect ofcapitalismcorruptionand. a market. Underdeveloped countries cannot combat cor-ruption
without having achieved the level of econom development necessary to fight it.
Sample Motions:
This House declares that anticorruption efforts do more har This House confirms that corruption is unethical.
This
House should fight public corruption.
Web Links:
Anti-Corruption Gateway. <http://www.nobribes.org> Provides information about combating corruption in Europe a
Global corruption report. <http://www.globalcorruptionrep Project of Transparency International provides an extensive
Transparency International. <http://www.transparency.org> Global coalition against corruption.
|61
Further Reading:
Anechiarico,TheFrank,Pursuitet ofal.Absolute Integrity: UniversityHowCorrupt
Chicago
Press, 1998.
Della Porta, Donatella,CorruptandExchanges:AlbertoVannucciActors,. Resources, Aldine de Gruyter, 1999.
Rose-Ackerman,CorruptionSusan.and Government: Causes, Consequences
Cambridge
University Press, 1999.
dc
COVENANT MARRIAGE
Divorce is an unfortunate reality of American l and 50% of marriages end in divorce. Divorce ca
suggested giving couples the choice of covenant either party can, at any time, dissolve the mar more
difficult to dissolve. Before entering into required prior to granting a divorce By 2002, L state legislatures
are considering instituting
PROS CONS
Covenant marriages mightIn a reducecovenantthemarriage,number ofa p domestic violence
casesactually.A1991occurredJstice toDepartmebeper study concluded that
currentThisespeciallyhusbnds/fathersworries accadv for only 9% of the caseswho
ofsaydomesticthatprovingabuse.domestThe of the abuse was perpetratedandthebywaitingformer
periodhusbands,make friends, or transient partnersrelationships.Withoutlongerdivorce,.Inad may be less likely
to beseninvolvedasalegwithimabusivetereasonme
In a covenant marriage,Somethefeministsoffended feelspouseinitiatis only one who can ask forsimplythe

concealdivorce.theThishiddengivesa offended spouse many benefitsMoralMajorityinnegotiating.Liberalthecom
of the marriage. A womancolumnistearlyTheNation,hasforaysmorecovenanttolose assuming a marriage
willenforcelast forever,anarrow especiallyandmoral puts her career on holdrenderingtocare
divorceforhildrenmore.painA nant marriage is a wayManyfor advocawomenteso haveof covenantmoresec rity in
a marriage. Religiousdescribedbeliefconservativeisonly Chrione to want marriages to
succeed;majorsupporterssocietyasofa thewholecov interest in stable famislianaes.
AdvocateNOWpresidentforcovenanTerry riage, Amitai Etzioni, founderCovenantand
directorandcovenantofthe ington-based CommunitarianveryNetwork,specificsays,meaningOne incan be
deeply concerned withConflatingstrengthreligiousnngthe valuescommit ment of marriage
withoutriagefavoringiswrongtraditional. or h chical forms of marriages or denying women full e standing.
The premarital counselingIf partnersbytrainedentercounseloracovenant a requirement of covenantbe

ablemarriagetodivorceenablesuntilhe
futh
husband
and
wife
to
gettwoto
yearsknow.eachPeopleothercouldwellget.I such as how to raise childrunablen,to howcontinueosplitwithouseth
PROS CONS
and
financial
matters
areriagediscussedhasproducedandexplorednochildrewi
the
counselor.
Covenantnomarriagessignificantareassetsmore
restricttodivid
but
allow
for
divorce
laysinspecifictheburdencircumstances:ofproofonad
tery;
physical
or
sexualdivorceabuse.
ofA
judgeaspousemustorbechild;conv donment of at least onedivorceyear; actuallyincarcerationexist.ofIna adsp for a
felony
conviction;marriagespousescanlivingbedisseparateolvedbeca
apart
for
two
years;
andtion,a
legalpartnersseparationstringof ofonem or 18 months if a minorforchilddivorceisinvolved..
Divorce is terrible forCovenantchildrenmarriages.Theyloseforcestabilifami security. Children

whosetogether,parentswhichhave hasdivorcedthepotenthav higher rates of
suicidethan.Theydivoarcemore.Rsearchlikely shtowsco crimes and abuse drugsa. highTheirconflicteducationmarriagsuffers,chilan they are less likely totheirgraduateparentsfromactuallycollegedivorcandm
likely to drop out of eredhigh whenschoolparents.The divorce,detrimentalbu financial effects of divorceturing
andlsosupport,affect thesechildrenchil Children of divorce musteventuallyadapttohavemanystrongchangesmarriain
their family environmentstudiesandareshowat thatgreaterchildrisk ofof abused. The American Acadlikemyl
ofthanMatrimonialchildofLawmarrie-yers summer 1997 newsletteradult. says, Only acts of war and the events of
natural disasters are more harmfu a childs psyche than the divorce process.
Passage of no-fault divorceCovenantlawsmarriageresultedlawsin anareonslwe of divorce and a breakdnownt

exisofthetoAmericanprovide familythecoun.I 1968, the year before USCalifoSupremenia Courtadoptedruledthe
morenation first no-fault divorce thelaw,statehe USof hadresidence584,000atdivorthe (2.9 divorces per
1,000minesAmericans)thelaws.
Aftergoverning30yearsthat
no-fault
divorce,
the
enantnumbermarriageofdivorcespartnershad reachemove 1,135,000 annually, or enant4.2 permarriage1,000.
laws,Covenanttheymar-e riages are the answer.systemResearchanywayhas. sThownemandthated33%c to 45% of
couples on themarriagebrink andof divorcebefor divomayrceecon cile if they are legallyhavepreventedpassed
covenantfromdivorcingmarriagef months as specified in toa covenantprovide lowmarriage-cost. or free c
cannot afford them. In additi enant marriages are the least

Studies show that those in c higher incomes and education, their
churches, and take marr those who do not select cove traits are
all predictors of less of the requirements of c
Sample Motions:
This House believes that couples should choose a covenant m This House opposes covenant marriage laws.
This
House supports covenant marriage laws as the answer to
Web Links:
American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers. <http://www.aaml Web site with many articles related to marriage and divorce
|63
Americans for Divorce Reform. <http://www.divorcereform Pro-divorce reform page offers many articles on divorce states
could adopt to create covenant marriage laws.
Covenant Marriage Movement. <http://www.covenantmarriag This Christian-based site gives information for couples c
covenant marriage.
Further Reading:
Bennett,TheWilliamBrokenJ.Hearth: Reversing. theDoubleday,MorCollapse2001. o
Fineman, MarthaThe IllusionAlbertsonof. Equality: .TheUnivRhersitytoric ofand ChR 1991.
Hetherington, E.ForMavis,BetterandorJohnfor.KellyWorse:.. Norton,Divorce 2002Reconsid. Lowery,CovenantFred. Marriage:.
HowardStayingPublisTogething,erfor2002Life. Wilson, TheJamesMarriageQ. Problem: How. OurHarperCollins,CultureHas
2002Weakened.
dc
CREATIONISM IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

In the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Darwin a course of millennia, from more primitive animals is
created by God as the first fully formed huma than the result of some natural evolutionary pr others feel
that the account in Genesis must be states and school districts have tried to ban t Scopes in 1925 for
violating its ban), but the permitted in public schools. Nonetheless, believ should be taught alongside
evolution in the clas
PROS CONS
The
Constitution
forbidsIn
thepractice,establishmentthereisofnoanyq
religion,
but
it
also
ofguacreationismaneesfreedomdependofuponreli
which
means
that
the
govthernmentJudeocannotChrisiansuppressandupor gion. By teaching that inevolutionitssacredis true,texts.schoolsTeachi lating
the religious beliffefsct,ofonlystudenthats.specific r
ment of other religions and creationism in a publicly f lation of
the Constitution.
Evolution has not beenEvolutionproved; its ais theoryatheorythatu to explain observable tificfactsfacts,.But
thosebutcreationisfctsca explained just as well,containedand someinscripturecases,even.Cre by intelligent
design
theoryscience.
Moreovbecauser,itevolutioniisnotc
not
acknowledge
that
thetificevidenprocedureessential. for p their idease.g., fossil remains of transitional, beingssimply does not
exist. Creationism is a th that is at least as worthy as evolution and shou taught along with it.
By teaching intelligentAlldesignreligionstheory,offera schoolacreat doing anything to establishtoreligionany

pandrticularfromculturrelig
PROS CONS
Intelligent design is acceptmightexaminedbyChristians,alloftheseJews,be lims, Native Americans,historyHindus,of

andideasmanycourse,othersrath. Therefore, it should notIn bepractice,forbiddenhowever,bythe creatioestabl ment
clause of the FirstexploringAmendmentdifferent. beliefs;
to putting one religious beli prevailing scientific thinkin
Creationism is not, as CreationistheSupremeisCourtnot ahasscientifiruled, religious belief. It isby

athescientificthecommunityry,and.haS articulated by many philosophersteachwhat
isandcurrentlyscientists,accepf example, Aristotle, in tistsacomplethatelyis,seculartheymustcontextteac from
outside the discipline o
History has shown that Sciencescientificis morallytheoriesandare religioften proved over time; evolution,aimto
thus,upholdshouldreligiousnot belico
sidered to
be
an unchangeable,debunkreligiousunassailablebeliefstruth.Evo.
the spirit
of
scientificattackinquiryonreligion;andntellectualitistaugs
cism,
students should nationbeexposedof availabltocompetingfactstheo.Stries.
their own private religious b
Sample Motions:
This House favors a curriculum free of creationism teaching This House believes that evolution ought to be taught inste This House
thinks that teaching creationism in public schoo
Web Links:
Evolution vs. Creationism. <http://physics.syr.edu/course Site contains information on both sides of the debate, incl tions.
Science and Creationism. <http://www.nap.edu/html/creatio Detailed essay from the National Academy of Sciences summar
advocates of creation science, and analyzes their claims.
Scientific Creationism. <http://www.scientificcreationism. Site outlines arguments in support of creationism.
Further Reading:
Binder,ContentiousAmyJ. Curricula: AfrocentrismPrincetonandCreationismUniversity iP Gilkey, CreatiLangdonism. on Trial:.
EvolutionUniversityandPressGod ofat Virginia,LittleRo
dc
|65
CUBA, DROPPING OF US SANCTION

Fidel Castro and his communist government came the US. Cuba was supported throughout the Cold W
during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when N to place nuclear weapons on the island. America largely
offset by the support, trade, and subsi subsidies has caused a 35% drop in Cubas GDP. US, but so far
the wounds of the twentieth cent the resolve of the White House. Sanctions were, moves have made food
and medicine a little easi
PROS CONS
The sanctions cause realSanctionsandunacceptabledidntcauseharmeconto Cuban people. In the
1990scommunistCuba lostpolitical$70US andbillionec trade and $1.2US billionshowin
internationaltoleadinevitablyloans tob of US sanctions. Cuba withoutistoo poorsanctionscountry.Evennotif suffer
from these lossesof.privateThedominanceownership,of Ameriforei in the pharmaceuticals
commoditiesindustry,moreover,wouldholdmeansCuba Cubans are unable to
gainTradeaccessCommissiontomanyfounddrugsa. Am ica would be the
naturalCubanmarketeconomyformostfromCubansanctiopr ucts, and its refusal tobestaccontributeeptgoods
withtoaneveconot minor Cuban componentsusingfrom sanctiothirdnatistonspressuredam-ages Cubas ability to
andtradepoliticalwithothreformscountries. South American countries have recently relied on types of loans that
Cuba is denied to keep their mies on track.
Sanctions
are
pointlessSanctionsandcounterproductiveareaproven.poliTh
made
no
political
diffepressurenceinanthextremelylast43
ryepares
would
they
now?
They
resultAggressivetheUSUSbengagementingblamedanf all the failures of thetheCubancollapseeconomy,of
theand Soviesanct are also used to justifyaccordingrepressiveto Secretarymeasures forof S President George
W.
BushtatementclaimstoofwantAmericastoempowedi
civil
society
in
Cuba,regimebutin.
Blaming1998,whileAmericagovernfor Texas, he argued that foolthe bestordinaryway toRussians,achieve andth
China was to trade and ispreexadctlyAmericanthetimevaluesthat.th
screws so that Castros suc changes.
No legitimate reason hasCubabeenis offeredarepressiveforsinglinregime Cuba for sanctions. Cubaholdshas

politnobiological,prisonerschemi or nuclear weapons and ecdoesnomicnot freedomsponsor throughterror. coC
holds fewer prisoners Castroofconscienceregim thanhas refusedChina, Vt nam, Iran, or even
EgyptAl.QaedaTomaintainsuspectssanctdionson
encourage
change
in
theterrorform
ofbecausegovernment,itprovidesasthe claims it is doing, iscantotallyfugitivesllegitim.Cubateis underknow tional
law.
Cuba
has
offeredbiologicaltocompensateweaponseffortUScit
whose
property
was
nationalizednternationalin1959sanctions. to
PROS CONS
to Iran. Finally, Cuba has fa shipments through its waters, its

directly from resources s 1959.
Sanctions on Cuba are Americaillegal isandattemptingdaageAmericastoprot international standing.in Theythe

UniversalviolatetheDeclarationUNCharter laws on the freedom ofitsnavigation,owncitizensand
andrepeatedcitizensUN resolutions since 1992international(passedwith law,only ittheisUSonlyan Israel in
opposition).trFurthermore,aimsof internationalsomepartsof lt Helms-Burton Act are extraterritorialcondemningthe
sanctionsintheir effechave the business of other naritionsyCouncilandthusand causetherforesignifla protest around
the worldstatus.Thisasmakesguardianmockeryof humanofth US claim to be a guardianterrorof
internationalisenhancedbylaw,its notmor in its dealings with Cubawith butarepressivealsointhegovernmentnegotiati
over the future of Iraq. America could achieve its internationally more easily if it were not for its o of respect for
international law.
The US will also benefitCubafromwillthenevoperningaccofuntradefor wm Cuba economically. Midwestage

ofRepublAmericans
trade,havevotedand
i
to
drop
the
embargo
becauseallitsof
productsthepotentialelsewhefore.proE in their farming statesmarket.Furthefor, Americanifsanctionsgoods,end,it
icans will be able to upstopsomepretendingeconomic thatgrowththeyto prma Bolivian cigars! to the freedom of the
Cuban p
Cuban
GDP is a drop in the oc
Sanctions are not the Thewill peopleofthewhoAmericancare mostpeopleabou of a small minority

ofthoroughlyembitteredopposeCuban droppAmericansngsa in Florida who are beingRepublicanspandered whoto.
voNatedionalto dropopin ion generally expresseslessno preferenceblinkered thanaboutheor Cubanoppo the ban.
Congress recentlykeep votedit.Opinion262167ontosanctionsrepealt travel ban to Cuba butpowerswill beis
thwartedinplace byspecificaltheins tence of President Georgeto maintainW.Bush thatstablethe banpolicyremaio This
is electioneering ritygovernment. at its worst.
Sample Motions:
This House would drop the sanctions on Cuba.
This
House would sanction sanctions.
This
House believes in Cuba Libre.
This
House condemns US foreign policy.
Web Links:
CIA Country Profile. < http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications Quick overview of the government and economy of Cuba.
CubaNet. < http://www.cubanet.org>
Provides
latest news on Cuban domestic issues and internati
GlobalPolicy.org. <http://www.globalpolicy.org>
Site offers extensive links to documents and articles on US

State Department Reports on Cuba. <http://www.state.gov/w Archive of State Department information on Cuba before 2001
|67
Further Reading:
Castro,CapitalismFidel. in Crisis: GlobalizationOceanPress, and2000World. Polit
Fontaine, Roger,A andStrategWillicamFlipE.-RatliffFlopin. theHooverCaribbean:InstitutL 2000.
Schwab,Cuba:PeterConfronting.PalgravetheUSMacmillan,Embargo. 1999.
dc
CULTURAL TREASURES, RETURN OF

Debate has raged for almost two centuries about (then) developing world by imperial powers in th most
often uses the Elgin, or Parthenon, Marbles in 1801 and sold to the British Museum in 1816. issue of who
owns cultural treasures reemerged f art from the defeated Axis powers. During the l of campaigns for the
return of their sacred reli
PROS CONS
Cultural treasures shouldArt treasuresbedisplayedshouldin thebe acco in which they originated;ofpeopleonly
thenand tocan sctholarseybe. t understood. In the caseplayingofthe themElgininMarbles,thegreatthi
architectural context thatReturningonly ptreasuresoximity to thei non itself can provide.sible. Too much has
changed
over the centuries for them their country of origin tha they
can be compared to la from a wide variety of cul could be
placed in original
Display of cultural treasuresForwhateverinWesternreasonmuseumsthetre unfortunate legacy of

imperiaweshoulismdnot.Itrewritereflectshistothe ceptable belief that developingbacktotheirnationscountryare
ofunabor look after their artisticedentheritagethatcould.The denudedisplaymuso trophies in
institutionsPlacingsuch asgreatthe artBritishfactsMusein the Louvre has become offensiveghettoAfrican.
sculptures c
Africa, Egyptian mummies on the world much poorer and
standing of the achievement
Artifacts were often acquiredAlthough illegally,someart treasuresthrogh in war, under the

duressillegally,ofimperialthe evidforcence,orforby ing officials who were examplsuppose,d
LtordbeElginssafeguardbribeng countrys artistic treasuresfacilitating. any business i not undermine
Britains sol non marbles based upon a wr
internationally
recognized
PROS CONS
time. Much art was freely sol indeed some art was specifica pean
market.
Some treasures, such asThisNativemay Americanbetrue, butffaloreligiorobe have religious and
culturaloriginallyassociationspurchaedwithor giventhe from which they were taken,withthebutintentionefonr
ofthoseeducatiwho view them in sterile glassthebeliefscases. ofDescendantstheircreatorsof creators are offended
bey seeingallowedaspectstosecondof-theirguess spith ity displayed for entertainmentAlso,many. cultural treasures
and cultures; no claim for th made.
In the past, countriesInmaythenotcasehaveof beenthe cPapablerthenon looking after their
heriactionage,inbutremovingthathasthemchangedwasa state-of-the-art museumtheis Ottomanplanned
authoritiesinAthens towerehou the surviving marbles, ingwhilestonepollution.They-caredontrolnothingmeasu have
reduced sulfur dioxideheritagein. Furthermore,cityto a hadfifth its previous level. AtGrethek
sameindependencetimethe incuratorshi1830, institutions such as theof BritiAthensh
woMuseumldbyisnowbeinghavecad into question, as it becpromesblemsapparentfacethethatreturncontroverof
cleaning and restorationNativepracticesAmericanmay museumshaveharm.Delidt sculptures they claim
todestprotyectd.without proper hand
techniques. These institution fied personnel or necessary f

treasures.
Sample Motions:
This House would return cultural treasures to their country This House would return the Elgin Marbles.
This House believes a jewel is best in its original setting This House would. lose its marbles
Web Links:
ElginTheMarblesGuardian).<http://www(.guardianunlimited.co.uk/elgin/0, Provides interactive guide to the history of the Elgin

Marb
The Melina Mercouri Foundation. <http://www.lofstrom.com/ Site campaigning for the return of the Elgin Marbles.
The Parthenon (Elgin) Marbles. <http://www.museum-securit Offers links to many sites dealing with the issue.
Stolen Property or Finders Keepers. <http://home.att.net/ General site offering information on the issues concerning
Further Reading:
Hitchens, TheChristopherElginMarbles:. ShouldVersoTheyBooks,Be Returned1998. to Gree
St.
Clair,LordWilliamElgin.andOxfordthe UniversityMarbles. Press, 1998.
Vrettos,TheTheodoreElgin.Affair: The Abduction of .AntiquitysLittleBrown,Great19
dc
|69
CURFEW LAWS
Over 300 US towns have passed local curfew laws In most cases cities imposed nighttime curfews, as
well. All curfews are aimed at proactively re involving parents and keeping young people from prevent the
actions of a few bad ones.
PROS CONS
Youth
crime
is
a
majorCurfewsandgrowingarenotproblanem,ffectivofte
involving
both
drugs
andyouthviolencecrime.. ResearchPartiularlyfinds rying is the rise of youthinjuvenilegangs, crimewhich andcan
curfeterr urban areas and create withasocialurfewsclimatedid seein whichadrop nality becomes the
normhad.Imposingoreto curfewsdowith othernminol can help solve these problemssuchas. zeroTheytolerancekeepyoungpolipeo off the street and outandof economictrouble. changesCurfews inarethe enforce
compared to othercase,formsmot ofjuvenilecrime preventicrime and are therefore effectiveand8. p.m., after the
end o
parents return home, rather by curfews.

The
use
of
curfews
canYouthhelp
cuprotectfews
infringevulnerableuponc
dren.
Although
responsibleertiesparents.Childrendo
nothaveleta
rigyo
children
out
in
the
streetsandassembly,afterdark,whichnotcurfewsallp
responsible.
Inevitablycriminaliztheirchildrenngtheirsuffer,simplebo crime and in accidents,Thisandreversesarelikelythe
topresumptifallin habits. Society should ingensureall youngthat suchpeoplenglectedarepo dren are returned
home
alsosafelysubjectandthatto
blankettheirparendis
made
to
face
up
to
theirage,responsibilitiesalthoughonly.a few yo
Furthermore, curfews infrin ents to bring up their chi because
we dislike the way dren does not mean that we we intervene
in families wh girls are treated as inferi parents practice
corporal p
Children
have no good Childrenreasontoinbetheirout unaccompamid-teensnied late
at night, so bea courfewtat isnightnot withoutreally aadur
on their
liberty. Theyjobswould.Othersbebetterparticipateoff
doing schoolwork and participatingclubs.Requiring familyadults toact
ties.
ties is unreasonable. It wi
hi
not
adults
are unwilling or are

On
abuse
participate in after-sc
a more sin ister note, so
at home and actually
Child curfews are a formYouthof

curfewszero-tolerancehavegreatpolic
tolerancecivilcomesrightsfromissuesthe.theoryEvident
the
police
levelfarmorecrimesblacktheychildrencreate tha
The
idea
ignore
of
zero
low-
PROS CONS
sive atmosphere in whichtionsserious.Curfewscrimetendcan toflourishbeimp law and order breaks downfew

entirelyplacesfor.Childchildrencurfewsto
amc
help
the
police
establishlegallyclimate.Curfewsof
zerocompoundtoleranthe create a safer communitymanyforpooreveryonechildren. feel with
public spaces. This problem i table deterioration in relati the
young people subject to t
Child curfews can help Imposingchangea curfewsnegativeonyouthchildrencultu in which challenging therlawproductiveisseen
becauseasdesirableitwou
gang
membership
an
aspiratabidingon.
youngImpressionablepeopleintoyungcri-sters would be kept awaychildrenfom gangarechargedactivitywithon curthe
streets at night, and otheracyclecrimeof.admirationOncechildrenand reca ment would be broken.
theyByspendingcrossa
morepsychologicaltimewith
bo
their
families
and
in
more
likelypositivethatactivitiesheywillsucpe sports, which curfews nalmkeand morehave attractivemuchless respecoptio
for bored youngsters, childrenleadto morewill seriousdevelopoffgreatnsers esteem and discipline. nal record
decreases the chan
so contributes to the social that breed crime.
We should try other waysA numberofreducingofalternativeyouthcrime,stratbu they will work best

intoconjunctiondomoreto
withreducecurfewsyouth.
crIf
troubled
area
developsketa
culturecurfew,
ofindividuallawlessness,curfewi tifying specific youngstersparticularfor rehabitroublemitakerstion. becoAn more
difficult.
A
curfewworkingtakes
individualthebasically
withlaw-abiyou
majority
off
the
streets,example,lowingauthoritiesthepolicecan torequen with the most difficultimselementofcrime.Curfewssotharet
theyatoolun the struggle to improveof livtheirs inactionsrundown.Youthsareas.canThe are likely to be used
formentorsrelati.Ovelyrall,shorttheperiodsgovernmt
a
situation
under
controleducationsothatl
opportunitiesthermeasures andca put in place and given soa cthancetyoungsterstowork. feel some
Sample Motions:
This House would introduce child curfews. This House would lock up its daughters.
This
House believes children should be neither seen nor hea
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org/cgi-Links to articles on the legal status of curfews.
Status Report on Youth Curfews in American Cities. <http: Summary of 1997 survey of 374 cities providing status of cu
Further Reading:
Jensen,
Gary, DelinquencyandDeanG. WavelandRojekYouth.Press,Crime.1998.
dc
|71
DEVELOPING-WORLD DEBT, CANCEL

For many years, poor nations in Asia, Latin Ame development. Over the years external debt payme and
funding social, health, and education progr some countries. Sub-Saharan Africa owed lenders Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, with th reduction or rescheduling of this debt, but dem for more
immediate and more substantial action.
PROS CONS
The burden of debt costsTherelivesare. manySome reasonsofthe formos heavily indebted poor
thecountriesworldsarepooreststrugglingnationsto even the interest on thdeirbt loans,burdens,letbutaloneth
payindebt the principal. This massivelyoftheproblemsdistorts. Manytheircountecon and their spending
prioritiesfmoney.
Africanonweaponsnationstofigcu
spend
four
times
as
muchinvestingondebt
inrepaymentstheirpeopleasth. do on health. The reformsotherdemandedcorruptby thegovernmentIMFin return
for rescheduledgreeddebt ismakekillingthis problemtheirownev worse. In Zimbabwe, spayendingfor
onsocialhealthprogramscare hasand dropped by a third, in debtTanzania,maywellschoolexist,feesbuthavei
introduced to raise moreareasmoney.. Progress made in health and education over the past 50 years is ac
being reversed in some countries. It is obscene th ernments are cutting spending in these vital are repay debts.
The debts must be cancelled now.
To raise the cash for Again,debtrepaymtherents,are manypoor potencount have to produce goods
faminesthattheyarecancausedsell byinternawaro ally. Often this means tions,growingnotcashby cropsdebt.
insteadWhileg food needed to support totheirbe counterpopulat-intuitive,on.People thi tile countries can
findboostthemselvescountstarysvingeconomybecaus cannot afford to buy importedcouldandfoodshould. be
agricul
sufficient
is outdated.
Debt repayments often Thispunishthinkingthose whohas dangeroustwere responsible for

creatingationalthedebtlevelin.theGovernmentsfirstpla number of poorer countries,democracihuges,debutts
werenationsamassar by the irresponsible spdebtsnding.A ofcrucialdictatorselementin thein They have now
been overthrown,isethat yetthe thedebtnewwillgovernbe ment and the people
ofmentthatcouldcountrydecidestillthatre itreq to pay the price for theprediectatessors actionsdebts,.thenThisn
unfair. to a country. Developing co
need loans to invest in inf ing debt now would make len vide
loans on good terms in economic growth in the long
All
poor countries needReformisthemustchancecome tofirsthelp. Corth

PROS CONS
selves. While their economiesgovernmentsare anddominatedeconomicby systthe need to repay debt,

itcountriesisimpossible.Cancelingforthdebtmtowout invest in infrastructureference,andeducationitwould. beBy
thecanceliequ debt, we would give thempaymentfreshto dictatorsstartand andthe croooppo tunity to build
successfulthe extraeconomiesoneythatand wouldbecomesupri the needs of generationssuffertocome.Even. worse,
dictators
on weapons and palaces, thus greater debt. A countrys gov able
and its economy stable b cancellation is even consider
The developed world hasThea pamoralleldutywitho bankruptcythedevelopc ing world because of

thescalehistorical.First, backgroundwhenanindividofde oping world debt. In themostrushassetsto
investandpossessionsinthe1970a many banks made hasty debtloans,as pourssingble.moneyThis intoiswhy
pointless projects withoutacceptablproperlyoptionexamining.Innationawheth they would ever make atheprofittotal.
Becauselossof ofsovereigntythesebad investments, some of thebanksworldswould poorestbeable countriestoseize
c so burdened with debtsorthatthe thresourcesycannowof nothelongerbank realistically expect
togovernmentpaythem could,ffandor areshould,inst simply servicing the
inttherestdifference.Animportantinscaleparallelisvi be made with bankruptcy:bankruptcyIfindividualofsingleis
indiviunabl to repay his or her debts,unlikelyhe orto shecauseismajordeclaredproble rupt and then allowed
toomy,makethe abankruptcyfreshstartof. aThenatiosa system should be used withthe worldcountrieseconomy.If.
theyThe economareun to repay their debts, theynationsshouldcurrentlybegivencludethe oppothe nity to start again.
Aopingcountryworldmakingdebt;contributionsifthissubs the world economy is farsuddbetternly cutthanoff,a
countryeconomicinred slavery. At the same time,strophicbanks.Evenwouldif bethisdiscouragdebt from making bad
loans asbankrupttheydidcounintrieshe1970sinthe. sh
in recession would be in nobod
Sample Motions:
This House would
This
House
This
House
would
would
end developing
kill the debt,
break the chains of debt.
world debt.
not the debtors.
Web Links:
International Monetary Fund: Debt Initiative for the Heav np/hipc/hipc.htm>
Offers information on IMF programs and progress for HIPCs.
Jubilee 2000 Coalition. <http://www.jubilee2000uk.org/> Research, analysis, news, and data on international debt an ing world
debt.
World Bank: HIPC. <http://www.worldbank.org/hipc> Detailed information, including progress reports and countr links to
scholarly articles on the issue.
Further Reading:
Dent, Martin,TheandCrisisBill ofPetersPoverty.Ashgate,andDebt1999in. the Third Worl
OCleireacaThin,rd SeamusWorld.Debt andPraeger,International1990. Public Policy.
dc
|73
DNA DATABASE FOR CRIMINALS

DNA evidence is playing an increasing role in c government and the states are building interlin from
people convicted of sex crimes and a few o criminals. Some officials, such as former attorn individuals
arrested. Some police officials, inc DNA from everyone. Many people view extending violation of civil
liberties.
PROS CONS
DNA detection has considerableAlthough DNAadvantagesdetectiovernmighco ventional
fingerprintingfingerprint.Fingerprintsdusting,attache onlte hard surfaces, can be
Environmentalsmeared,orcanfactorsbeavoidedatth using gloves. Comparisonsunlight,ofevenora
bactecleariaprintcan cf a crime scene with a previntdencein mustthe nationalbestoreddatain requires significant
scientifictrolledonditionsexpertise.. CriminaScieti build an accurate DNA profilebyswappingfrom
verysalivasmall.Thereamoui of genetic data, and theyfraudcanin coanalyzingstruct itsampleseven.i been
contaminated by oil,profilewater,is dependentoracidatuponthe tc scene. The accused
shouldined.apprTheciatesmaller novthel numbfin printing technique thatsibilityisboth ofobjectiveerror.
Inand1995acc
was launched into allegatio was drylabbing or faking sons.

Even a complete DNA p length of time a suspect wa the date
in question. The c be a panacea for crime dete
The use of a DNA fingerprintDNAfingerprintingisnotanaffrontwould havto liberties. The procedureerwisefor

thoseakingliablesampleto cofmm is less invasive than tothatproviderequiredasamplefortaking.Indivia sample.
The police alreadysonal possessinformationvastto vmolumertga information; the NationalWhen
CrcitizemeInsforeleasemation inforCente Computer in the UnitedtheyStatesreceivecontainservicefiles relain to
thirtytwo million Americanstogive.a Asamplefornsicof DNA, dath base should be seen in receivethecontextthe
scantofthebenefitpersonal mation that other agenciespoliceholdinvestigation.Insurance. companMoreo
commonly require an extensivecompaniesmedicalofgenetichistoryinformof clients. Mortgage
lendetroversiausuallybecausedemand ofa fullthe pc report on applicants. mationManyemployers.Finally,
subjectcreationtheo employees to random drugthe tesattingtude. Ifofwegovernmentareprepa to place our
personal informationcitizen,someinfromthe theprivatemome why can we not trust itreatedtothe aspolice?
apotentialLawenforccrim officials will use the DNA sample only in the dete of a crime. In short, the innocent
citizen should nothing to fear.
The creation of a DNA Thedatabaseinitialwouldand notcontinuingrequire disproportionate investmentwould

ofbe timeagrossorpublicmisapplireso
PROS CONS
The requisite computerresourcesandlaboratory.Publictecohnfidenceologyis already available. The systemUnited

willStatesneitherhas develobeimproved Combined DNA Index Systemals (CODIS)togive. timeThe
expenseandtissue t of sampling the entirepopulationofbureaucracyofmostcountriededica would be substantial
anddatabaseisunlikely.The fundstobe wouldffsetbeb subsequent saving in policeingmoresources,police
officersbutthisandis of the price for justicepatrol.Popular. support for law order suggests that the public puts a very
high p mium on protection from crime.
Persons who create violentThemostcrimesseriousare unlikelyviolent crimetol conventional fingerprintsare.

mHostwever,commonlythe
NationalcommittedComby
mission
on
the
Future
oftheDNAvictimEvidence.Whnestimatesthesuspectsthat
30%
of
crime
scenes
containtion
isthesuperfluousblood,semen,.Moreover,sal of the perpetrator. DNAcrimdetesctionanbe cansolved,identifyorcrimithe
guilty even when the policewizardryhave. Unlessoobviousthe DNAsuspectis
cause for aggression, violent A DNA database is not intended to
replace conven-tional criminal investigationsThereis. aTheseriousdatabaseriskwouldthat i tify potential
suspects,denceeachto ofthewhomexclusioncould ofthenmatb investigated by more
conventionalsuspectinnocentmeans..Moreover,Criminalt trials frequently featurenot
expertsonlythepresentingpolice,butscientialso dence. The jury systemby isscienceactually.It
aseemsbastionunlikelyagai conviction on account ofto complicatedcomprehend or,scientificmoreimporfact the
genetic data and associatedgeneticinformationevidenceisfromnot thecon sive or is not
presentedthatwithforensicsufficientevidenceclarity,has thcl obliged to find the defendantvicted individualsnotguilty.
butO.J.mightSimps was acquitted of the murderscarriagesof ofNicoleits Brown. Simp-son and Ron Goldman in spite
of compelling DNA evidence linking him to the scene of the crime.
The increased use of DNA evidence will minimize the risk of future wrongfulWeconvicdonotionsneed. Ana
databaseFBIstudytoin cates that since 1989 offendersDNAevidence.Whenhas theexcludedpolicethea initial suspect
in
25%
theyofsexualought
assaulttocreatecasesDNA.Morepr
forensically
valuable
theDNA
crimeanbescenefounddataon.evidenceLikewis that has existed for decadesbetakenandifthusthereassist coincernrev
previous miscarriages ofwronglyjusticonvicted. of a crime.
Sample Motions:
This House would have a criminal DNA database. This House would give away its DNA.
This
House would catch a crook by his genes.
Web Links:
National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence - http: Part of the larger National Institute of Justice website
to
maximize the value of forensic DNA evidence
Shadow Article, Anti-DNA Database - http://shadow.autono. Detailed essay outlining the reasons for opposing a broa
|75
From Crime Scene to Courtroom - http://www.ornl.gov/h A 1999 essay stressing the benefits of and problems in
director
of the National Commission on the Future of DNA
How Stuff Works - http://www.howstuffworks.com/dna-evid Detailed explanation of DNA fingerprinting for the lay
Genelex, DNA Profilers - http://www.genelex.com/paterni Detailed discussion of the use of DNA evidence in the
Further Reading:
Norah Rudin andIntroductionKeithInmanto.2ndForensiced.CRCDNAPress,Analysis2001..
Gerald
SheindlinGeneticFingerprinting:.Routledge,TheLaw and1996Science. of DN
dc
DRILLING IN THE ARCTIC NATION REFUGE

In 2002, the US Congress rejected a motion that grounds that the area was ecologically sensitive debate
to engage in. Supporters of drilling clai ANWR would help reduce that dependence. Opponen drilling in
ANWR would not significantly reduce
PROS CONS
An oil pipeline runs throughDrillingANWRwouldanddisruptthesamecer argument (ecology) was

areasused.toAlaskaattempthastocaribouoppose
h
pipelines
construction;ANWRhowseasonally,ver,the
pipelineanddrilliac increased caribou numbersing. andPerhapspotentiallykeystonreducinspe are not as key
as hasrevbeenaledsupposedthatother. key spe
line.
Substantial amounts of Drtimellingand wouldenergyundercutareneededav drilling (in some

casesneedyears)in.theIf futurewedo. notThe putUS exploration and drillingrecourse,stuctureit isn
dependentplacenow, wont be at hand in timescrisis,ofcrisishowever,. drilling i for a limited time. So we
s
to
hold those reserves for
Consumption is inevitableOil.developmentPropnents isof unjustifrenewab energy have not made

erbcleatesrhowtheopeningproblemsANWRof co would delay a transitionrelyto uporenewablefossilenergyfuels,.
Opethe ANWR could speed up theble:transitionthevitalbyshiftmakingto ther US more dependent on
foreignshould beoil takenintheto futurelimit (ofu the ANWR reserves were increasdepleted) useand
ofthushybrgived carmo of an incentive to convert.
Proposed development mayProposedneedtolimitedbespreaddevelopmeout,b

seasonaldredsof tomilesavoidintodisruptionpristin
drilling
can
be
made
PROS CONS
animal migration. Cariboumajorherdservemoveunderinto ANWR; rat during specific and

predictableseveralreservestimes,.thusThus,drillingeven be scheduled, which wouldment,reducethe
damagetheeffectwouldofcoveroil d ing.
Sample Motions:
This House supports measures to allow oil development in AN This House believes ecology should be valued over developme This
House maintains that limited development in the ANWR i
Web Links:
1 ANWR. <http://www.anwr.org/>
This introductory-level Web site provides justifications for pects for drilling in the Arctic. Offers links to fact shee
DOE Fossil EnergyStrategic Petroleum Reserve. <http://ww Government-sponsored neutral site provides a basic history they
serve. Contains quick facts and an up-to-date status o
Save the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. <http://www.sav This site provides a detailed analysis of the issues involv
Further Reading:
Hiscock,TheBruceBig.CaribouBoyds MillsHerd. Press, 2003.
House CommitteeHaringsonResonurces,Arctic104thCoastalCongPlain.,1stLeasesings., Augus
dc
DRUGS IN SPORTS
Over the past decades, the Olympic Games have foc Delegations have quietly withdrawn on the eve of t of
their medals as a result of testing positive fo Caminiti alleged that a large percentage of player mandatory drug
testing for professional baseball p
The use of steroids has not been confined to profe performance-enhancing drugs in high school and col the
fairness of some of the resulting bans. Some
PROS CONS
Using performance-enhancingOnce somedrugspeopleisan chooseissue oftofru dom of choice. If
athletesinfringewish onto thetakefreedomdrugs inof sec of improved performances,Athletesthemare
doveryso.drivenThey harmindi nobody but themselves andlengtshouldsto beachievetreatedtheiras adulgoa capable
of making rationalgold medaldecisionsintwon yearsthe basistime widely available informatseriousn. longWeshouldterm healthnotforbidprob them performance-enhancingathletesdrugsfromeventhemselvesifsuchdrugsand have longterm adverseperformanceeffects.We-enhancingvent outlaweddrugs. tobacco and boxing, which are proven health
risks.
What
is the distinctionWherebetweento drnaturalwthe andlineunnaturbetwee
|77
PROS CONS
enhancement? Athletes
mateuse allperfsormancetsof
enhancemendietarysu ments,
exercises,
equipment,maybe,clothing,weshouldtrainingnonethelere
medical
treatments,
etcfirs.,to,
toimproveprotecttheirathlpetesrforf There is nothing naturalpreserveabouthetakingspiritvitaminoffairp or
wearing whole-bodybetweenLycra suitshuman. beingsDet, mediciatthe technology, and even coEachingting
aalreadybalancedgivedietan andrt advantage to those athletesareclearlywhocanin afforddifferthentbe all these
aids.
As
thereand
isgrowthnoclearhormonesway.toWedistsho
between
legitimate
and
thisillegitimatedistinctionartificialandaimaidfo formance, they should allcompetitionsbeallowed..
Legalizing performance-Legalizationnhancingdrugsis verylevelsbadthefo ing field. Currently, suspicionmanceehancingboutdrugsuseleadssur every sport and every successfullems,incudingathletesteroid.Those rac itors
who dont take performancecharacteristics-enhancingfemaledrugs themselves as (and oftengreatlyre)
disadvantagreducedlifed.expectTher no tests for some drugs,addictiveand,in. any case, new me and chemical
advances mean that cheaters will alw be ahead of the testers. Legalization would remov uncertainty and allow
everyone to compete openly fairly.
Legalizing these drugs Spectatorswillprovideenjoybettertheentertacompe for spectators. Sport

hrastherbecomethana individualbranchof thepr tainment business, andbetterthepublicthan ademandsnocontesthighein faster, stronger from larly,thletesthey. Ifenjoydrugdisplays-ueallo letes to continually
breakpower.recordsInany orcase,makeswhy footsho players bigger and moreof excitingathletes
toforwatch,thesakewhy ofd the spectators what they want, especially if the want to give it to them?
Current rules are veryWhatarbitraryabout theand children?unfair.ForEv ple, the Olympics forbingds
athletesdrugswerefromlegalizedusingcold icines, even in sportsyouwherecontrolthe thestimulantsproblem
inamot medicines would have minimalletes traineffectsalongsideperformanadult There is also the
possibilityManywouldthatsuccumbsomepositotheive
t
simply
the
result
of
usingtousea
drugscombinationiftheseof
werelegalw
supplements.
Cyclists
endorsedlegally
haveby
leghealizationrtoperatio.Y allow increased circulationmakefullyand thusrational,improveinformper mance, but
they would ing,bebanned theif theyhealthwereimpacttou performance-enhancing drwougsld. be even worse
than fo
of performance-enhancing dr itive message about drug cu

use of recreational drugs evils more widespread.
In many countries bansLegalizationperformancediscrimi-enhancingates drugs fail to stand upfromin

creaourting.Thea levegal playibasi drug testing and the subsequenttiltitin barringfavorofofthosetransa sors from
further participationwithadvancedis openmedicalto challandp both as restraint of tradeAthletesand
invasionfrompoorerof privacynation
PROS CONS
governing bodies often tofightcompeteand loseontalentsuch courtalone.cas wasting vast sums of money.
If drugs were legal, thReyformcouldis bepreferablecontrolledto andsurremo tored by doctors, makingregimthem

ismuchnotsaferperfect,.Athletesbutbeo
drugs
today
often
take
funding,farmore
plusthan
sanctionsneededforagainperf mance enhancement becauseand ofsportsignorancecould andgreatlyhe needimpr for
secrecy. Legalization spwortsuld. facilitate the exch of information on drugs, and open medical supervisio will avoid
many of the health problems currently as ciated with performance-enhancing drugs.
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize the use of performance-enhancing This House would win at all costs.
This
House believes your pharmacist is your best friend.
Web Links:
Performance Enhancing Drugs. <http://esc.calumet.purdue.e performance_enhancing_drugs.htm#Performance%20Enhancing

%20D Provides links to information on steroids, blood doping, an performance-enhancing drugs of all types.
Sports
Supplements
Danger.
CONTENT<>cnt_id=59279&FOLDER<>folder_id=18151&bm
Overview
<http://www.consumerreports.or
detail.jsp?
of issues surrounding the use of sports supplement
Further Reading:
Kuhn, Cynthia, Scott Schwartzwelder,Pumped:StraightandFactsWilkieforWilsonAthletes. a ingNorton,. 2000.
Yesalis,
Charles,TheandSteroidsVirginiaHumanGameKinetics,S..Cowart,1998.
dc
DRUG-TESTING IN SCHOOLS
The right of schools to randomly test students fo Vernonia School,theDistrictUSSupremev.ActonCourt ruled
that sch years later the US Court of Appeals for the Sevent all participants in extracurricular activities, b was
not suspected of taking drugs. In 2002 the US competitive extracurricular activities. Does soc
PROS CONS
Drug use among teenagersOurisjusticaclearsystemandpresentisbasedpro lem. Current measures topersontackleis
drugsinnocentattheuntilsourcepro imprisoning dealers andrandombreakingdrugthetestingsupply(therebychain) not
succeeding. It is studentsespeciallywhoimportantarenot suspectetoprot teenagers at an impressionablethemas
guiltyageanduntilattheproventime iw
|79
PROS CONS
their attitude to educationthesacrificegreatly ofaffectsthehumanthei lives. Some sacrifice of human rights is

necessar tackle the drug problem.
Students who do not takeInnocentdrugs havestudenothingtsdo havetofes lation of privacy and loss test.
The purpose of random drugOthertesmetinghodsisofnotpreventingsomuch catch offenders but to

siveprvent.Theseall includestudentsencourafrom ing in the first place.ties, fostering better rela
problems
of poverty and saf
Peer pressure is the primaryTeenagers,causeespeciallyofexperimentadrug-with drugs. Discouragingby

rebelliondruguse andmongtheathleteschance model students, etc., cosenian,ds BigpowerfulBrothermes
styleage to entire student body. ing will only provoke resen dents to break the law. Pee unite
against school author
Urine, hair, and breathDrugsamplesuserscanwillbe usedonly tourndet of most common drugs, inficludingultto
test,marijuana,such ascocainde heroin, and methamphetamigenest. before being tested.
Sample Motions:
This House supports random drug testing in schools. This House believes in a students right to privacy.
Web Links:
Reported Drug Use by Potential Targets of Random School athlete.html>
Short essay presenting evidence that random drug testing
Substance Abuse Resource Center. <http://www.jointogeth General site offering links to current news on drug-relat
Further Reading:
Ligocki, DrugKennethTesting:B. WhatScarborough,WeAllNeed1996to.Know.
dc
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT VS. ENVI

The issue of economic development versus environ Industrialized nations, ironically those that a
development in the Third World will have disastr clearing of tropical forests for farmland is thr to fuel
economic growth adds more pollutants to industrialization and economic development a pr address
current problems; they cannot afford to
PROS CONS
Taking
care
of
the
millionsWehaveofwastedpeopleandwhodestroyedarestarv
is
more
important
thanresources,savingnaturalandinresources,doing hamo of which are renewable Weanywaymust. preserve Earth
for fu
The industrialized worldsNoonemphasiswants toon stopprotectingeconomit environment shackles
developgivemillionsngcountriesbetter andlivescon.-B tributes to and widensablethe
developmentgreatdividethatbetweenintegrath First and Third Worlds.ardship,Bylimitingsocialthe
justice,developmentand profitable but pollutingcannotidustriessupportlikeunrestrictedsteelor oig ing, we are
sentencing nations to remain economical backward.
Economic development isUncheckedvitalforpopulationmeeting thegrowthbasich needs of the growing

populationsanynationof ThirdandonWorldthe enticoun tries. If we do not
permitlationindustrialization,growthwillresultthesein will have to
implementandmeasureswillpreservetolimitthepopulationenviron growth just to preserve vital resources such as wat
Obviously the world wouldNationsbe betterarelosingf allmorenationsfrom abided by strict

environmentalgainingfromrulesindustrializatio.Thereality that for many nations plesuch. Twentyadherenceyearsis
ofnotuncontroinhe larger interests. For mentexample,have closingcreated Chinasserious,massch Capital Iron and
Steelworks,hasincreasedwhichecologistshealthproblemspoint as a major polluter,
wouldagriculturalcost40,000lossesjobsof. billioTheun form application of stricttrollenvironmentaldgrowthis
notpoliciesonly dewo create insurmountable barriersment,it tois economicalsounsoundprogressecon
Rapid industrializationTechnologicaldoesnothaveprogresstoput morehas mapr sure on the environmentin.

Technologicaltheirabilitiesadvancestocontrolhav
made
industries
much
saferhalf
aforcenturytheenvironmenttheworlds.
Fornu
example,
nuclear
generatingleast
threeplants
seriouscanprovideaccidentsmore energy than coal whileThreecontributingMileIslandfar (US,less 1979),togl
warming.
types of
We are also exploring1986).Inalternative,addition,therenewabnucl

fuel.
cannot store its waste safely
The
Green
Revolution
Thase
GreendoubledRevolutionthesizeisofthreatgrai
harvests.
Thus,
cuttingthedownThirdmoreWorldforestsby
replacingorendange
ing
fragile
ecosystems
Wetodoprovidenotknowmorewhatspacethe
forlongcr-is
no
longer
necessary.economicWenow
haveconsequthencesknowledgewill bet feed the worlds increasingtheshortpopulationrun,suchwithouthybridharmicr
the environment. environmental problems. The fa
which is expensive, must buy because the seed cannot be sa
years crops. Farmers using h was the richest part of India fertile
lands lay idle and un and desertification.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that environmental concerns should alwa
and Third Worlds.
|81
This House believes that economic growth, even at the exp to feed the rising world population.
Web Links:
Center for International Environmental Law. <http://www Offers a review of major international environmental agre free
trade on sustainable development.
International Institute for Sustainable Development. <h Describes institute activities and offers reports and res
United Nations Environmental Programme: Division of Tec Presents information on UN programs associated with susta
Further Reading:
Bartelmus,Environment,Peter. Growth and Development:Routledge,TheConcepts1994.
Cole, MatthTradew Liberalisation,A. EconomicEdward GrowthElgar, and2000the. Envi
Kageson,GrowthPer.Versus the Environment:Kluwer,1998Is. There a Trade-Off?
Lomborg,TheBjornSkeptical. Environmentalist:CambridgeMeasuringUniversitytheRealPr
dc
ECONOMIC SANCTIONS VS. ENGAGE

Economic sanctions are one of the most controver policy and democratize countries. Sanctions hel
brought down its communist government. China ha The question of whether to use trade to effect to be
hurting that countrys civilian populatio
PROS CONS
Free trade brings aboutMostdemocratizationdictatorial oligarchieinthree It permits a flow of
informationusuallycreasesfromWestthernir couwea tries; it raises a nationsanyleveragestandardoverof
living;themoncea tates the growth of a middleintotheclassfree. Thesetrade farenactors. ate internal pressure
andcommunityconsequentchosepoliticalnottoimpoch economic freedom leads becausetopoliticalis
freedomavaluable.Freeec helped bring about thetrade,downfallspecioficallyommunismMFN statin Eastern
Europe and is Chinabeginningto improvetoincreasehumanfreedrig in China. When the UnitedradeStatescan
leadlinkedto mostdemocratfavo nation (MFN) status tomentsimprovemenagainsts whichinhumansanctio rights,
China made onlypermittokenthgesturesgrowth tof improveamidd rights record to maintaindownMFNto
statusthepeopl.Deep. Instrealuct changes in human rightsChineseanylivingcountrystandardscomeonlyby with
unlimited free tradeout. of business and forcing
tional
corporations that pa
Sanctions are ineffectiveSanctions.For areexample,effectiveFranceas Russia currently have

inopenlySouthbreachedAfrica andinternatiotheywo sanctions against
Iraqdesiabec.useGranted,oftheirtheycompletecan ure. Sanctions
againstveryCuba,peopleHaiti,theyandareBurmadesignha also proved useless
becausetheblackmanypopulationnationsdoofnotSou ognize them. In addition,Mandelaonce
hassanctionsdthatre thein p
PROS CONS
the government of the countrybecause beingithelpedsanctionedendaparthekeep all available resources, ensuring

that sanctions adv affect only the people. In the case of Iraq, sanct have led to terrible suffering.
Sanctions
block
the
flowSanctiofoutsidenssendinformationstrongmessint
a
country,
thus
permittingcountrydicthatatorstheto Westernusepropagaworl to strengthen their ownoppositressionve. regimePeople.
cannot beli such propaganda is false when there are no competin external claims.
Sample Motions:
This House would put trade relations above human rights. This House believes in free trade.
This
House would make money not war.
This
House would engage, not estrange, nondemocratic nation
Web Links:
Cato Institute Center for Trade Policy Studies. <http://w Site advocating free trade includes essays on China, the Cu
Iraq: Sanctions: The Private Weapon. <http://www.iacenter Site advocating the lifting of US and UN sanctions against
USA Engage. <http://usaengage.org/>

Information on current US sanctions and potential sanctions unilateral US action.
A Users Guide to Economic Sanctions. <http://www.heritag Essay on the effectiveness of economic sanctions from a con
Further Reading:
Crawford,
Neta, Howand SanctionsAudieKlotz,Work:edsPalgrave,Lessons.from1999South. Afric
Simons,ImposingGeoff. Economic Sanctions:PlutoLegalPress,Remedy1999.or Genocida
dc
ELECTORAL COLLEGE, ABOLITION O

The presidential election of 2000 gave new promin George W. Bush, Bush won the election because his this
outcome demonstrated clearly that the Electo its usefulness. To others, however, the result dem had worked
as it was designed to do.
PROS CONS
The
president
should
beThetheElectoralpersonchosenCollegeby
ensuresthegre
est
number
of
Americans,presidentviahehaspopularbroad
votesupport.Thet
Electoral
College
violatesWithoutthisthemandatecollge,in principlecandidat sometimes in practice. only to heavily populated urb
The Electoral College Thewas principleestablishedbehindata thetimeElecwhe the people were not
trustedtheprincipletochoosethatwisely;determinesseat too, were initially notSenate,chosenwhereinbypopularevey
vostate. Thi
|83
PROS CONS
system should be changedits tosizetrust.Thethecollegewisdomisofan American people. federalism, which gives

the
tant rights.
The Electoral College ThesystemElectoralgives greatColleger weighforce votes cast in lightly
populatedbroadlythroughoutstates.Thetheresultcoun vote cast for the presidentvotes byof
asNewmanyYorkerstatescountas than a vote cast by a NorthcandidatesDakotan;will thisspendinequalallt
inherently unfair. states with the greatest nu
smaller
states.
The lightly populated Minoritystatesthatvotearse couldprivilegedbesa Electoral College systemin

arenationaloverwhelminglyelectionwhitethat
effect,
the
system
discountsapopularthemajorityworthof.
Butvoesbec minorities living in urbanmine whoareaswinsand majorityexacerbatesan racial imbalance of
poweragiveninthestate,countryheir. influe
system.
The
current
winner-takeBecause-allsystemnocandidateeffectivelycan
wie
nates
third-party
candidates,absoluteastheymajoritycannotofwinele Electoral College votesColletogeainpromotesffice.theThe
strengresul electoral process is preandisposedthatsystemtothepromostateus thqu change and progress
arecountrydiscouraged..
Too much latitude is givThen Constitutoelectionors indesignedthepr system; in some states,incelectorsudea

seariesnotofrequiredchecks their votes for the candidatestoralCollegewho haveispartwon ofthethp ular vote in
their statleges. isElectorsmeant toshouldlimitnottheh power to disregard the iswillpossibleofthe
inpeopleunr.strained
Sample Motions:
This House supports the abolition of the Electoral Colleg This House values the will of the people over the rights
Web Links:
Center for Voting and Democracy: The Case Against the E electoral_college.htm>
Web site argues for abolition, with news items and links
The Electoral College. <http://www.fec.gov/pages/ecmenu The Web site of the Federal Election Commission explains in
favor of retaining the Electoral College.
In Defense of the Electoral College. <http://www.cato.o Think tank Web site offers essay in favor of retaining Co
Further Reading:
Abbott,
David W.Wrong,and Winner:JamesP.TheLvineComing.Praeger,Debacle 1991inthe. E
Hardaway,TheRobertElectoralM. College and the Constitution:Praeger,1994.The
Pierce,
Neal R., andThe LawrencePeoples President:D.Longley.The Electoral C
AlternYaletiveUniversity. Press, 1981.
dc
ENVIRONMENTALLY LINKED AID

Many parts of the developing world have begun indu environmental concerns, some individuals and grou
carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbon. The interna would tie development aid to environmental standa
especially low emissions would receive extra aid.
PROS CONS
The scientific communityEnvironmentalsalmost unanimouspressure groupsin believing that
emissionsevidenceareseriouslyforclimatedamagichange.th world ecosystem. The
mostoccurring,seriouspollutionthreatisis climatnotn change. The effects of resultglobal
fromwarmingnaturalincludevariationincre ing desertification andindicatesrisingeahavelvelsoccurred.In addiinthi El
Nio phenomenon occurs more often. Air pollution has also resulted in increased acid rain and a grow hole in the
ozone layer.
The industrialization Thisoftheis smalljust anumbernew formf develofi oped countries caused countriesvirtually
haveall the problemsrightto ld out above. If developingindustriallycountries,justwhichas havedevelopeabou five
times the populationalizationofthe willdevelopedimproveworld,the liwe to industrialize unchecked,people
thethroughouteffect couldtheglobe.ca strophic. For example, tionrisingwillsealeadlevelsto ecwouldnomicfloodst lions
of homes in low-estlyingcountriesareas.uchThis,as Baingladesturn, Increased crop failuretiwonuldin
killthesemanynationsmore. by star vation. Developed countries might be able to protec themselves from these
effects, but developing count would not. The developing world has not acted to pr vent environmental disaster and
so the developed wor must act to save literally billions of lives.
The UN could design initialDeveopedstandardscountriessothatare allhypocrde oping countries could

emissionsmeetthe
goalsfrom
developingandreceivecouai
If
they
spend
this
developmlittlenthemselvesaidwisely,.ThedevelopiUnited
countries
could
industrializeworlds
biggestinan
environmentallpolluter,con clean way. In the long environmrun,thentalcombintreatiesdapproabechauso extra
rewards for successfulinterestcountriesdoesnot andappeaserioustob tions for unsuccessful rightcountridoes
shouldthedevelopedensure succworl
developing world about emissi
Developed countries shouldAskingbe theguardiansUNEPtoofsettheemissiplan expressly because theysiblehave
becauseterriblebothhistorydevelopedof luting. They must preventwouldunhinderedtrytoinflinduencestrializatitheag
elsewhere. tries would lobby for very re
to decrease the threat from c countries would demand standa
would have no effect.
Even if environmentalistsThishaveproposalexaggeratedhasserioustheir conla
|85
PROS CONS
the threat from environmenbilityal. First,pollutiondevelopedisstillco enough to require actionenforce.The

regulapotentionsal benefitagainst acting to save the planetsingpartnerecosystemand farthe outweiglinchpi
downside. (We are not wcorldsncedingfastestthat thegrowingclaimspol exaggerated, merely
thatcounitries,does notparticulamatterlyeventho are.) dards, would resent such ou
withholding aid could cause subsequent rise of dictator form

alliances that threate rush to develop, these stat because
developed countries over them.
Sample Motions:
This House would link aid to emissions reductions.
This
House believes that the environment must come first.
Web Links:
World Bank Development Education Program. <http://www.w Information on sustainable development for teachers and s
World Bank: Environmentally and Socially Sustainable De Information on World Bank initiatives promoting sustainab
Further Reading:
Bossel,EarthHartmut.a Crossroads:.CambridgePathsto UniversityaSustainablePrss,Futu1
Carty, Winthrop,In andthe ElizabethShadowof Leethe. First World:ChicagoTheEnvi
Review
Press, 1995.
Daly, HBermanyond. Growth: The EconomicsBeacon,of 1997Sustainable. Develop

Gupta,EcologyAvijit.and DevelopmentRoutledge,inthe1998Third. World.
Miller, MarianTheThirdA. LWorld. in .GlobalLynne EnvironmentalRienner,1995.Politics
dc
ETHICAL FOREIGN POLICY

For centuries, the foreign policy of most Wester the nation. In the United States, which traditi realpolitik
and a desire to act out of humanita genocide in Africa forced Western nations to con threatened intervene
in other countries solely f
PROS CONS
Western governments mustIf pursueethicalan foreethigncal policyforeig policy. This
translateswheintoeverthetherephiloisophyamoralthat us to act whenever
therehopelesslyisamoralnaveimperativenotion. toGo
by practical concerns. For tain nations might be uneth stops
such sales, citizens are purchased elsewhere.
Lobbyists should not influenceInarepresentativeforignpolicydemocra.It
PROS CONS
be above special interestsimpossibleandshould.Moreover,focuson thedoi what is right. nation may be what special
in
The argument for ethicalWe concedeforign thepolicyprincipleisstrongebut when the West
confrontsveningheinousmightcrimesmake inmatteforseignwor lands, such as genocidemindfulRwandaof
broaderorethnicconcleansierns, in the Balkans. In bothforeignplaces,countrytheWestand whathad aacticle moral
imperative for activeinotherinvolvementnations.Takingouractionan could save lives and
freetowardpeopleAfricanfrom problems,ionopprfor.
West
look like neo-imperialis
In many cases, such asInterventionthatofKosovobeforein athesituati1990s the humanitarian imperativemore

livesdemandsin intthervelongtion:run. WeB must act because if wehorrible,dontpeoplebutforeignwillsufferpolicyan
die.
Taking
the
pragmaticlongappteroachm;itbasedcannotonbea
bcasredf
assessment
of
national
aninterimmestsdiatecostsituationlives.
Ethical foreign policyThemansWeststandisinconsistentguptoregimeina that discriminate amongforeigntheir

peopleolicy. We mustintervenedsend clear message about ourgenocide,values. but we have not int
persecution of minorities in ing force is what is possibl Why lie
about it?
Sample Motions:
This House would have an ethical foreign policy.
This
House believes politics is the art of the necessary no
Web Links:
1 Foreign Policy. <http://www.foreignpolicy.com>
Journal
specializing in analysis and comment on foreign pol
Foreign Affairs. <http://www.foreignaffairs.org>
Journal
sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations, expl
Further Reading:
Forsythe,HumanDavidRightsP. in .InternationalCambridgeUnivRelationsrsityPress, 2000.
Hitchens, TheChristopherTrialofVerso,.Henry 2001Kissinger..
dc
EUROPEAN DEFENSE FORCE

In recent years, particularly in light of the wars debated the creation of a European Defense Force ( operate
under EU control, in contrast to NATO, whi around the proposed role of NATO in the postCold borders of the
European Union.
|87
PROS CONS
The EU must have a defenseNATO haspolicysuccessfullyindependentdefenof NATO. With its origins ernin
theEuropeColdforWar
decadesandits.
domWh
nation
by
the
United
States,problemNATOcouldcarriesEuropeangreatD of historical and geopoliticalNATOcouldbaggagenot?In.
NATOany casecann easily intervene in EasterntoconsiderEuropeRussiaswithout seincursib Russias
displeasure.
Theern
EDFEuropewill.
FarallowbethetrEUtoto
with
crises
in
Easternpowerand
CeandtralgeopoliticalEuropemoreclouef tively than can NATO becauseating withthe EURussiawill.
notCreatinghave tiptoe around Russia. will marginalize NATO and t
lead to reduced US engageme in turn, diminish the EUs

The EU has achieved significantEUmembersintegrationfrequentlyofdisagand vergence
politicalnomicandissueseconomic.Memberspheresintere.In
tion
of
defense
onandthethethornyestablishmentareaof
deofena
pean
Defense
Force
prioritiesthelogicalwillnextultimatelystep.
country wishes to see its s that is not strategically i
in
the
policy
are
NATO has shown the EU NATOthat and stheandingproposedmultinaEDF- a tional defense force
isverypossibledifferent.Theconcernpropos.edNAE could follow its
examplenificantandcomplementsituationsitin. which are likely to adopt a commo
trast, the EDF is targeted dents that would be benea their
nature, these inciden effects on EU members. Ther achieve
consensus on how to
With the growing industrialEvenifandwe economicassumethatmaturitthe of the EU and its membercosts, theof
aEUstandingcouldnowmilitaaffor to have a standing defensepoliticalforceand.TheeconproposedmicbarE would
also create a greatAmong manythesejobsbarriersforEuaropeae:H defense industries. common defense policy?
Will
only defense or will it inc the nature of its command s its
supplies and equipment members use? These questio
economic considerations tha tinuous contention that wil EDF.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in a European Defense Force.
This
House believes that Europe should defend itself.
Web Links:
Janes: Defence. <http://www.janes.com/defence> Offers news on European defense concerns.
Further Reading:
Nye, JosUndephrstanding. International.Longman,2002Conflicts.
EUROPEAN FEDERALIZATION
The members of the European Union (EU) are current suggestion is the creation of a federal structure would
be responsible for defense, foreign affairs, authorityin some cases the individual nations of education, as
American states do. Supporters of de and local authorities, further weakening the natio
PROS CONS
A
federal
Europe
wouldNationalbuildonidentitythesuccessand
differofthe
EU
and
its
predecessorsimportant.Itwouldthantamesupposedlythenationalsha ism that caused so manyExistinghorrors
nationalinthetwentiethgovernmentsce tury and realize the visionmodels.of Theitsefoundersrecognizeforthean h
closer union. While nationaleconomic governmentsdistinctivenessexistofthe will regard policy makingimportantas
cfompetitivecusforthebusinesloyal damaging the potentialfurtherprosperitypowerofisallremofvedEuropefrom citizens.
A federal Europeandetachedstheyate canare frombuildtheon deth shared history and cultureaccountableofits
powermembersbecomes,tofurthan the common good while ernmentaccommodatingisto regionalmakebothdifbad- d
ferences. badly. A federal system can d
of millions of people.
A federal system in whichForcingdecisionpeoplemaking directionoccursa the lowest appropriate

islevelfraughtcombineswith maximumdanger. effecAni tiveness with maximum aaccountfederalbilityEurope.
Citizenscouldraisegain the advantages of livingings, promoteaneconomically,therise ofmilitapop and politically
powerfulphobicstateagendas,andincreaseandendangerindivid
opportunities
for
work,A
Esturopedy,
etcof.NaAtions,thesamenot tima they preserve the advantagpreservesof livingthecurrentina smallerbenefit
connection to the politicalrisks ofprocess;furtherrespectunwanedforpol cultural traditions; and responsiveness to
differin nomic and physical situations. The checks and balanc of a federal system prevent tyranny and increase wil
obedience to laws.
A
federal
Europe
is
betterAfederalequippedEuropeto
maypromotedamagethe
interests
of
its
citizens.internationallyRussiawouldalmostbecausecer have more influence thanstathecomposedsumof itsof
itsindivitradualiti states do now. FurthermoEuropeane,Europestatehaswouldalotresulttoconi tribute to the world
inmakingterms currentofits liberalNATOmemberstraditio political culture, providinginsecureboth.Inevitably,partner
itandwouldan sary balance to the UnitedpartnershipStates inwithglobalthe Unitedaffairs
pays a disproportionate amoun costs.

The success of other federalEurope isstatesnot Australia,inprovidingwhicpe and prosperity for
theirhomogeneouscitizens immwhilegrantssafeguardi.Cana democracy points to theQubecadvantagesshow
thatofthisculturalmodel.andT United States, Australica,n andbe politicallyCanadahave destabilizstandards
|89
PROS CONS
living that most EuropeansBrazilwouldan envy,theSovietwhile UnioIndi the best example of a humanlongtermrightsdemocraticproblems,succesand the developing world. opment. EU members often ha
interests in what would be defense and foreign policy, trade.
Federalism allows for Existiregionalg statesidentitiescandecentr.g., Spains Basquesin a

wayndnationalFrance havestatesbothcannshowedt. federal Europe minoritymanygroupsha dwoneuldsincenot
feel1945.undS threat from a dominant ratistcultureterrorists.Long-runningtheconflBa could be resolved
becausegratissuesdeal of regionalsovereigntyautow be less relevant withinisthes. new political structu
National sovereignty isEuropeincreasinglyshould beirrelevantwider, noas of globalization. The

developmentglobalconomy.Peacdemands prostha multinational corporations,providedwhichby canthe
pitaccessionnational ernments against each EUother.Givenin searchtheformerof economimmu advantage, be
tamed.
A
natedfederalpastEuropeofmanywouldof
bethesepo
erful
enough
to
demandtohighagainstandardsgivetheirof indepenbehavio from such companies andon couldthe
creationmakegreaterofsinglediff ence on environmental issuesalreadylikedelayedglobalenlargementwarming.
if
deeper integration becom
Sample Motions:
This House would create a United States of Europe. This House believes in a federal Europe.
This House would pursue an ever-closer union. This House would go deeper.
Web Links:
The Bruges Group. <http://www.eurocritic.demon.co.uk/br British organization offering articles and speeches in op
The European Movement. <http://www.euromove.org.uk> Information about the European Movement, an organization
citizens.
The European Party. <http://www.europeanparty.org> Information on the party, which supports reform of the cu
The Federal Trust. <http://www.cix.co.uk/~fedtrust> Provides summaries of major speeches on the EU issues inc
Further Reading:
Brown-John,FederalC.Lloyd,-TypeedSolutions.UniversityandEuropeanPress IntegratioofAmerica
Siedentop,DemocracLarry.ColumbiainEuropeUniversity. Press, 2001.
dc
EXTREMIST POLITICAL PARTIES, B

Extremist political parties can be taken to mean be considered extremist, usually the members must In the
past few years a number of groups that have European countries.
PROS CONS
Free speech does not existWealreadyin havevacuumlaws.Itthatcan regbe restrained specificallyspeechinthis

slander,caseonlibel,groundsetcof. Yh Extremism as hate speechspeechthat incausesdemocharmacyto
mustminoribe ties is a justifiable reasonelseweforiskcurbingturningfreeintospeechthe
extremist
groups support.
Private and public thoughtDelineatingandspeechsuch aredifferencentrinsic different. The former isous.to Ifbe
onepreserved,isinvitedbut intothe ls has an impact on other makepeoplewhatthatwouldcan be harmful;publicspi
this speech we are seekingany case,torestrainalthough. politician promote intolerance and discr
rarely do they directly call impact are we seeking to avoi
The
recent
rise
in
popularityWhatriseofinrightextremism?-wngextremLePe
parties
across
Europe,heexemplifiedmoderated
hisby
theextremistsuccessme
Jean-Marie
Le
Pen
in
thersultinitialoftheroundfracturingofthe
Frencoft
presidential
elections,andshowshis
thatFrontappealiNationgaltoPartyvote extremist grounds can beAssemblyasuccessful.Thedraconianstrategy.lawWe
ph a duty to act against proportionatethreattoouresocietyponse toin athl of extremism.
Merely by being allowedNo toone advocateisdisputheiring theviews,fact extremist parties are

aregivenrepellent,aveer oftenrespectabihallow, The fact that the
vastthroughmajority.Meetingofpeoplethirdisagreeviews irrelevant. Extremists opecannotand
behonestalloweddebateon theare samth democratic ticket as respectable,highlighting prothe-systemflaws
ingroupthe because their mere presence tarnishes the system.
Those who talk of partiesSuch goingpartiesundergroundbenefitfromif gointhey are banned are wrong.
preseBannintg themssuchelvesxtremeas polimartyrsica parties will mean thatbythethevastestablishment,majorityof
whichpeoplei nation never hear of thaveem ora saytheir.Suchviewsantistate.Suchparet will never get
anywhereverywithoutattractivemasssupporttoacrossand pubse licity. dispirited in society.
We have the right to makeMoral judgmentsmoraljudgmentarefione,socibut-ety and its actions.

Weweaknesscandeclareof democracythingsabhorrelies and not justified in
decentchallengesocieity.andSuchmolda functioit.If a role for government
latesinmakitselfnganybylawsdeclaring.Aremovalwho of this moral
dimensiondemocracyfromlawmakingbetrayswouldits verylead bato extreme moral
relativismextremistandanarchyor. far right is
|91
PROS CONS
to repellent views on race, policies worthy of serious
Sample Motions:
This House would ban extremist political parties.
This
House believes an open society must have the right t
Web Links:
Enduring Freedoms. <http://www.enduring-freedoms.org/br Site reports on threats to freedoms, including challenges
European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. <h Site maintained by an organization established by the Eur in
Europe.
Searchlight. < http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/> Site maintained by an organization formed to combat racis
Further Reading:
Fraser,TheNicholasVoice.of Modern Hatred: OverlookTracingthePress,Rise 2001ofNe. George, John, andAmericanLaird
Extremists:M.Wilcox. Militias,. SupremacistPrometheus 1994
dc
FLAT
TAX
The slogan, No taxation without representation The first income tax law was passed in 1862 to s percent
of income paid in taxes depended on lev multiple times. In 1913, the 16th Amendment to law. Since its
inception, the federal income ta tax uses the same percentage rate for everyone,
PROS CONS
US citizens waste too Askingmuchtimecitizensand moneytocompfiletelin out tax forms. Just fillingtopay outfor
ahavingstadardgovernm1040 takes over 13 hours. Overall,itscitizenstaxpayers.Tax dollarsspend6.p2 lion hours
filling out military,IRSforms socialandpaprograms,erwork.I government paid citizensFor
minimummostcitizens,wageto filingdothei taxes, that would amountrecentlyto$32thebillionIRShas yenactear.W
you add in the cost of helptax professionals,taxpayers.It hasthe acostto pliance could be as highand as
comprehensive$194billion accordWebsitn the Tax Foundation. Clearly,professionalsthese costsare
usuallyaretoot and drain too many resourcesindividualsfrom theryingecontomyfind. w
tax would limit or do away increase taxes for those wi

The only homeowners whoThewillcurrbentnegtaxtivelysystemaffectallo by the flat tax will bethetheinterestrich.
Atheypaper,pay Theont Tax and Housing Values,incomewrittentaxesby. ThisJ. Dcreates.Foster
PROS CONS
Tax Foundation executivebecomedirectorhomeowners,andchiefthuseconomisstren says that owners of homesand

neighborhoodscurrentlypriced.If atthisarounin $100,000 or below shouldpeopleactuawilly wantsee toa
significanpurchase increase in the value homesofthewillrhomelose. mFosterney. says t owners of homes in the
$200,000 range similarly hav little to fear even with a pure flat tax, as the net the various proposed tax changes
seems to leave the with little hope of a windfall, but little fear of cant loss. Only owners of homes that cost more than
about $300,000 may see a modest decline in the valu of their home.
A flat tax would increaseCitizensprivacyare. Inprotthectedcurrentby mansy IRS employees have accessulateto
themanyprivacydetailsofaboutthe ainfope sons savings, investmentsIRS.
andWhenassets,applyingpropertyforloanshold and retirement
savings.actions,Corporatsimilaronsalsotypesmustofdisclinf details of their businessesTheIRS. Withhas an
flatexcellenttax, alltracp from assets would be lumpedcially together,consideringand theindividuanumber assets
would not need submittedtobelistedeach. Gettingyear. rid of estate tax would mean that when people die, the IRS
wont need to go through their assets.
The flat tax would treatIf everyonethisprovisionequallyis. Theaddedcurreto tax system forces lowpoorincomepeopleindividualswillliveand outsidefamli to pay a larger percentageInmanyof theirpeoplesincomeminds,
taxeshey do the rich. The flat taxcitizensisdifferentwhocontribute.Itallowsnothip to deduct an allowance uatedbased
taxationheir letsfamilypoorsizepeof their income, and thentothefinancerest ofthe theirgovernmeearntings.Wi taxed at
a standard rate,couldnobematterpayingwhatno taxheironeincoye Individuals owe taxes onlyyouron
raisetheincomethenextaboveyarthe. standard allowance. People who are in the low- or mi dle-income ranges will
receive the largest reducti in average taxes because their personal allowance w make up a greater percentage of
their income. Some low-income individuals and families will pay no tax at all.
This
system
will
reduceThetheideacoststhattocuthetingovernmentaxesf
and
make
people
pay
theirnomicfairgrowthshareis. fallaciousItwillresul.H people keeping more ofplytheir-sidehardpolicies,-earned
likemonytheandf being able to spend moretheoneconomyitems.theyThe wantflat andtax needwil Studies of the flat
taxtaxesprojectpaid
abylargebusinessesincrease.Evein
capita
income
if
it
is
aimplementedhugeproponent.Consumerofsupplyendin-si
will stimulate
US economy.
the econholesmy andthathisbusinesseswillimprovewer usth

nomic
theory offers no proof
work,
and
many historical fac
omy would
be better off with
|93
Sample Motions:
This House would adopt a flat tax system.
This
House believes a flat tax system would be better for
Web Links:
Citizens for Tax Justice. <http://www.ctj.org/index.htm Site maintained by an organization advocating a greater v opposing
a switch to a flat tax, which it maintains would
Citizens for a Sound Economy. <http://www.cse.org>

Site maintained by an organization advocating less govern
National Center for Policy Analysis (NCPA). <http://www NCPA, which promotes private alternatives to government r proflat tax perspective.
4
The
Tax Foundation. <http://www.taxfoundation.org>

site offers a lot of information regarding tax polici
Further Reading:
Armey,
RichardTheFlatK.Tax: A Citizens Guide to the Facts on
Fawcett
Columbine, 1996.
Hall, Robert E.Flat,.ndTaxHooAlverin InstitutionRabushka. Press, 1995. Hall,
RobertFairnessErnest,andedEfficiency.AEIPress,in 1996the.Flat Tax.
Hicko, TheScottFlatE. Tax: Why AddicusItWontBoWoks,rk for1996America.. McCaffery,FairEdwardNot Flat:J. How to
MakeUniversitytheTax SystemofChicagoBetterP
dc
FREE SPEECH, RESTRICTIONS ON

Freedom of speech is one of the basic tenets of Declaration of Human Rights, and the European Co Most
nations have laws against sedition, libel, and unprotected speech is a continuing subject
PROS CONS
Free
speech
is
an
inherentlyThelimitsambiguoustofreeconcspeechpt
ta
requires
definition
andminedinterpretation;bygovernmentit. isIf thesp governments to clarify shouldthese ambiguitiesbedoneby.an
indepe
As
Justice Oliver WendellThe tyrannyHolmes wrote,ofthe themajoritymos
stringent
protection
ofgovernmentfreespeecenshworshipuldnot.A prohe
a man in
falsely shoutingnizesfirethatin smallerthatregroupsand cm
a
panic.
We accept
limitationsthatthey haveonfreeapublicspeechvoiw
it may threaten publicputsafetyonspeech.Therefore,. freedo speech is never absolute.
Speech leads to physicalSocietyacs. isPornography,self-regulatinghate.s and political polemic
actionrelinkedis atofalserape,onehate.Yesc and insurrection.
crimes are likely to have r who commit
sex crimes are l nography. But viewing porno speech does not necessarily exposing hate speech and
ex societal scrutiny increases be discredited and defeated
PROS CONS
through
persecution.
Government must protectRegardlessitscitizensof thefromsituation,foregna internal enemies. Thus,a

governmentsfreeexchangeshouldofideasbepermitand ted to curb speech thatmentmightis doingundermine. the
nationa interest during war.
Some views are antitheticalWemustodefendreligiousthe rightbeliefsof. thT tect the devout, we shouldtheir
banviewsthis. type of offens speech.
We need to protect childrenWeallfromagreeexposurethatgovernmenttoobscene offensive, or potentiallybut
damagingthatdoesmaterialsnotmean. that g the right to censor all mater
Sample Motions:
This House would restrict freedom of speech.
This
House would muzzle the press.
This
House would censor the Internet.
This
House would ban books.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org> Offers information and resources on a wide variety of right
Banned Books Online. <http://digital.library.upenn.edu/bo On-line exhibit of books that have been the object of censo
First Amendment Cyber Tribune. <http://w3.trib.com/FACT/> Resource with links to hundreds of sites dealing with First
Further Reading:
Curtis, MichaelFreeSpeech,Knt. The Peoples Darling Privilege:Duke Str
University
Press, 2000
Eastland,FreedomTerryof. ExpressionRowmanin andthe Littlefield,SupremeCourt2000.. Hensley, ThBoundariesmasR., edof.
Freedom of ExpressionKentStateandUniversity,Orderin
Irons, Peter,A andPeoplesHowardHistoryZinnViking,.ofthe1999Supreme. Court.
Kennedy, FreSheila,Expredssion. in America:Greenwood,ADocumentary1999. History.
dc
FREE
TRADE
Economists and politicians have praised the virtu the theory goes, you guarantee the most efficient work in
practice? Specifically, could it help the and points to international institutions like as and help these nations.
However, as long as the We market, its position is arguably hypocritical.
|95
PROS CONS
Interlocking trade relationshipsFreetrade doesecreasenot thepromotelik of war. If a nation ishaveengagedgone
into mutuallywaragainstbenef relationships with othermightcountries,applytoita hasgoodno-naturince jeopardize
these relatinonshipstnecessathroughily toaggronessionthat promotes peace, which is a universal good.
A
tariff-free
internationalInternationaleconomy
economicsistheonlyisn
to
maintain
maximum
globalefficiencyefficiencyofglobalandtheresourchea est prices. Efficient allocationTariffrevenueoftheis
aworldsperfect means less waste and, therefoofgovernmente,moreincomeaffordable.Witho for consumers.
cannot protect the jobs of
Free trade might lead toJb domestsecurictylayoffs,islegitimabutth versal good of efficiencyThe

outweighsdestructionthisof. jobWeshoulis subsidize uncompetitivetradeindusetrvingies; aweuniversalshouldret
workers for jobs in otherfailfieldstofactor.Subsidizingthepolitinef is not sound economic practiceAstarkly.
Moreoveutilitar,iantheunderjob subsidize in the West aremay moredictatneededthatinjobsthe flockdeve ing
world, to which theybut woupolitdicalnevitablyconsiderationflowif trade were observed. ized definition of the
good
The growth of the developiDefendingworldpure,is aunadulteratuniversal because improving the

exercisequality.ofTextbooklifeofideasmillionar people is clearly a moralticalimperativeconstraints.Free.In
tradereali countries by maximizingcountriestheircomustparativemeet advanjustta in free trade
circumstancestrade. WTO are stringent an
of the nations entire annu nations have social and de must
take priority over tra
Free
trade
permits
developingIfcapitalcountriesflowwereto
rationgar
access
to
capital
in
liberalizedpractice,liberalizedinternationcalpitf
markets.
This
gives
theming
theeconomies,opportunitywhichtoarefinapr projects for growth andondevelopmentinvestorwhim. rather tha
Sample Motions:
This House believes free trade serves a universal good.
This
House believes free trade is good for the developing
Web Links:
International Monetary Fund (IMF). <www.imf.org> General site providing statistics and background on the I involving
trade; and presents evaluations of IMF programs
The World Bank Group. <www.worldbank.org>
Broad site linking to development statistics, documents a

World Trade Organization (WTO). <http://www.wto.org> Offers general information on the WTO, international trad
Further Reading:
Bhagwati,FreeJagdishTrade.PrincetonN.Today University Press, 2002. Das, BhagirathlWorldTradel. Organisation: A GuideZed
toBooks,the Framework1999.
Irwin, FreeDouglasTrade.PrincetonUnderFireUniversity. Press, 2002.

Rorden Wilkinson,Multilateralism and the World Trade Organisation: Th tionRoutledge,. 2001.
Schott,ProspectsJeffrey.for FreeInstituteTrade infortheInternationalAmericas. Economics
dc
GAY ADOPTION
At present, US states are divided on the issue of approved the practice, while Arkansas, Florida, an banning
gay and lesbian couples from adopting chil Civil rights groups are currently challenging bans
PROS CONS
Society is changing, andThe traditionalhenaluclearidea familoft nuclear family with marrieditsbreakdownmother
andis fatherinevitable,is longer the only acceptablematrnalalternativedpatern.Manyl influstatesn beginning to award
legaltiverights.Evolutiontogayandcouplesnaturebecah the stability of such developmentrelationshipsof
isthenowyoungrecogniisa Such couples can provideencesa.stableResarchandUniverslovingpublshedtyupbrinofIl ing
for children. Law Reviewin1997 found that chi
homosexual households are sig be gay themselves.
Nature has shown in manyWhilespeciesexceptionsthat, occur,whenonetheorno both parents die, an unclemotheror
andauntfathfrequentlyrnurturetakesoff the child-rearing role.adoption by gay couples is t
unnatural
upbringing.
Some babies (both humanA childsandof otherprimaryspeciroles)modelsare born with a

predispositionBrigingtohomosexuality,heterosexualandchildth upbringing will not affectgivestheir
childsexualitydistorted.Attemptiv suppress this genetic predispositjustasagirlon hasbroughtresultedupbyin misery for
many. We shouldefit fromembracefemaalle gayinfluencepeople. fullywhich must include celebrating gay role
models especially as responsible parents.
In
many
cases
where
oneWhileofthethepartnerslawshouldis
thenot
biolpena
cal
parent,
gay
couplesalsoareexistscurrentolyencourageresponsiblythe
r
ing
children.
Allowingforadoptchildon
raisingbythe.otherLegalpartneproh merely confers legal rightsnaturalonstepan alreadytoward thissuccessfuidea
informal, family model.
Homophobia is wrong andHomophobicmustbe foughtlanguagewhereverandbehav encountered. Only

throughsocietythe.fuPlacingclusionachildof toogays society and all its institutiofhisownns canin thewe hopecare
toof overag prejudice.
this prejudice and subjects h Whatever ideal we might have, physical
welfare of the child
|97
Sample Motions:
This House would allow gay couples to adopt children.
This
House would explode the nuclear family.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union: Gay and Lesbian Rights. Provides information on gay rights and the status of lega
Children of Lesbians and Gays Everywhere. <http://www.c Site offering sociological information on gay families fo
Further Reading:
Savage,TheDanKid:. What Happened When My BoyfriendStoryand.Plume,IDeci2 Sullivan,IssuesAnnin. Gay
andChildLesbianWelfareAdoptionLeague. of America, 199 Tasker, Fiona, GrowingandSusanUp GolombokinaLesbian.
Family:GuilfordEffPrectsss, on19
dc
GAY CLERGY
Debates over the ordination of gays have domina formally oppose the ordination of gays. In prac leaders
who have openly ordained gays have been as a result of the sex abuse scandal that engul
PROS CONS
Leviticus also permits Thepolygamy,Bible cobansiderstattoos,homosean hibits the wearing of (Genesisclothes

made18:20);ofblendedacapitaltex Most Christians accept andthatpunishablepartsof theby Bibexcleusioref
societal attitudes of theHeaventime(1andCorinthiansarenotreleva6:91 The only New Testament
thecommentsclergyaboutmust homosexuaccept-the ality come from Paul; Jesusauthoritydoes.
notChristianaddressministthe
with homosexuality. Jesus w overturned Jewish tradition
sary. His silence on homose no need in this case.
Scientists are now confidentWhile homosexualtheyhaveitysolatedcertainth gene that makes

individualsnent, theomosexualexistence.Sinceofa scig is part of nature,
homosexualityAlso,genesmustcreatbe partonly ofpre plan.
twin is gay, the probabilit
gay is only 52%. Genetic pr and pedophilia have also be not accept these conditions
Condemning homosexualityThe asBiblesex andoutsideJesusmarriagestrongl and therefore adultery

marriageisunfair. Althobecausegh moJestusdensp nations do not recognizeof adulterers,samesexunionshe.lovWered th to do so, gays could enjoyorderedsexthemwithinto ceaselovingtheirrel ships,
sanctified by thomosexualschurch, justwouldashaveterosbeen do. Jesus main teaching was clear: Love your
G and love your neighbor. You cannot equate homose ual behavior with adultery; the former causes pai
PROS CONS
has a victim (the betrayed partner), the latter can purely loving relationship.
Priests
have
a
responsibPrieslitsy
actto
representasrepresentativethememb
of
their
congregationstheir.Alargecongregationnumberof. SomeChristiapeop are gay, and they can brecauseive, betterwhile
womenspiritualare childire from gay ministers thanthefromchurch,heterostheyxualscannotwho repredono
understand their lifestymales. orTherelationshsameappliesps. to gay
Jesus
because he was heterose
Over the centuries, theThechurchhasi revisednotapoliticalitssta on social issues as it catseeringksto

toreinterprettheviews andof there-Gods message of love incuratorterms ofof Godsmodernwordsocietyand.maiT
acceptance
of
homosexualimattyerandhowordinatunfashionableofopenl.Chr
gay
priests
is
a
necessaryanincreasinglynextstep. secular age b
sistent
message.
Sample Motions:
This House believes in the ordination of gay clergy. This House calls for a representative clergy.
Web Links:
1 BeliefNet. <http://www.beliefnet.com>
Multi-faith site offering information on various religions
ReligiousTolerance.Org: The Bible and Homosexuality. <htt Summarizes the conservative and liberal interpretations of
What Does the Bible Say About Sexuality and Homosexuality 0,,PTID4211|CHID102753|CIID234127,00.html> Article on the t
Further Reading:
Didi, HermanTheA.tigay Agenda: OrthodoxUniversityVision ofandChicagotheChristianPress, Kader, OpenlySamuel.Gay, Openly
Christian:Leyland,Howthe1999Bible. Really Is Keith, CongregationsHartman. in ConflicRutgers:The
UniversityBattleoverPress,Homosexual1996 Siker,HomosexualityJeffrey. in the Church:WestminsterBoth
JohnSidesKnox,ofthe1994Debate..
dc
GAY MARRIAGE
American society increasingly supports equal right accommodations. Yet national polls consistently sh to
formally register their unions with the state. status, but 30 states have passed laws specificall permitting gay
marriages in 2000.
PROS CONS
The refusal of governmentsWhile tocontepermitporargays societytomarrysh one of the last areas
oftiondiscriminationgeneral, someagainstformsgayso state should permit gayobjectivelycouplestojustifiedmarryas.
Societyamean of professing their loveas ato heterosexuandforalchinstitutiother.Sonc views ought to change
withunionthebtweentimes.a man and a wom
|99
PROS CONS
Permitting gay couples Manytomarryofthewouldfinanciaenable benthemf take advantage of the

variousenjoyarefinancialnotdesigbenefidtso ace to heterosexual marriedbutcouplestopromote. the conventi
We
must
modify
religiousHistoratticallytudes
marriagetoreflecthaschab
in
society.
Many
religiousBecauseviewsmostaremajornolongerworld jusre (e.g., the notion that sexuality,womenare
inferitheywouldrto findmen). versely, if religious institutions oppose gay mar against their beliefs, they should
accept civil m
Marriage is not merelyHistoricallyaninstitutionsocietyfor raisinghasvi dren. Many married couplesmajor

dopurpnoset haveofmarriagechildren.. In addition, the numberunlikelyofsingleto-haveparentchildren,familie
increasing. In any case,riagemany. countries permit ga gles and couples to adopt. Advances in medical sc also
enable gay couples to have children through cial insemination and the use of surrogate mother
A registered union isFinland,alternativeSweden, Denmark,togaymarB However, this arrangementpermits

unacctheregisteredptablebecauseunion couples still would notcouplesenjoy arethe entitledsamerightsto joias
ried
heterosexual
couplesenjoy.Moreover,inheritancegisteriandngan
imply
that
gay
couples
makeshadannoinferiorincursionsstatusintotothm
heterosexual
couples,
therebyofmarriagegiving.Consequentlyrisetodisc tion. to the religious sections o
Sample Motions:
This House would allow gay couples to marry. This House would give homosexuals equal rights.
This
House believes that discrimination can never be just
Web Links:
Gay Marriage. <http://www.pe.net/~bidstrup/marriage.htm Essay in support of gay marriage that also presents the a
GayMarriedMen.Org. <http://www.gaymarriedmen.org>
Web site for gays in heterosexual marriages.
Legal Gay Marriages in the Netherlands. <http://news.bb BBC story on the Dutch parliaments passage of a bill giv
RainbowGuide.Com. <http://www.rainbowguide.com>
Offers news on a variety of issues of interest to gays an

Right to Marry Resource Page. <http://www.grasshopperde Information on current issues surrounding gay marriage wi
promoting gay marriage.
Further Reading:
Lehr, QueerValerieFamily. Values: Debunking.TempletheUniversityMythofthePress,Nucl Lewis,RecognizingEllen. Ourselves:
Ceremonies.Columbiaof UniversityLesbianandPresGa McNeill,Freedom,JohnJ.Glorious Freedom: The Spiritual Journey
Beacon,
1996.
Warner, TheMichaelTrouble. with Normal: Sex,HarvardPoliticsUniversityandthePressEth
dc
GAYS IN THE MILITARY

In 1993 President Bill Clinton attempted to remov in the face of powerful military and congressional Dont Tell.
While the ban remained, the compromis in homosexual behavior. The military was also proh States is the only
NATO country to maintain such policy after the European Court of Human Rights de
PROS CONS
No one now can realisticallyThisdebatedoubtisthataboutgaysoldiersmenor women are as hard working,while

intelligent,sharingclose
orquarterspariot.
as
heterosexuals.
Onlyonsheermutualbigotrytrust
wouldanduncomplicadenyth opportunity to join therelationsmiltary or(andtensionsuffer beitsweenper homophobia) to
those whogender,want tounderminedoso. this bond.
Much of the argument againstNotallthegayadmissionapplicatsof willgays h based on homophobia, whichthe

militaryismaintained.Adisproportionandencour-aged by continued segregationans,.d Permittingbisexuals
maystraightpply diers to see how effectiverationgaysofcanindividualsbewillreduceofone dice. makes them a fruitful
source
the military for this purpose homophobia.
Many other professionsTherequmilitaryrebondis aofspecialtrust andca intense living conditionslife-amongordeathemployeessituations.Gayswherare not barred from any of couldthem. be fatal. Men and women together;
why should gays and
If
the
armed
forces
acceptClosetedgays,homosexualstheywouldrunnottheh
to
remain
in
the
closet,couldthushavreducingimplicationstheriskforof n mail. In any case this risk is diminishing as soci increasingly
accepts homosexuality.
Gays
and
lesbians
frequentlyTheproblemcome
tois
termsnotowithmuchthe
sexuality
in
their
latetheteenshalfheartedorearlyenforcemtwentients, ow might be long after theycizedhadandenlistifpedople.A
understanbanwould require the firing of personnelinterest amongwhohadmilitaryjoined persoingo faith. This is
discriminationgaysareatnotitsbeingworstmisled..
Sample Motions:
This House would not admit gays into the armed forces.
This
House believes that the military and sexuality do not
Web Links:
The Ban on Gays in the Military: Links. <http://www.calif Links to history of Dont Ask, Dont Tell policy, articles
Issues and Controversies: Gays in the Military. <http://w Offers comprehensive overview of issue from 1992 to 1998.
|101
Further Reading:
Eidsmoe,GaysJohna.d Guns: The Case againstVitalIssuesHomosexualsPress, in1993the. Halley,Dont:JanetA. Readers
GuideDuketo theUniversMilitarysPress,Anti1999-Gay. Herek, OutGregoryinForce:. SexualUniversityOrientationf
andChicagothe MilitaryPress,19.
Wells-Petry,Exclusion:MelissaHomosexuals.Regneryand Publishing,theRightto1993Serve..
dc
GENE PATENTING
The pioneering research of the Human Genome Proj that scientists may be able to use genetic rese
Office had granted more than 1,500 patents on fr but on the process of discovering and isolating ethical
questions arise when commercial compani coming close to patenting the building blocks of
PROS CONS
Companies engaged in genomicGenesareresearchtheveryarebasislegallof entitled to patent genes,that
soanyonewhy shouldhasthetheyrightbe t vented from doing so? of a particular gene shows
ity. Patenting treatments b morally acceptable, but pat
If companies are not allowedMostgenetictopatentresearchthe producisno their research, other
companies.Thewillpublicexploityfundtheid ings. Without the safeguardshascontributed,thatapatentbyfar,provith
companies will end theiredgeresearchinthis becausearea.Patentinthyse future profit. ban patenting in order to p
in
genome research.
An inventor must be ableFactso doprotectnotsupporthis thiser inc tion. Private companiespany,will

whichcontinueholdsgenomicpatentsreso
because
it
promises
to
genesbeextremconnectedlylucrativewithbreast.Com
tors
will
be
willing
toversitypayroyaltiesofPennsylvaniatothepatefro
for
use
of
the
materialthatbecausewassubstantiallythey,too,cancheaf future profit. screening procedure. Compan
profit before public good. research investment, compan
facilitate the development and screening procedures.
Patents are granted forPatentinglimiteddiscouragestimeinthereseaUn States, 17 years. Companiescostly

needlawsuitsthis bytimepatenttorech their investments. If anotherpatent holderscompany frequenwishestlyo pu
a project in a patentedchargingea, itwhatcantheyalwayslikeconsufor
patent owner. It was only after immense p
that companies cut the pric
for African countries.
PROs CONS
Profit has proved to beThetheHumanmost practicalGenomeProjmeansct makeof

moting
medical advancesily. Itavailableisunralistictoensureandtheillf
ceived
to
criticize an stimulateincentive furtherthathasresearchbrought. usT
benefits.
research should be those of c
Sample Motions:
This House would allow the patenting of genes. This House believes that genes are inventions.
Web Links:
1 Celera. <http://www.celera.com/>
Biotech
company site includes statement of its mission in g
GeneLetter.Com. <http://www.geneletter.com/archives/dna1. Offers clear summary of genetic patenting in the United Sta
The National Human Genome Research Institute (US): Divisi Excellent source of research on all aspects of the Human Ge
Further Reading:
Matare,Bioethic:Herbert. The Ethics ofBerginEvolution&Garvey,andGenetic1999. Interf
dc
GENETIC SCREENING
Francis Galton coined the term eugenics in 1883 breeding, the term referred to the restructuring
reproduction) of the higher echelons of society. S nineteenth century, but it lost favor as a result a result of
advances in biotechnology, we can scre a baby boy, Adam Nash, was born after having been fertilization by
his parents. They chose that emb as a bone marrow donor for his sister, who had a g
PROS CONS
Testing
embryonic
cellsEmbryoniccanhelp
testingoidentifycouldpotentibeco
debilitating
illnesses
for
inhefuturitedexploitationdisorders. ofIt tc determine the sex of a developbaby,allowingintotheparentswidespreadwho
caab
a
sex-linked
genetic
disorderdesignertobabihaveschildrchosen
forwith
passing
on
the
disorderconsideredtotheir childrendesirable..ItThis emiis sensible to use this technology to ensure that chil are as
healthy as possible.
We have a duty to giveArea childwenothepresumingbestpossiblethatthos in life, and if the technologyormental

isdefectsavailableorgenetictodete whether a baby will havediseasesgneticdo notdiseaseenjoysucha qualiasH
tingtons we should uselifeit. asThisfruitfulisnot ascasethoseof boren
ing a child.
they be bred out of society i

rent. More
to the point, many
advantages
of a different na
anemia allele protects somewh
|103
PROS CONS
When
a
number
of
embryosThe
arepropositioncreated
throughholdssini
vitro
fertilization,
theembryosembryoslikenotcommchosenditiesafter.E ing may be offered up foris theadoptionideaof.
disposingHumanlifeof not be thrown away, andconformchildlessto thecouplesrequirementscanben
Sample Motions:
This House would choose its babies.
This House would genetically engineer its children. This House calls for more genetic screening.
Web Links:
The Bioethics. <http://library.thinkquest.org/29322/mainpage1.htm> Broad site on bioethics, offering information on

medical
Bioethics.Net. < http://www.med.upenn.edu/~bioethic> Maintained by the University of Pennsylvania, the site pr
Designer
Babies.
<
http://www.bbc.co.uk/horizon/designe
atelevitranscriptionseriesofa program
The
site,
connectedHorizwith,onffersaBBC
Further Reading:
Andrews,FutuLorei ColumbiaPerfectB.. University Press, 2001. Chadwick, Ruth, DarrenTheShickle,Ethics
andofKluwer,GeneticHenkTen1999ScreeningHave...
Rothman, BarbaraTheBookKatzof.Life: A Personal Guide to ProjRace,ctNor. Beacon, 2001.
dc
GLOBALIZATION AND THE POOR

Globalization is the process that spreads econo integration of internationally dispersed activi restaurants,
Hollywood movies, etc.), but academ have benefited industrialized nations and transn increased the
poverty and isolation of developi
PROS CONS
Globalization marginalizesGlobalizationthepor.isIterodingisameath exclusion, deepening inequalityopedand
developingandreinforcingnation division of the world Northinto-coreSouthanddivideperiphery.Itis. Ia new form of
Western imperiaingglismobalthatprosperdominatesty.Throan exploits through TNC capitalmobility,and
globalizationgovernanceis institutions such as thewhichWorldprosperity,Bankand wealth,theInterp tional
Monetary Fund (IMF)are.being diffused around t
Globalization
has
intensifiedGlobalizatiglobalnhasandincreasednation
inequality.
The
economicnizandtionalsocialeffortsgaps
withintostabic
tries
and
between
countriesshown
significantarewdeing,progresswith.t rich becoming richer andglobalthe povertypoorbecominghasfallenpoorem
Globalization is an unevenintheprocevioussscausing500, andworldth mentation. Trade has alsoall regionsen
increashasimprovednginequaco Because of increasing fewglobalizationdecades.Globalizationthevaluef
PROS CONS
trade is 17 times greatheer Tthirdan 50Worldyears.Theago,fallbutinLa Americas share has fallensharefromof

world11%totrade5%andis Africaduet from 8% to 2%. The termsand ofpoliticaltradehaveconditionsincreasingly
moved against developing nations.
Globalization
exploitsGlobalizationdevelopingnationspromotesandevelopthei
poor
through
TNCs.
Globanolizationogyand
isknowledgeaeuphemismtopofor
transnationalization,
thenationsspreadreofthosepowerfcoulntriescompanb to areas that best suit corporate interests.
Increased global integrationGlobalizationmeans thast brpooughtrer counabo tries become more

vulnemergrablenceto ofworldasinglefinancialglobalmar kets. The East Asian economicmobility,
crisisandglobalofthecompetit1990s, a direct result of globalfusionzation,ofprosperity,increased wealth,andint fied
poverty. The crisishasshowsopenedthatup evennew opportunitithestrong developing states are ofat
themodernizationmercyof globalanddevelopeconom forces that serve the intereststhatled tof the
successfuldominantcapide powers. Globalization alitso economicresulted inmiraclethespeedy.Far tf sition of the
crisis tonationsheothermoe Eastvulnerable,Asiancouintrc the contagion effectmeanswith thatdevastabettering
orghumanizatiocon-sequences. The benefitstoofaddresstheglobalworldmarketpolitical,accruee a relatively small
proportionlems. of the worlds popula The stronger become stronger and the weak become weaker.
Globalization is a formTheofpoliciesdisempowermeofnstit.Outionsside interference from the World Bank handve

thereinforcedIMFhasthe weakened the economiesinterventionofpoornationsallowsandthecondisse-strained
development. nomicInternationalmanagementnegotiationsstrategie t reduce and eliminate foreign debt have led to
increa exports of capital and deeper indebtedness in devel ing nations.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that globalization marginalizes the poo This House believes that globalization will bring about the This House
believes that globalization is a euphemism for t
Web Links:
Government Report: Making Globalisation Work for the Poor British government report on globalization and developing n
Poverty and Globalisation. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/engl Part of the BBC lecture series, Respect for the Earth. Lect particularly
women.
Further Reading:
Allen, Tim, andPovertyAlan andThomasDevelopment.OxfordintoUniversitythe21stPress,Century200.
Dicken,GlobalPeterShift:. TransformingGuilford thePress,World1998Economy..
World EnteringBank. the 21st Century:WorldWorldBank,Development2000. Report 19
dc
|105
GLOBAL WARMING
Since the 1980s, a growing body of evidence has industrialized nations of the world agreed to r under
attack from both sidesmany environmental in industry feel it is an unnecessary burden. A announced
that the United States would abandon Global warming is a particularly difficult issue angered that a
problem that seems to have been World. A global consensus remains far off.
PROS CONS
Over the past 100 years,Scientistshumankindhavehasnotbeenyetburnipro increasing quantities

kindoffosisilcausingfuels
globaltoprovidewarm
This
has
released
largeperatvolumres
ofrosegasesduringintothethe
sphere, particularly.AtthesameCOturestime,actuallytheworldroppeds
slig
2
remaining large forests,arethe which1970s.helpThisabsorbwasnotCO as
2
being rapidly felled. Overall,infossilthefuelevelsconumption;ofcarb ide in the atmosphere overhave

thisincreasedperiodby. If30%thedurig
the
last century. Whenasibledintheforatmglobalsphere,warming,CO
h
2
other gases are thoughtAccuratetocauserecordsagreenhousesimply doef They allow sunlight toperiodpass
through,tobeusefulbut.absorbThe Eh emitted by the Earth, trappingvariesnaturitandllyleadingthrouhtoti
warming. Weather recordsexplanationseemtosupportofthethisIce theAg Average temperatures haveIc
increAgearoundsedby 400.6Cyearssincea nineteenth century; theThamesfour
inhottestEnglandyearsepeatedlsince rate records have been Thiskept washavefolallowedbeenbyinantheint
Unusual weather patternsglobalsuch warmingasfloods. andWe dodrougnot have also been on the
toincrease,saythatwithcurrentthe uncharatrends istically strong El Niotionevents. of recent years c widespread
disruption. The Intergovernmental Pane on Climate Change (IPCC), an international body s up to study
possible global warming, has conclud that . . . the balance of evidence suggests that discernible human
influence on global climate.
Computer models predictAgain,that continuedourcomputerglobalmodelswar ing could have

catastrophicchangeeffarectsfar. Changesfromreliablint ature could devastate
wildlifeplexsystemwhenthatlocalwe vegetatiareonl off. Patterns of diseaseIt iscouldaffectedchangeby.
Alreadymanyfactis cases of malaria have volcanicbeenreportederuptions,farnorthoceanof tional danger zones
as thwarmertwe weatheraregraduallyallows discothe quitoes that carry
theindiseasethecomputertospeadmodel.Mostresuli tant, a portion of theinpolarpredictionsicecaps.
Somemightscimeltn lead to a rise in sea gestedlevel, thatwhichglobalhasalreadywarmingi by between 10 and
25 cmin inseathelevellastas100rainfallyears. paGi cracks have been found Indeed,inthe refinementsLarsenice
shelfinthein arctica, which suggest havethat causeditis breakingittomodifyapart;it 48 miles wide and 22
milesIPCC longestimateddriftedthatfreeby and2100m as early as 1994. If, aswouldexpertsrise
believe,by3Candtemperathe
PROS CONS
a further 3C over the 65cm;next century,in1995, lowit-revisedlyingareasit even entire countries, cmsuch.Theas
moreBangladresearchsh,couldthat dita pear under the waves. strophic global warming seems
report
the predictions of doo
Technology has now reachedOfcoursethe pointgreaterwhereenergywe caneffi continue to increase

standardsever,mostof
alternativeivigwithoutfuelsbu
ing
fossil
fuels.
RenewableTheycansourcesalso
causofenergy,their suchown wind or solar power, arecreatesripe forunacceptabledevelopmnt,radioactbuth yet to see
the levels ofpowerinvestmprojects,ntneededsuch toas makethe Tht truly effective. More efficientleadtotheuse
floodingofenergyof isvastals Encouraging the developmentofthe oflocalelectricenvironment;carsor solpro moting
better insulationrequireofhousthes coveringcouldmakeof largesub
stantial differencelevelsin inthewithCOlongsolarrun.panels or turbines
2
paint an idealistic view of r from the less romantic realit
Global warming is a worldwideTheevidencecatastforopheglobalwaitingwarmi to happen. The emissionto

ofmeritgreenhousethiskindgasesof responsaffect everyone. It is, therefore,pastcenturyvital thatmay
certainlytiretheha respond now. The targetsEnvironmentalistssetbytheKyotoin Protocolthedeve will barely scratch
thethesurfaceluxury of thedemandingproblemgover.Th developed world agreedreducingtooly pollutionminimal
reductionswillhave in carbon dioxide emissions,technologyand-basednoagreementeconomieswas.T reached
involving the worlddevelopingarenotworld,soluckywhich. Indusispr
ducing
every
a greater percentagebuildingof greenhousesuccessful gaseconomiesemissi

year. remainGases likeintoheCOtheatmosphereworlds poorest people
for centuries. If we waitthe ounlytilarwea canin whichseethedeveloresu global warming, it mayGlobalbetooactionlate.

onThegreenhousedamagewilg have been done. We musttainactthenow,inequalitiesandwemustofactthe globally.
Developed countriesworldwouldmust havedoallto theydependcano reduce their use of
fossilporationsfuels.toTheyprovidemust theassisttech oping nations to do thepollutionsame,by
levelssharinglow,technologyorelse perhaps through emissionsexpandingtrading,their alleconomieswingpoore.Ha
countries to sell theirthequotaproblemof thropollughtiontheinindusret for hard cash.
Internathemionalpowerful,pressuredevelopedmustbe exertcoun against those countriesthethatladdero notup
behindcooperathem,e,evende this slows economic growthofthe. Thechancepooresttogrowregions.This ofi the world
would sufferthemostmodernfrom wmorld,edroughtsneof andour floods and rising sea levelstohelp.
Howtheverpoorestdifficultpeopleit acma in the short term, suchneedactionsupportnowmaythemssavelvesmillio.T of
lives in the future.global warming does not begin
this goal.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that Kyoto didnt go far enough. This House calls for urgent action on global warming. This House
fears a global greenhouse.
This
House believes that global warming demands global acti
|107
Web Links:
Global Warming Central. <http://www.law.pace.edu/env/en Site maintained by Pace University School of Law offers c
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. <http://www. Offers reports assessing scientific, technical, and socio
Kyoto Protocol. <http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1997/globa Full text of the Kyoto Protocol.
World Meteorological Organization. <http://www.wmo.ch> UN organization provides information on meteorological is
Further Reading:
Drake, GlobalFrancesWarming:. The. ScienceEdward Arnold,ofClimate2000Change.
Gelbspan,The RossHeat. Is On: The ClimatePerseus,Crisis, 1998the.Cover Up,
Houghton,GlobalJohnWarming:. TheCambridgeCompleteUniversityBriefing.Press, 1997.
dc
GOD, EXISTENCE OF
This is the Big question, the ultimate metaph religions have offered proofs of the existence o
PROS CONS
The world is so magnificentYoucannotandwonderful,inferfromsothefulv variety and beauty
thatworlditisthatinconceivableGodwasthe thatcrea have come about purelycontainsbychancemany.Itextrais
soattribuintri that a conscious hand amustworldhavecreatorbeen.involvedJustbecauin creation. Therefore,
Godvariedexistsdoesasnothemeancreaitorwaso world. cant beauty happen by acci
If you saw a watch lyingTheondifftherencesand, betweenyouwoulda wat that someone must

havethemadewatchthe serveswatchaa watchpurpose-maker. Similarly, we
humanseeingbeingssomethingaresosocomplicaperfect and amazing that we
mustgestsconcludedesignthat.Whatwe purposehadac scious maker. just exist. And even if we
the earlier argument applie necessarily God.
Only human beings are Thecapableargumentofrationalfromprobabilithough That we are here at allon
isthereamazingbeing. Onesomethinginfinitesp change in the world andspeciallife wouldabout notus?
haveWearevolvra Getting something so amazing, on such long odds, smacks of intention.
God must be perfect if Theisexistsontological.Buta argumenthingthac is more perfect than a

thethingideathatthatdoesntexistenceis. B ing can be more perfectexiststhan
Godor.itSodoesntGodmust.Theexia ditional. You say if God e fect, and if he must be per But all this
rests on the i doesnt exist, we dont hav
PROS CONS
ment
doesnt work.
Everything in the universeThecosmologicalhascause.argumentItisincondoe able that time is one

uncausedlongchainfirstof
cause
stillandeffdoe
without
beginning,
butatitribumustesbeitbecausewould
needwecannottobe conceive of something happtencening,benevolence,uncaused. Therefore,andomnis God exists
as the uncausedanuncaufirstedcausefirst. cause is ju
us as an endless chain of cau shifting the incomprehension
Sample Motions:
This House believes that God exists.
This
House believes that reports of Gods death have been g
Web Links:
1 Counterbalance. <http://www.counterbalance.com>
Contains
summary of debate about the existence of God from
The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe. < An academic paper employing the cosmological argument for t
First Things: The Journal of Religion and Public Life. <http://switch2.netrics.com/cgi-bin/likeit.cgi>
Links to articles from the journal dealing with various arg

New Advent. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608b.htm> Detailed essay on a Roman Catholic Web site, outlining the
Further Reading:
Hume, Dialoguesavid. ConcerningNewedNatural.Routledge,Religion1991..
Yandell,PhilosophyKeith. of Religion:Routledge,AContemporary1999. Introduction.
dc
GREENHOUSE GASES: TRADING QUOT

A number of methods have been proposed to reduce t European Union has always favored taxing heavy pol
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol laid the foundation for TP standards and cannot take part directly in pollut maximum
amount of each polluting gas. Countries t have produced less than their quota. Furthermore, the atmosphere)
to offset some of their pollution that they go too far and that such stringent regu
PROS CONS
The scientific communityTheagreesenvironmentalthatsomethinglobby hasmusth be done to curb emissionsclaimsof
greenhouseforpollutiongasesdamagingthat be the cause of globalfossilwarmingrecord.The indicatespossible
thatconse quences of global warmingfrequentlyincludeincropthe failure,past,andmast flooding, and the
destructioningclimateofentirechangeecosystemswithemissw the possible loss of billions of lives. Other conseq of
pollution include acid rain and the enlargement
|109
PROS CONS
the
hole in the ozone layer.
The TPQ plan is the onlyThepracticalTPQplan wayensurestoreducemore pe sions of greenhouse

gasesthangloballyiflimits.Itwerewillstrictlguaran
global
levels
of
these
andgasespunitivearekepttaxesbelowimposedstric and is more realistic quotasthanexpec.Withouting
heavyTPQs, pollutthee cut their emissions overnightfurther. if a country kept w
Adopting the TPQ plan means because the right to this e
another country.
Emissions are a globalStatingproblemthat.Theitemissiondoesnotofma main greenhouse gas, carbonduced

isdioxide,simplisticfor exampleandco affects the entire planetgases,regardlesswhichdo ofaffectwherethethe
produced.
This
validatesatedthe.
Furthermore,seofTPQs,
towhichpermia
limit
the
total
amountindustrialize,ofeachpollutingthey gashaveglobe TPQs are much more effectivetocol. Tthisan
seriouslythealternativeunder taxing emissions, becausemore,richif companiestaxeson porllutioncount will be
able to pay thecompaniestaxand stiwould pollutestoppollut.
prohibitively expensive. In of TPQs will make later red much

harder. Once trading i tries that have bought extr tainly not
voluntarily giv global emissions further.
TPQs are tried and testedTPQs. ThehaveUnitedhadsomeStatessucceshas them successfully

sincetheytheyfailedwere introducEuroped forin 1t Therefore, we have goodpeanreasonplansto
wereexpectpoorlythem concto ceed on a global scale.Protocol. Second, whereas t
pollution was always tradin pean solution was, and stil ogy to
clean the emissions. to the entire globe will sl ments needed
to reduce gree
Progress in the field ofTheemissionKyotoProtocolntr lacksisrema difficult because of

thementoppositionmechanismfromand theis thusindu lobby, most notably inassessingtheUnitedtheStates,effect
whichthat a such restrictions as harmfulsink isto havingitseconomythe. TPQsatm the one method of
controlmerelyacceptablecreates atoloopholethese lot groups and, more
significant,theprotocoltheandUSprgoducevernmenmo As the worlds biggest polluter, the United State be
included in any meaningful treaty. Therefore, are the only practical way forward.
TPQs cause less damage TPQstoanwilleconomyhit employmentthananyothha emission control

regimetries.Individualarenot socompaniesrichthatan countries can trade TPQsquotasontheto
freeavoidmarketpollution;until have struck the right balanceinstall betweentheexpensivethecostcleanof to
pollute and the costconsequofcleaningntly declinuptheirandinduwi
PROS CONS
drop
in living standards in d
Sample Motions:
This House would buy the right to pollute. This House supports tradable pollution quotas. This House
believes that Kyoto got it right.
Web Links:
The Kyoto Protocol: An Economic and Game Theoretic Interp Technical article discussing the economic issues involved i
Pollution For Sale. <http://www.npk.gov.pl/cordis/www.cor Provides clear explanation of emissions trading.
Further Reading:
Grubb,
MichaelKyoto Protocol:etal. RoyalAGuideInstituteandAssessmeofInternational. Af
Victor,TheDavidCollapseG. of the Kyoto Protocol.PrincetonandtheUniveStrugglesity P
dc
GUN CONTROL
The issue of gun control has divided American soc and to prevent tragedies like the recent wave of s
Opponents insist that they have the constitutiona uniquely American problem, gun control has become
massacre in Erfurt, Germany, in 2002.
PROS CONS
The only function of a Prohibitiguniston kisllnot.Thethemoreanswerins ments of death
injurymakewethemremovedisappearfromouror societmaket the safer we will be. ous. Citizens have the right
and
themselves, their families, a people also need guns for oth

example, need them to protect
The legal ownership ofGunsgunsdontbylawkill-abidingpeople;citizenpeopl inevitably leads to
manygununneceownershipsary willand tragicdonothingdea Legally held guns end Mostupincrimtheshaindsvolveof
illegalcriminalsw who would have greater difficulty in obtaining weap ons if they were less prevalent. Guns also end
up i hands of children, leading to tragic accidents and rible disasters like the Columbine massacre.
Shooting as a sport desensitizesShootingis peopleamajortosportthe letenj nature of all firearms,ingcreatingpeople.a

Sportsmengunculturehavethatth orizes and legitimizes chosunnecessarynleisuregunactivityownership.Spen.T
minority who enjoy bloodequipmentsorts shouldputslargenot besumsalloweint to block the interests
alsoofsocietyputfoodasona twholetablein.gun trol.
|111
PROS CONS
Burglary should not beLawpunished-abidingbycitizensvigilantedeservkill No amount of property isfamiliesworth

ainhumantheirlifeown. Keephome firearms in the home forarmedprotectionburglarsleadswill tothinkaccidt
deaths. And, perversely,breakcriminalsinto housemaybewheremore owli to carry weapons if they think they are
in danger homeowners.
There is a correlation A betweencountrytheis leniencymoreableoftoa d trys gun laws and itscitizenssuicide

arerateproficientnotbecausewit owners are depressive, requirbutbecausedultthecitizemeans ofto qm and
effective suicide odicallyisathandtrain.Theinstatetheirshouluse courage and restrict theownershipownershipof
weaponsofsomethingisalst wastes so many lives. tic tyranny.
Sample Motions:
This House calls for stricter controls on gun ownership. This House believes there is no right to bear arms.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): Gun Control. <ht Article explaining the ACLUs stand on gun control.
Guide to Gun Laws, Gun Control and Gun Rights. <http:// The site, maintained by the Legal Education Network, offe
Hodgdon. <http://www.hodgdon.com/liberty/gcn.htm>
Site outlines a campaign for stricter gun control in the

National Rifle Association of America. <http://www.nra. Americas most powerful pro-gun lobby offers information
Further Reading:
Bruce,
John M., Theand ChanginglydeWilcPoliticsx,Rowmaneds.ofandGunLittlefieControld,. 19
dc
HATE SPEECH ON CAMPUS

Over the past few decades, a number of American minorities and homosexuals on their campuses. In
homophobic, or offensive to religious groups.
PROS
CONS
The rights we enjoy comeFreewithspeechresponisibilitiesoneofour.Mi ties have a right to beupheldfree

atfromallverbalcosts.abuseCollegan If such rights are nottheseinformallyspeech respcodes,cted,usingthet
administration
has
thetheyrightconsiderandobligationdisruptiveto.
aU
codes
prohibiting
offensivespeechspeechwill.protect the fre
leges should outlaw hate cr we may abhor such views, it
them.
PROS CONS
The
constant
repetitionStereotypingofhatespeechis
stereotypesminorities.Ifchildrenamongandstudentyouths,
views,onmostheycampuseswill.matureUniversitywithoua
the
ofconstantlytheseminorithear hate speech.
apromotesresult
grofa
without
bigoted
attitudes
offet
sive
racial
hearing
such
engmorendmeredmbersby
Adopting a speech codeCodsendscan oftestrong leadmessageto.resenIt shows minorities that

thebacklashauthoritiesagainstsupportminoritiesthem. a thus, will help in minority recruitment. It also sh bigots that
their views will not be tolerated and h marginalize and punish them.
Minority students cannotEnsuringlearn infreedomanenvironmofspeechnt

versitiesallstudents.Theareneedsto
achiofeducavet
potential,
they
inworkwhichwithoutfree haratho
ment.
are actively encouraged.
Sample Motions:
This
House would censor hate speech on
This
House may not agree with what you
isfu of
must
fear and hatred. If

beenvironmentallwedto
campus.
say, but will defend
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): Hate Speech on Cam Section of the broad ACLU Web site explaining its stand on
Further Reading:
Fiss,TheOwenIrony. HarvardofFree UniversitySpeech. Press, 1996.
Heumann,
Milton, Thomas W.HateChurch,SpeechandOnDavidCampus:P. RedlawskCases,Case.
Northeastern University Press, 1997.
Shiell,CampusTimothyHate. UniversitySpeechOn TrialPress. of Kansas, 1998.
dc
HEALTH CARE, UNIVERSAL

The provision of health care to the citizens of t are covered under government health plans through Program).
But approximately 40 million people in t uninsured are far worse than the statistics for t care. These systems
are single-payer programs: The pay for their own health insurance, but they do no so you pay more if your
income is higher. Some bel citizens can have access to quality medical care.
|113
PROS CONS
With universal health care,Universalpeoplehalthare carable willtose ventive treatment. For

careexample,systeminmorearecent.Iftheystudya of women with health insurancedoctorwheknewtheytheirdo
cholestnotrea level while only 50% ofheavieruninsureduserswomenofthedidsystem.Ult mately, people who do
thisnot getheavierprevenutilizationvehealthrec will get care only whenthetheirrationingdiseasesof careand.illnes
more advanced and their care will cost more.
Health insurance premiumsMany parogramsevery arehighalready.Even a employer-subsidized

programsgetcareare. Manyexpensiveemployersfor ofma Americans. These plansHealthoften
insurancehavehigh plansco-paymentcan or deductibles. For thoseals withoutno insurance,needtorelya relon
minor illness can be financiallyindividuals ruinousqualify. forIncremeMed plans like the ones
currentlyMedicare.inEligibleexistence,childrenwhich only individuals who meHealthcertainInsuranceage
orProgramincome. H teria, will never providesity trueand, universallikeothercoveragenecess the Childrens
Health fairInsuranceshare Program,andnot expectwhich wat intended to extend healththem.insurance benefits
to m children, has not been able to meet the needs of nations children. Since CHIP was enacted, the num of
uninsured children has increased.
The current system of Withhealthgovernmentmaintenancecontrolorganizof tions (HMOs) has destroyedcosts

thewilldoctorbeplaced-patientandrem tionship and patient choicerewardedof forhealththeircarelongprovihou
Patients find that theirourdoctorslives. areTh nrotad onto thbecoir plan and are forced
tohard;leavewithoutdoctors thewithmonetarywhom have established a trustingpeople
relationshipwillnotenter.Also,the p must get approval to seedoctorsspecialistsmayfindandthatthentheyare ted to
see only selectedtheirdoctocareers.Doctorsina governmeusually spend enough time
withAmericanpatientsMedicalinthe AssociatioHMO-con-trolled environment. Patientsernmentcwontrolled,uldhave manysinglemor-choices in a universalsystemhealth. care system. The HM that put profits
before people would become obsole
The United States as aThewholeUS governmentspnds14% cannotofGDPaf on health care. This includeshealth
carthe.
amountOther
spentuniversaby
federal
government,
stateSocialgovernmenSecuritys,
andinsuranceMedicar panies, and private citizensproblems. Manywithstfudiesndinghave.W s that a singlepayer
systemhuge
gwovernmentuldcut-costsfundedenoughsoci
enable
everyone
in
thethatUnitedprovideStatesuniversaltohave
healacce
health
care
without
thestannational
spendingamountofanytheirmoreGD currently. Medicare, a government-administered he care program, has
administrative costs of less th of its total budget.
In the current system tThe employeecurrentsystemandtheof employoffer family often depend

onemploytheemployerrscoversformanyaffordabAmeri health insurance. If healththeemployeeinsuranceloses.
hisThe orgroh the cost to get new healthinsuranceinsurancecompaniescan beto highinsu is often
unaffordable.andEvenlow withrisk theby mixingcurrentthemfe
PROS CONS
laws related to transportabilityissuesof transporofhealtabhilitynsurancof costs to the employee

aerealtoolawshighthat.Withmandatesinglethat pae universal health care system,toofferhealthinsurancewouldto
longer be tied to the leastemployer18 monthsandemployafteres thewouldem not have to consider hepanylth.
insuranceTheselawas agivreasonemploto with a given employer. insurance or to find a new job
job. These laws mandate that not have to pay substantially than
employees who continue e
Moving to a system of Hunivemanrsalesourceshealthprofessionalscarewould reduce the burden on
humancomplyresourceswiththe manypersonnelother inper companies. Currently, datedthey
mustbythecomplyfederalwithgovernmemany federal laws related tobeingprovisionabletofexhercisealth insuracontr
With a single-payer system,choicestheseand workregulawithionspeoplewouli not apply and the costswillof
compliancebeforced towoulddealbewithelimt
nated.
bers of the government bureau
Sample Motions:
This House would adopt a
This
House believes that
This
House believes that
universal
universal
health
care system.
health
care is more impo
it is immoral that US citizens do
Web Links:
1 American Medical Association. <http://www.ama-assn.org> The American Medical Association (AMA) was founded more tha
contributes to policy making through lobbying and by provid search feature that can be used to find information on the
2 Kaiser Family Foundation Commission on Medicaid and the U This site offers many articles with varied perspectives on is an
independent voice and source of facts and analysis fo general public.
3 The 100% Campaign. <http://www.100percentcampaign.org/abo This site is for the 100% Campaign in California. The goal some
type of health coverage. It offers information about w
Further Reading:
Anders,HealthGeorgeAgainst. Wealth: HMOsHoughtonandthe Mifflin,Breakdown1996of.Medi
Churchill,SelfLarry-InterestR. and Universal Health Care: .Why WellHarvard
Woolhandler,
Steffie, BleedingandDavidtheHimmelstein,Patient:TheM.CommonDConsequences.
Courage
Press, 2001.
dc
|115
HOLLYWOODS INFLUENCE
Many areas of the world have embraced Hollywood film industries struggle to hold even 30% of the
profoundly in France, where President Jacques Ch goods, subject solely to the law of the market.
industries and by laws that limit the amount of issue in World Trade Organization negotiations.
PROS CONS
Hollywood films are poor,Hollywoodlowest-moviescommon-aredenominainterna-tor pulp that rely on
specialpeople alleffectsover andthe laworgeld qf of sex and violence
tomademaskinpreposterousHollywoodcanplots,beru dialogue, and poor
actingbeterrific.Thestudios.Inanyaddictiocase, market testing leads toartisticunadventurouscredibilityfilms,
withwhen pulsory happy endings andweightslushyescapismmorals.macks of e
artistic credibility, it wo wood would provide it.
Hollywood films glorifyNotsexallandHollywoodviolence.moviesThy atr the moral values of

allnographicsocietiesor andgratuitouslyleadyoung v astray. Even American
critofficslmshaveproducedattackedelsewthere values they present. movies promote liberal valu the rights
of women; the im independent worth of each h sibilities of individual su countries, e.g., China, tha
films are those who least va
Hollywood imposes AmericanHollywoodsentertainmentsuccess anddoesitsno language on the world

atfilmtheindustriexpenses.of IndiasindigenousBol tures and languages andandofthedomesticFrenchfilm,Spanishdustri-, The globalization of entertaguageinmentriesdusthreatrensthrivito in a bland, Americanflavoredhelpindigenousuniformitystudios. dev
aters, marketing methods, a filmmakers need to thrive.
Hollywood promotes a biasedHollywoodand ispeculiafarfrlyom typicAmeri can vision of the worldican.It.
Insteadoffers aitssimplisticconcentrag evil view of internationalmade conflicts,itaninternationaloftenpresence
reotyped and negative entertainmentimagesofMuslims,.Many Russianofits South Americans, and
others,directors,as enemiesandstarsof havfreed and progress. Hollywoodeithevern
distortsasrefugeeshistory,becado playing the contributionnationalofotheraudiencenationsHollywoodtothe victory
in World War IIacclaimedfilmsanddirectorsincludingfromanach nisms in period dramas
brtougshtownewAmericansperspectivesina favto able light. internationally successful
Hollywoods major studiosIf moneydominateguaranteedthefilmsucceindusts through sheer size

andsuchfinancialTheasFuwouldpowerMonty.neverThey haveb
PROS CONS
immense budgets needednationalforexpensivehits andspecialexpensiveeffct and for effective

marketingWaterwould.Theyralwayscanalsoucceedpayhuge.The aries to foreign actors,mentwhohasmaybeen
throwinglostto theirmoney film industry as a resultindustry.Hollywoodforyearhas,alsoyet lobbithem the US
government very filmseffectivelyinFranceto hasensurecontinuedthatc tural exports are classedof theas majform
Hollywoodftrade studioinint tional agreements and tobeen,helpownedit gainbynoncontrol-Americanoverc tribution
networks abroad.
Sample Motions:
This House would restrict the influence of Hollywood. This House would practice cultural protectionism. This House
condemns cultural imperialism.
Web Links:
Central Europe Review: Hungary v. Hollywood. <http://www. Analysis of Hungarian films imitating Hollywood.
dc
HUMAN CLONING
The cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997 generated and a ban on federal funding for cloning research, and
another demanding its prohibition were both re cloning is clear. The European Parliament, the Cou passed
resolutions asserting that human cloning is
PROS CONS
The technology is unsafeCloning.The isnuclearnodifferenttransferfromtec nique that produced
Dollytechnologyrequired. Research277embryos,isrequifrom which only one healthy tifyand
viableandreduceshepthewasriskproducedoft The other fetuses were hideously deformed, and eith died or were
aborted. Moreover, we do not know the long-term consequences of cloning.
Cloning is playing God.ThisIt isargumentnotmerelyassumesinterventiothatwe the bodys natural

processes,Moreover,buteverythe timecreationdoctorofa and wholly unnatural processgeryor
ofadministersasexualrepdrugsoductiohe Philosophers and clericstheofpatientmanyfaithsndcouldopposebe
humaseen cloning. They caution thatGod. Furthermore,failutoweproduceshould scb tific reasons against
thesomethingtechnologywithoutdoesbeingnot meanable should deny our strong instinctive revulsion.
Reproductive
cloning
injuresThisargumentthefamilys.whollySingleunsuipeo
will
be
able
to
produceSocietyoffspringfreelywithoutallows asinglepartne Once born, the child willExistingbedeniedpracticesthe
suchlove asof spon parent, most probably ationthefatherwithout.Severalknowledgetheologiaof
|117
PROS CONS
have recognized that a Surechildy isa motherasymbolicwouldexpresprefe the mutual love of itsitageparentsof
herand cthildeir ratherhopefo future. This sign of loveunknownislostand whenrandom childsdonor? Il in a
laboratory. child to be born into a hap
rates of single parenthood is not always possible.
Many churches and secularWhen organizatipeopleresortns, toincluditalk WHO, view reproductive
aboutcloninghumanascontrarydignitytoyouhumac dignity. no evidence or arguments to
Why is sexual intercourse t dignified than a reasoned d
modern science to have a ch
Cloning will lead to eugenicsEugenics. Whenismuchpeoplemorearelikelab clone themselves they

willmentsbeinablegenetotherapychoose
andthe
g
person
to
be
born.
Thisthanseemsin
humanuncomfortablycloning.
closeClon
the
Nazi
concept
of
bregedingnes)
awouldracebyofnoAryanmeansupeb mans, while eliminatingYouthosened individuaonlytolookswhoseatidc
acteristics they considersamed geundesirablees)tosee. how wron
how different the personali of people with identical ge
Cloning will lead to a Chdiminishedldrenproducedsense ofby identireprod individuality for the copiesresultantof
tcheirild. parentsInstead. ofD considered as a unique torsindivwidual,llmeanthethatchildchildrewill exact copy of
his parentmentallyandwillidenticalbeexpectedtothetop the same traits and interestscloned..YouHiswouldlife
havewill tono al his own. This is an unacceptableidenticaltwinsinfringement.Asmall ofpr liberty and autonomy
thatdo, indeed,wegrantsuffertoevefromyhumapsy person. The confusion toof fethelingsoffpringofa
lackislikelyofin compounded by the fact childrenthatthe wouldparent,beinfromabettwh he is cloned, will be
geneticallytwinsbecausehistheytwinwillbrothebe is no way of knowing howtheirchildrgeneticwilltwins,reactwhoto
arh such a confused geneticTherefore,heritage. they will not su
physically identical indivi

Cloning will lead to aAnylackreductionofdiversityintheindiversthe population. The naturalwillprocbesso
oflimitedevolutionas towilb halted, and humankind willexpensbe deniedandtimedevnelopmentcessary.
ing mean that only a small the technology. The pleasur
sexual intercourse suggests choose whats natural rat
through cloning.
Human reproductive cloningThe desireisunnecesstohavery.onesThe devow opment of in vitro

fertilizationiswhollynaturalandthe.Thepracticlong
sperm
donation
allow
heterosexualchildexistedcoupleslongbeforetorepm
duce
where
one
partner
ogyis
sterileandbiotechnology,.Inaddition,butp parents might better giveben theirable tolovesometimestoexistingsati
PROS CONS
rather than attempt to bring their own offspring int already crowded world.
Cloning treats childrenTheaseffcommoditiesrtrequired. Individualtoclone will be able to have achild willwith
bedesiredhighlycharactervalued as a symbol of status, Furrathermore,than becauseweshouldtheynotdesipr
conceive, love, and raiseconceivedanotherbyhumansexualbeingprocreati.
intentioned parents.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban human cloning.
This
House would not make a mini-me.
This
House would not reproduce itself.
Web Links:
1 American Life League. < http://www.all.org>
Pro-life organization offers information on a variety of re
The Ethics of Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning. <http Academic article arguing that there is no ethical reason to
Human Cloning Foundation. <http://www.humancloning.org> Offers resources, books, and essays in support of human clo
Further Reading:
Burley, TheJustine,Geneticed.RevolutiOxfordnandUniversityHumanRightsPre.s, 1999. Harris,Clones,John. Genes and
Immortality:OxfordEthicsUniversityandthePress,Genetic199 Nussbaum, Martha,Clonesand Cassand Clones:SunsteinFacts.
Norton,andFantasies1998. abou
dc
HUMAN ORGANS, SALE OF

Advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques hav total of 22,827 organs were transplanted in the Un
available organs and the number of patients requir as a possible solution to the crippling shortage. opportunity
for British patients to receive priva which has sold the organs of executed prisoners. I compensate the families
who donate the organs of kidneys from living donors for transplantation, b Organ Transplantation Act, which
prohibits the sal
PROS CONS
The
seriously
ill
are Aentsingletled
kidneytospendhastheirablackmoney
saving
their
lives.
It
Consequently,ispreferablethethatsalesomeof
indiorga
receive
organs,
and
survive,portthethanmostthategregioustheydiediscr.T wealthy will not be theandsolepoorbeneficiaries.Thosewho
ofcannotpolia organ purchase. For eachorgansuccessfulwillhavekidneynoopportunittranspla operation, valuable
hoursfamily,on
aifdialysispreparedmachinetodonatewi
open
up.
The
expense
ofwouldpalliatdecidve
tocaredeclineforindividapay
|119
PROS CONS
requiring a transplant ofwilldollars?beeliminatedDonated. organs will die and only the rich
The donor of an organ, Theor hisblackfamily,arketwillworksbenefiin siderably from the saleThird.BothWorlda
kidneytothe andFirsta.piT of liver can be removedlationwithoutand significantthecomparativeharm the
individual. Any asserthationhealthythat anindividualsin make a reasoned decisionto
toscavedonategingororgansell merchanthese is patronizing. The famakeily theof a decisionrecently
todecseasedll vidual also ought to beratherable thanosaveconsentthe.lifeWhereof and simultaneously
receivethe neocolonialistremuneration. surgeon
Legalizing organ sales

Thewillsaleeliminateoforgansthe willcorruptilea
has
led
to reported
executionsviolationsand.Chinesesubsequentjudiciath
of
organs.
A
successfulcuteransplaprisonerstoperationfortheirisbod dent upon medical knowledgeorgansofwouldthe
donorlegitimiz.The blahum market cannot be regulated, but its purpose would defeated once organ sales
became lawful.
The
transplant
surgeon,Puthetingnursingapricestaff,ontheandhumaev
pharmaceutical
companiestationproducingbythetheunscrupulousanti-rejec. drugs receive payment for each operation performe
Why should the donor of the organs, arguably th most important actor in any transplant, not also r
remuneration? What is remarkable is that a lifesa treatment should apparently have no financial valu
Sample Motions:
This House would legalize the sale of organs. This House would have a heartwith a price tag. This
House would buy body parts.
Web Links:
Facts about Organ Donation and Transplantation. http://www.inil.com/users/paulh/FACTS.HTM
A useful fact sheet, with statistics on organ donation an
2 Living Bank. <http://www.livingbank.org/main.html>

Site maintained by the largest donor education organizati organ donation.
3
Organ Donor. <http://www.organdonor.gov/>
Provides
information and resources on organ donation and
United Network for Organ Sharing. <http://www.unos.org/ The Web site of the organization that maintains the US or
transplantation and transplantation issues, including bio
Further Reading:
Chabot-Long,AGiftLynnof. Life: A Page FromJe Lynnthe Publications,LifeofLiving19
Green,TheRegNicholas. Effect:OReillABoysandGiftAssociattothes,World1999..
dc
HUMAN RIGHTS: EXISTENCE OF

The concept of human rights is central to modern if we do, why are they needed? The United Nations
response to the savage inhumanities of World War I the political and civil rights common to Western d have not
historically considered fundamental. Howe to move towards a realization of these rights. T of rights, there is a
long way to go.
PROS CONS
By their nature and birth,Doanimalshuman beingshavethepossesssame inalcert inalienable rights. As ofAr ticleheir
InatureoftheandUDHRbirth?stateIs,
human beings are born Whyfreeshouldandequaleveryoneindignityhavea andr
rights. are born?
The simple sharing of aThiscommonargumenthumanitys arbitraryestablishesan human
extrapolatedamentalfromhumanthisrightshumanityon extthe norms that secure the
dignityHowaccuratewith whichcanthiswe a want to live.
just a wish list of ways we w to
in a
rights. We
ingsbasic.
be treated
certain wa
to be so treated.
Desires are not what groundsIfhuman humanrightsrightsarerequireme.What human rights are
baseddoonweisseetheso universalmuchambiguityneed foa basic security in our theybodies,are?
ourTherepossessions,ishugedebateand relationships within societyandmany.Thispeoplesecuritycannotisntagreeju
able; it is vital. Humannomicrightsor developmentarethosethingsrightstha. nally assure these
vitalrightsrequiaremenrationals.ThomasrequiremeHobbe recognized that all people benefit from this securi because
human beings are equal in their capacity t harm one another.
Our understanding of humanThis isrightsaveryhas subversiveevolvedovertr several hundred years.

requirementsTherightscontemporaryofreason areWestb ern societies considerdentbasicon arespecificmore
circumstanceextensiveth those found in past societieshumansreallybecausedontthesehaveWesterinal societies
have a highertransformstandard acceptedoflivingstandards.People must experience the lackrights?
ofsomethingInthat case,toappreciattwocul how vital it isthis isdifferenttrueof hbumantvalidrghtsinterpret.
right. Can this be a satisfac actual rights?

Human rights are not meantThis toallbesuggestssubject thattoartifichuman academic analysis.
Theyusefulare.practicalHowever, somethingguidesto cali standards of how we shouldessary,be ablewithoutto
liveitbeing.Theyyourae objective standard thatmentspeopleestablishescanusewhenthatcallinghuman their
governments for justicerights.
|121
Sample Motions:
This House believes in fundamental human rights. This House believes rights are right.
Web Links:
Amnesty International. <http://www.amnesty.org/> Provides information on contemporary human rights issues.
2 Human Rights Documents and Materials. <http://www1.umn. Site maintained by the Human Rights Library at the Univer
human rights.
3 Human Rights Web. <http://www.hrweb.org/>
General site offering an introduction to human rights, bi documents relating to human rights, and links to other re
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. <http://www.un.o Text of the document.
Further Reading:
Paine,CommonTom. Sense, the Rights of Man Newand AmericanOtherEssentialLibrary,
Savic,TheObradPolitics.. Verso,ofHuman2000Rights.
dc
HUMAN RIGHTS: IMPOSITION BY F

During the 1990s the international community in dramatic infringements of human rights continue groups,
while civilians disappear in Colombia. whether by military force, through peacekeeping practical and
moral problems.
PROSCONS
As good international Samaritans,Usingforce weto mupholdstintervenhuma halt human rights
violationsForce.inevitablyThe1948 Genocideinvolves Coi vention calls on
countriesproperty)toundertakeforthe saketopreveofa to punish genocide. nesian intervention in East
sition of martial law: Amne this as complaint and cure
Because all people haveWethecannotsame assumerights,thatcountrieWest the best human rights

extendrecordsthroughouthavethe theauthorityworld impose their standardsplacesonothermoe nationsempha.is
Certainonhu when one country perceiveseffectsabreachofindividualsofhumanrightact it understands them,
itcase,must whichuseforcecountryto upholdhasthe rights. The United States often tak
ing intervention, but many death penalty as a human ri

Careful planning can minThismizeis theotallymilitaryimpossibleativ. human rights. It is possibleinth
accuracytohitmilitaryofweaponsbase ways, bridges, and so onstillwithouthit civilianskillinga whensinglebo or
destroying anyones safepersoansweralpropertyisnot. to bomb.
PROS CONS
Force need not mean violenceTheinternational.Throughoutcommunityitshisto the United Nations

hasforcesdeployedonlypeacekeepingtheaftermathmis-sions to stop
violencekeepingandprotectforceshumanhaverightsviolated.In vidual nations, too, haveresortedcarriedto
violenceoutsuccessful. c paigns. If Britain had not deployed troops in North Ireland over the past decades,
unchecked sectarian lence would have claimed thousands more lives.
The nations that are partyGuns andto unstableinternationalpeace humanare rights conventions
havethesearesponsibilitysituationsevento seethe thatsma countries accept these humannoble ridealsghts.violations.
Force does not necessSarilynctionsinvolveharm thediplomaticmilitaryrel. lomatic pressure,
includingeffectsanctions,anychangecan.Noforcesubstanopp sive regimes to respectofferedhuman rightsonthe.
efficacy of san tions against Iraq, for exampl human rights. Instead, they h
of the civilian population.
1A nation can overthrow Nationscruel doregimenot needonly outsidewithint

national
support.
oppressive dictator. In 2000,

tunice
Serbian
won the presid ential e
dic tator Slobodan Mi
he did not side with Western

intervened more forcefully to
have
clung to power longer.
Force is the only way toMilitarysenda interventionclarmessageneverthat pt
who
infringe on human rigtohtsumanarerightsintheabuseswrong..
Sample Motions:
This House would use force to uphold human rights.
Web Links:
1 Amnesty International. <http://amnesty.org>

Information on Amnesty International and its campaigns for violations.
1
Human Rights Watch. <http://www.igc.org/hrw>
Information
on human rights by issue and geographical area.
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human R Information on the operations of the OHCHR and its campaign rights.
Includes links to information on key human rights i
Further Reading:
Forsythe,HumanDavidRights. in. InternationalCambridgeUniversityRelationsPress, 2000. Gray, ChristineInternational.
Law.OxfordandtheUniversityUseofForcePress, 2001.
Koh, Harold, andDeliberativeRonaldC.Slye,Democr.edsYacyle. aUndiversityHumanRightsPres, 199
Robertson,CrimesGoffreyAgainst. Humanity:.NewThePress,Struggle2000for. Global Ju
dc
|123
IMMIGRATION, RESTRICTIONS ON
In the last half of the twentieth century, the or religious persecution, but a large proportion were actively
recruited as cheap labor. Immigrat Should immigration be restricted, and if so, to of developing nations?
PROS CONS
Labor is increasingly mobileEconomicin migrantsthisage ofleaveglobalde People looking for
workbecnauseturallythey
movecannotfromfindareasjo
underemployment
and
povertyhigher
toincomesregions.Thwisthcanhigheca standards of living wherenegativeworkerseffectare ino demandvelopm.
The higher real wages thatWorkersmigrantmove withorkerstheirearnfamab and send to their

familiestotheathomehomecountryaregains.Oftenfo migrants home country.oldIn parentssomecountriesbecome
atheseburdenre tances are a significantpayerspart. ofFrequentlythenationstheseincow
ingness to work for low wag workers and contributes to
country.
Many economists agree Thinkingtatimmigrationthatimmigrationcanbe thc magic bullet that
willproblemsovercomeforthetheanticipatedEuropeanU age of workers caused Oncebytheimmigrantsagingof
arepopulasettledion Europe. Replacement migferation,tility patternsitis ofcallthed,c also help developing
countriTheydes,cidewhosenot ptopulationshaveman growing rapidly. If theoldEuropeantoo! Union closes its
these people will still come to its shores, but t come illegally. Individuals with no legal status much less to lose
than those who are in a count legally; thus enforcing a host countrys laws be that much more difficult.
International
migrationImmigrantscanbring
boostednecessarytheknowlAme
and
technologies
to
countriesbecause.theForUnitedinstance,Statestheh
migration
from
Europe
towhicthe
opportuniUnitedStatesyabouindedthe. nineteenth century contritiesbutedhavetochangedAmericansincegrowtth
and
development.
Not
onlyopportunityAmerca,
isbutlimitedalsoAustrbyi
and
New
Zealand
emergedFurthermore,outofimmigranttheimmigrantsflow.
United States and Western E grate into their host cultu
Sample Motions:
This House believes that rich countries should enforce i The House believes that international immigration is ben
Web Links:
World Immigration and Deportation. <http://www.world-im Broad site dealing with a variety of issues associated w
Immigration Issues. <http://immigration.about.com>

In-depth guide to immigration worldwide. Includes informati mass immigration.

Further Reading:
Brettell,
Caroline, MigrationandJames Theory:FrankHollifielTalkingRoutledAcrossge,eds2000.the. Dis
Martinez,CrossingRuben. Over: A MexicanMetropolitanFamilyon Books,theMigrant2001. Trail Stalker,WorkersPeterWithout.
Frontiers: The ImpactLynne ofRienner,Globalization1999.
dc
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

In 1998, the Rome Statute established the Interna humanity, war crimes, and aggression. US Presiden treaty
was significantly flawed and recommended t even more hostile. In November 2001, President Geo agencies,
including the Departments of State, Com use of Defense Department funds the following mont
PROS CONS
The ICC will lead to ThepoliticalUSshouldprosecutionhavenothing.It wito subject American
servicefullymembers.Moreover,andseniordeterminlingtar and political strategiststionalto criminallaw(by
thechargesUSorforanym actions that are legitimplacete shouldandnecessarybeeasy. asAny thenatiI can ask the ICC
prosecutorhimselfto ionlyvestigatewiththean gravissuest, the prosecutor hasextheprotainlypowerrio
wouldtoinvestigatenotapprove a st motuThe. UN Security Counciltematicannotmass overrideviolationsor of hu veto
his actions or decisionscomeunder.Politicalthejurisdictionprosecutio evident in the preliminatorsy
investigationpowerisalso bylimitedtheIntb national Criminal TribunalobtainforthetheapprovalFormer Yugoslaviofthree
(ICTY) into the NATO bombingarrest warrantofKosovoor andinitiatingthe Federal Republic of
Yugoslavinvestigation.The couldprosecutorbenefitchost to investigate a campaignend
doubtsthathadaboutbeentheundertakenjustifia with clinical precision,US acceptedthathad
thereceivedjurisdictionthesupp of the Security Councilbec(auselthoughitdidafternot theexpectfact),its that had been
directedtheyagainstwere adeployedmilitarytocarryingprevent a brutal policy of genocide. This grim precedent su
gests that a prosecutor will not hesitate to invest other good faith and successful military actions ac the globe.
The US holds a unique Thepositionvery preeminencemaintainingof intther national peace and securityadhere. Itto
mighttherulebe appropriateofinterna other countries to consentcommittowarthecrimesjurisdictionwhileconduof ICC
because they do notpaignhavetotheprotectsame responshumanrightsbili-ties and risks. US
armedcanforcesdemandhavethatrespondedtheUS, orto anma more situations duringlawfulthe
ends1990sbythlanwfulduringmeansthe. whole of the Cold War. humanMore thanrightsever,violationstheworldo loon
to the US to ensure peacetor andis. safOtherty.nationsUSmilitarywith sido inance increases the
likelihmentsoverseas,odofprosecutionsuchasthe.WheU
|125
PROS CONS
rogue regimes are incapablefiedtheof defRomeatingStatuthe withoUSmi ily, they are likely toaccepthallengethe
principletheUSin thatthe In will damage US interestsstatefartomoreupholdthanoranyestablisconve tional military
action thoseandwillsameresulthuman inrightsUSreluc. intervene in the future. The indispensable nation be
permitted to dispense with the ICC.
The Rome Statute has createdThisobjectiontheovelto thecrimeICC ofis aggression, which incrtheasesICC
thehas likelihoodnotyetdefinedofp prosecution. One state thecouldcrimeaccuseofanothaggressionofagi sion
for intervening totheprotectdomestichumanffarirsghtsof. Govas ments carrying out a policynorms of
geconocideventionalcouldandreq that a nation be prosecutedCharterforprohibitsuccessfullyboth prthev
genocide. Moreover, by againstquirkanotherof stateute,and ai that refuses to accept
jurisdictionICCjurisdiction.The canUS shouldnever request the prosecutionsoofthatforeignits
negotiatorsnationalsforca allegedly committed inAssemblyitsterritoryofState. ThusParties,Yugos President
Slobodan Milonsevicdraftingcoulda havedefinitiodemandedof the investigation of NATO forces for activities d
Operation Allied Force but could have prevented investigation of the Bosnian Serb army in the sam ritory.
The ICC will not deterYouwarcannotcrimesclaimorgenocidethatthe. TI Third Reich

acceleratedwhenitssuchcampaigninstitutoextionerminh Jews when it became
clearMoeover,thatthetheAllioffenderswouldmusb torious. Similarly,
Milosevicandpunishedandthe.RetributionBosnianSerba conducted a campaign ofobjgenocidectives
innotKosovoonly forwhiledom ICTY was sitting in ThetemsHaguebut. Waralsocriminalsforthe newdo ni commit
gross human rights violations based on rea The existence of a court, however well intentioned have no effect
on those states that would commit crimes.
ICC expenses will be cripplingTheICCs. Cautiousbudgetmightestimatesseem gest an operating

budgetshouldof $be100USput millionjusticeper foye The costs of the ICTY nousand thecrimesinternational.
crimi tribunal for Rwanda spiraled out of control, and latter left a legacy of misadministration and in corruption.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the United States should not sup This House believes that the creation of the ICC is a cri
Web Links:
The Coalition for an ICC. <http://www.iccnow.org/index. Country-by-country report on the status of the Rome Statu
Crimes of War Project. <http://www.crimesofwar.org/> Provides up-to-date information on possible violations of law and
justice.
ICC Resources at the University of Chicago Library. <ht
Bibliography of Web and print resources on the ICC.

International Committee of the Red Cross: International C icrceng.nsf/813bf8350951d3bbc12564670032d7f3/49f216e46af8b3 Links
to information on the ICC and ad hoc international cr
Further Reading:
Goldstone,ForRichardHumanity:J. ReflectionsYale ofUniversityaWarCrimePress,Investigat2000. Gutman,CrimesRoy. of War:
WhatNorton,thePublic1999.Should Know.
Schabas, AnWilliamIntroductionA. to theCambridgeInternationalUniversityCriminalPress,Court200
dc
INTERNET CENSORSHIP
The Internet (World Wide Web) is the fastest growi world. In the last 10 years concern has increased making
instructions, that abets terrorist activit But even if censorship of the Internet can be mora
PROS CONS
Although democratic nationsCensorshipvalue isfreedomusuallyof evilspeech.G all put some restrictionsit
wherevontherrightpossible.Such.
Childrestrip
usually
surround
hard-coreexample;and
childsufficientpornography,legislatibu some nations restrict hatendlespeechthoseaswhowellattempt.The Inteto
should be no exceptionviewto thesesuch mbaterialsicstandards.Other.foTr offensive material is
nooffensive,differentbutbecausetheonlyit iswaypuba on the Web. speech is to be exposed to it
Without such freedom, these g ground and can take on the as

Censorship is tailoredTheto distinctionthepowerofbetwheenmediumcenso. Accordingly, a higher
castlevelmediaofcenisorshipbecomingis increaattac to television, films, andmediavideoare
thancomparativelytonewspapersunreg books: We recognize thatthe
movprimaryngpicturesmeansofanddistribusound are more graphic and powerfulety.In thean
neartext,future,photographthe or illustrations. Videosprimearedisseminatornorallymore.Thusregulatthe than films
seen in theatheers samebecauseprotectionstheviewernowofenja has control of the mediumWhentheEnglishpower
philosophertorewind, viewJohn again, and distribute moreered widfreelydom. Theof speechInternet,and whith
increasingly uses videotheandUnitedsound,Statesshouldspokebe regulainth
accordingly.
of the press they were conce

and most powerful organ of in
that time, the print press. N
likely
be concerned with prev
broadcast media and the Inter

The Internet would be Evenhard allowingtocontrol,for butthe weextrememust not use that as an
excusecurtailmentnottotryof. freedomPrventingof speth of snuff movies or hardwould-core bepornographymorelessis
extremeimpossi difficult, but some governattementspttodoregulatesobecausewhat theyis
|127
PROS CONS
deem it important. A mcoreuntriesintractablebutregulatingissueisma anonymity that the

Internetnationalprovidesborderspornographewouldbe and criminals. Asian countriespointin havethe
USexperimentedremovingal requiring citizens to providecorepornographyidentificationwhen beforsuch ing
content on the Web.orIfSwedenuniversacoullyd beadopted,readilys requirement could be a Individuarelativelys
simplecould alsoway ofprode ing laws against truly storoffensiveitinand harmfuloverseascontdom
requires anonymity in some Governments that have intro for

Internet use also deny izens. The Internet allows ernment
and distribute news reprisal from the state. Th not survive
Internet ID req
In many countries producingInternetlibelousservicematerialprovidersor m rial that incites racialpeoplehatredto

decideincurs whatmultiplecan a Where the author or publisherInternet.cannotBigbusinessbetracedalreor
insolvent, the printersthiscan newoftentechnologybesued orwithoutpros The relatively small numberjury ofof
allInternernetservicecontenp ers (ISPs) should be madeof informationliableiftheyISPsassistallow int vision of
dangerous or reviewingharmfulinformationitallwould. be i
held liable for allowing su they would inevitably err protect

their financial int much more heavily censored
The issues at stake inManythisISPsdebatehaveprotectionshownthemseof dren, terrorist activity,in

immediatelycrime,racialremovinghatred,true international problems.theyIf haveglobaleensoalertedution tois ir it
can be achieved by ulainterionationalbythe industry,cooperationo treaties. All
societiesandconsiderdraconiancensorshrestrictionspjusti harm is caused to
othersParentsbythecanspeech,installwords,softwaror All the examples
citedsitesaboveandaresitesclearlyinappropriacausing to various groups in society. By a combination of
initiatives listed above, we could limit that har
Sample Motions:
This
House would censor the Internet.
This
House calls for Net filters.
This
House would limit freedom of speech.
Web Links:
ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union): CyberLiberties. Provides links to resources and information on campaigns
Electronic Frontier Foundation. <http://www.eff.org/blu Offers summaries of issues involving Internet censorship
Further reading:
Peck,
Libraries,Robert.
the
First
AmendmentAmericanandCyberspace:LibraryAssociWhat
Jonathan,Sex,andLaws,MarkandManganCyberspace:. Freedom and Ce Revolution.Holt, 1997.
Wallace,
IRAQ, INVASION OF
Iraq invaded its neighbor, Kuwait, in 1990, provok defeated Iraq, it stopped short of removing Iraqi chemical,
biological, and nuclear weapons, one of investigate Iraqi weapons programs and shut them d from Iraq in 1998
after reporting that Iraq had r singled out Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as an axi Bush administration has
indicated that it is will
PROS CONS
Saddam Hussein is developingWhere isweaponsthe evidenceofmass destructhatSa tion. During the 1990s
toUNSCOMpossessinguncoveredweaponsnuclear,ofmass
chemical,
and
biologicalnoneweapons.Recentplantsdefectorsandprogramhaveb but was unable to shutStateshem downwhat.
theySinceknowUNSCOMit want left in 1998, stores ofdemandsthese kindsabout ofinspectionsweaponshaveeff
increasing rapidly accoprovedinga tonegativerecentthatIraqiitdefectisn Because sanctions failedthato
UNSCOMforce Iraqfailedto tocooperatefindin the UN, we have no alternativesivesearchingbutto.
overthrowTheweaponssucha dangerous regime beforexcuseitusesto suchoverthrowterriblearegimeweapo
family
in particular, hates.
Because Hussein has engagedIraqisinnotwars seriousofaggressionthreat. against Iran and

Kuwait,fromandtheusedGulfchemicWarandl weapoisins against both Iran and theof aggressionKurdihminority.The
KurdswithininIr we have good reason to MarshbelieveArabshe willintheusesouthany weapoare of mass
destruction availableno-flyzonestohim.Evid.Hencemayalsonot shb deterred by the threat
deterred;ofdestructionheheeded.AbrutalIsraelsdic Hussein has shown no concerntion
inforthetheGulfIraqiWarpeopleand didan may be prepared to takeweaponsthem allhe dwidthpossesshimif. hisThe
owg position is threatened.sein, if provoked by a US atta from power, might use any wea
Husseins regime is a sponsorTheevidenceofa fornumberany oflinkinterntoS tional terrorist

groupsous..PossibleIraqs secularlinkstoregimetheAlhaQ terrorist network may implicatefundamentalistIraq
inmemberstheSeptembofAl 11 attacks. Iraq was theDpartmentonlycountrylists notherto countrndem these attacks,
and one sof whyits isagentsIraq twicebeing metsingledMoha med Atta, a leading hijackersion?Most.At
ofthetheverygroupsleast,Iraq regime provides encouragement,lentlyopposedfunding,to Israel,andlogistibut cal
support for groupswouldthat seare themintentas onfreedomkillingfigc ians and overthrowing
istslegitimate.Inthisgovercontmexnt,s.endingMight it not also give these
istsgroupswouldaccesshavetolittleweaponsor ofno destruction? tions.
Overthrowing the presentWhatIraqiguaranteeregimedoandwe removinghavetha Hussein would relieve

thewouldterribebleetter?sufferingShouldofanthein
people.
Husseins
regimecoup,is
poweradictatorshipwouldcontinuethat usto brutal methods to silencemilitarydissentandandpoliticalmantaingroupsits
|129
PROS CONS
on
power.
UN
sanctions
soexcepbrutedallyfood.TheandUnitedmedicineSta
but
Hussein
has
deliberatelyIraqiNationawithheldCongrthesess,frombu people to score propagandaexile pointsgroups.
Hisuniattedacksonly Kurds of northern Iraq regimeandthe. ItMarshincludesArabs figuresandSh Muslims of
southern Iraqcredentihaveamountedls,includingtogenocidform
implicated in brutal acts o legitimacy within Iraq. The Hussein
civil war would ma Iraqis even worse.
The present Iraqi regimeThe isgreatestthreatotoregi stability. In the pastthatit

hasIraqbegunmightwarsbreakagainstupsh its immediate neighborsoverthrow(Iranand.
Kuwait),Neighboringthrenat a third (Saudi Arabia),an launchedIraqicivilunprovokedwarin suppomiss attacks
against Israel,factionsandcall(ed.gupon.,Iranthe inpeoplsup Arab world to rise up against
theircreationowngovernmenofan It may again seek to dinvertan attemptitspeoplestocontrolattentioIr their
sufferings by startingArabworldanotheragainstwar.US Becausimper the strategic and economiclize
importancenumberof offragiletheMiddre East, regional instabilityther isthreateningdirect threattheregionto rity.
Clearly a lastingIsraeland workableandthe Palestinianspeacesettl between Israel and the Palestinians is
impossible Iraq remains a threat. Fear of Iraq also blights efforts in countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia.
Overthrowing
the
IraqiInvadingregime
isIraqfeasiblewouldbeand
mine
not
result
in
large
numbersdidnotoffallcasualtiesthrough.
aSanctcou
prevented
the
Iraqi
miliattack,ry
fromaninvadingrebuildingforceaftw destruction in the GulforcesWar. Thefor defectionsalongcampaignofma
senior
army
officers
broughtebels
tovaluableactas
intelligencaproxyar
Western
military
plannersstan).The.Iraqiregime,soldierslike
themay
Tan
in
Afghanistan,
is
likelyquipped,toprovebuttoneitherbeverywerebri
subject
to
a
forceful
theattack,elitecollapsingRepublicanthroughGuard, military and popular supportand100,000. strong, would b
cially in house-to-house f major towns and cities. Giv as

human shields in the p high.
Overthrowing Hussein wouldGiven deterthat otherUnitedrogue Statstat from attempting to acquireothr

wenationspons ofthatmasshavedestruign tion and supporting terrorismltreaties,.Failuretheto invasionactdec
now will send a messageclearthatmessagetheinternational.Instead,anc munity is too weak and
thedividedUnitedto
Stakets,a
standtheag
aggression.
All
presenthateand
andfuturegeneratetreatiesmoredesigter limit weapons of mass globaldestructiondangerwills thatbe worthlthei
because there is no credibleterror enforcementwillfallapart. as a
many
other nations openly o
Sample Motions:
This House would invade Iraq.
This
House would overthrow Saddam.
This
House would extend the war on terror.
Web Links:
1 The Case for Tough Action Against Iraq. <http://www.obs
Article inObserverthesupportingBrish the overthrow of Saddam Hussein by m
Iraqi National Congress. <http://www.inc.org.uk/>
Web site maintained by loose coalition of exile groups oppo
Iraq Update. <http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/nea/iraq/> US State Department site presenting current information on
Should We Go to War with Saddam? <http://www.observer.c Article inObserverthesummarizingBritish the debate.
Further Reading:
Butler,TheRichardGreatest. Threat: Iraq, Weapons PublicofMassAffairs,Destructio20 Farouk-Sluglett, Marion,IraqSinceand
1958:Peter FromSluglI.RBe.ttvolutionTauris,. to2001Dictat. MacKey,TheSandraReckoning:. Iraq andNorton,theLegacy2002. of
Saddam Hussein
dc
IVORY TRADING
The African elephant population decreased from abo of intense poaching to supply the international i
Endangered Species (CITES) banned ivory trading. eased for Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, giving ivory
demand. The ivory was sold in 1999; in 2000 announced that it would apply for permission to s
PROS CONS
The elephant populationsElephantsofsouthernarehighlyAfricanintelligstate are growing rapidly,
placingfortheirastrainivory isuponunethicthealti. parks in which they livemize. Thisthe viewhas
necessitatedthathumankindgov ment culls that have resultedwayconvenientinlarge. stockpiles of (also acquired from
animals that died naturally) t these nations are currently unable to sell. Relaxin CITES ban on trading ivory, subject
to careful regu tion, would bring much-needed cash to the environ-mental programs of these impoverished
countries, hel ing them to safeguard the long-term survival of Afri elephants.
A trading ban does notAtchokepresentoff demand for ivory. Instead, it raises the prices areto exorbitantactually
lowerlevels,tha aging poaching. Japan istradingemergingban wouldfrom thernewconomicinter problems that
depressedincreasedemnd
duringthesizetheof1990s,themarkand
Chinas
growing
prosperHitygherispricescreatingpresentaewa
marketlong-Consequently
the
illegandltradeencouragewill
generatecontinuedhigherpoach its in the future. Legiertimate,yinAfricaegulatedisso salesseverewout undercut the
illegal marketnotstopand thedrivepoactherspoachers.
|131
PROS CONS
of
business.
Poaching has been effectivelyAlthough eliminelephanttedpopulatioinsout Africa through

effectiviablemanagementandincreasing,ofgame parkthis The development of ecotourismAfrica. alsoNor
isgivesit truelocalofpet an incentive to protectulationswildlifeofasSouthalongAsia-term. Tec resource. To sustain
thiscarvedapproach,ivory originatedparksmust orge ate greater income fromit theircame.
elephantConsequently,populatiolift Realistically, states enablecando poachersthisonlytobysellsellinivo piled
ivory. If other countriesingtheir haveprofitsapoachingandtheirpr they should follow thephantsexample.Theof
widespreadSouthAfricaorra Botswana rather than seekof Asiatoharmllowsthe poachersfulsuto servancy
programs in thesetheirstatesivory,. which they pas
Ivory is expensive to obtainStorage(throughcostsandcullsdepreciaormo ing of very elderly anivorymals)

isandstored.inItthealsohopd over time. Therefore, gacomemonconservancysensetellsburnsus tothea its sale on
a permanent,or confiscatestrolled basis,frompoacherrathe through one-off schemesproblemssuchas andthe
showingsaleto itsJapanco
possibility of renewed trad
According to the SouthTheAfricanrelaxationgovernmentofCITESproposaco to lift the ban in 2000,fivefoldThe
upsuexpergeimentalinpoachinexpor raw ivory in 1999 fromincreaseBotswana,inNamibiaIndia becauseandZimc babwe (conducted under banrigorouswould CITESsoon besupervisionlifted. was successful in all respects
and took place u intense international scrutiny. It can categorica stated that no ivory, other than the registered
was exported to Japan.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow trade in ivory. This House would save the elephants.
This
House believes conservation must justify itself econ
Web Links:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Provides information on CITES and CITES programs, the tex
species.
International Fund for Animal Welfare. <http://www.ifaw Links to information on the status of elephants and proje
Further Reading:
Pearce, Elephants,David,ed. EconomicsEarthscan,and1991Ivory..
Snugg,ElephantsIke. and Ivory:InstituteLessons fromofEconomictheTradeAffairs,Ban. 19
dc
MANDATORY SENTENCING: THREE ST

Early in the 1980s, national legislators became co Similar crimes were being punished with dramatical began
to craft rules for mandatory prison sentenc punished in similar ways, no matter where these ca time,
mandatory sentences in state courts evolved prior felony convictions, the judge was obligated the laws from
state to state.) There has been g simply too severe, but also unconstitutional. In to the three-strikes law
adopted in California in
PROS CONS
One
of the fundamentalItprinciplesaprimaryof crimobligationjustiof
is that the punishment toshouldestablishftheclearcrimeand. Thatceraip ciple is abrogated whenthreealifestrikessentencelawsisofferautomatisuch
imposed
for a third
feltonyrywhethnaturer makesthat felonypunishmentse
ous and
violent, or
minorvent andinconsistencynon-violentin. thBecauscri
there is only one sentence possible for many kinds crimes, it follows that the sentence does not neces correspond
to the gravity of the offense.
It often happens that Historically,thethirdfelonyjudgesthathaveis,abusth one that triggers the haveautomaticbeen
givensentencebyistherelatcriminv minor. For example, a often,life sentencejudgeshavehas imposedbeenimposlig
on
someone
for
the
attemptedevenwhenshopliftingthosecriminalsofvideohav-tapes.
A
life
sentenceTheformandatorysuch
crimesentncesis
cruelimpos
unusual,
and,
as
such,ensureis
forbiddthatecidivistsnbythe Eightharep Amendment to the Constitution.
Historically, judges haveThe hadfundamentaldiscretionarypurposepowersofthw sentencing criminals;

thistopracprotecti recognizestherights thatand tencing should take intocitizensaccount.
Butthethesecircumstancescitizens of the crime, the characteringdoorof justithecriminal,e,which andallot amount of
harm caused streetbythe aftercrime.repeatMandatoryoffenses. sentences rob judges ofrepeatthose
offenddiscretionaryrsfrom powerssociety are properly theirs. committingIndeed,mandatoryfurther sentencescrimes.
a imposed, in effect, by the legislative branchthus lating the independence of the judiciary and the sep tion of
powers outlined in the Constitution.
Defenders of the three-Sincestrikesthreelaws-strikesclaim thatlaws thesehave have a powerful

deterrentnaion,effecrimet,andhasreducedroppedthe draoc rence of crime.
Statisticsforthisshow,declinehowever,isobvious:thatrec vism has not been reducedfreebytothecommitpresencemore
ofcrimes,such laan and the general reductionstrikesincrime,ontheirwhenrecordsandwheare has occurred, is due
tothateffectivetheyknowpolicing,willfollowrather t harsh sentencing.
The
three-strikes laws Opponentsare,in efofect,threex-strikespostfactla

|133
PROS CONS
that is, criminal sentencgivescriminalscantake nointochanceount first and second strikesthemselves

crimesthat.Butwerestudiescommittha before the law was passedishighly.Moreover,unlikelythe forimpositrec of
mandatory maximum sentencescommittedbecausethree feloniesofpast ishi tory constitutes doubleit
jeopardy:isthedestinyCriminalsoftheare punished again for crimescrimesfor. which they already s time.
Sample Motions:
This House would restore discretion in sentencing to the This House would make the punishment fit the crime.
Web Links:
Families Against Mandatory Minimums http://www.famm.org/index2.htm
Website of an advocacy group that opposes a wide range of of litigation and briefs written for Supreme Court.
Families Against Californias Three-Strikes http://www.facts1.com/
Website of an advocacy group that focuses specifically on websites.
Lungren, Dan. Three Cheers for Three Strikes: Californ http://www.policyreview.org/nov96/backup/lungren.html
Dan Lungren was attorney general of the state of Californ

Further Reading:
Reynolds,
Mike, BillThreeJonesStrikesand Danand EvansYoure .Out: A Promise
Anti-Crime.QuillLaw Driver Books, 1996.
Shichor,
David (editor),Three StrikesandDaleandK. YoureSechrest,SageOut:Press,Vengeance1996
Zimring,
Franklin E., SamCrimeKaminand andPunishmentGordon HawkinsCaliforni.
YoureInstituteOut. of Governmental Studies Press, 1999.
dc
MARIJUANA, LEGALIZATION OF
The debate about the legalization of drugs, par the individual against a paternalistic state. A like alcohol
and tobacco, but also has been prov marijuana will act as a precursor to increased
PROS CONS
Although marijuana doesUnlikhave somealcoholharmfuland tobacco,effects
thanentlylegaldangeroussubstanceshallucinatolike
and tobacco. Research bythermore,Britishmany MedicalindividualsAsso tion shows
morecrimeaddictivetofund tha ijuana. Furthermore, thetionconsuofmarptijuanaonof
smoking
causereadilymoredeathsavailable,peryearwhichthanin
marijuana.
peopleofmarijuanawillgainwillaccesremo
is
no
more
harmful
that nicotineresortisfarto
willalcohollead cigarette
The
legalizationmore
PROS CONS
anomaly in the law wherebyThecrimesubstancrateswillthatinevitablaremore dangerous than marijuanaerlandsre

legal,showthatwhilethethedecrimiposse sion and use of marijuanalegalizremainstionunlawfulofmarijuana. did
crime.
In recent years, scientistsTheUS andhas medicalsupportedresearchersscientif discovered that marijuanacal
benefitspossessesofcertainmarijuanabenefic.Alt medicinal qualities. Forthatinstance,marijuanamarijuanamayhave
helpssome relieve the suffering ofshouldpatientsxercisewith camultipletionaboutscl The latest research thatuse
walsoconductedhasharmfulby thesideComeff-plutense University in
legalMadridzationindicatesofmarijuanthatarijuawil has the potential to killproblesomse.
cancerousThenegativescells.ofGovle ments should acknowledgeits suchbenefitsndings.We andcan legalizethussaf
marijuana. approach represents the most
response
to the issue at hand
Individuals should be Thegivenstatthe isfreedomjustifiedtoleadin intthe lives as they choose.

ventOfcourse,individualssuch freedomcausingis absolute, and laws shouldinstancte,rvenemany
tocountrieslimitthishavef dom, especially when theingrightsofseatbelofothersin arecarsinfri.Mor In the case of the
usedoesof marijuana,leadtomedicallyitisa andvictiso crimeonly the user
experiencesthataffectheothereffectsmembersoftheof s stance. The state should not act paternalistically b islating
against something that harms only the actu user.
Where is the empiricalTheevidlegalizationncethattheof usemarijuanaof juana will certainly leadon

tousersharderintodrugsmore likedangermousrp cotic substances? Therewouldis noneultimately.Undeniably,bring
aboutlar number of people use theas welldrug asdespitetheneedit beingtospendille Rather than turn away
fromrehabilthitatispronblem,programsthe.govern ment should face reality. The legalization of marij will enable the
government to regulate its use, the protecting its many users from harmful abuse of th substance.
Presently, organized crimeThe samesellscriminalmarjuanaelements.Thelegath tion of marijuana will

might,helpfacilitatewhenthe
drugthe
saleislegaloft
in
establishments
likecoffeAmsterdamshousescoffeethemselvehouses..L This will shift the saleing ofto marijuanaseparate
theawaysalefromof thm criminal underworld. Severingunderworldthe. criminalConversey,linkit wi ensure that the
users nomatelongerbase needfrom towhicomehtointoconti tact with organized crime.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that marijuana should be legalized. This House supports the legalization of drugs.
This
House advocates change in our present drug policy.
Web Links:
1 Office of National Drug Control Policy. <http://www.whiteh
|135
Provides information on US government drug policy, statis legalization perspective.
Legalise Cannabis Alliance. <http://www.lca-uk.org> Organization supporting the legalization of marijuana in
National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. Information on marijuana facts, laws, and medical use fro
Further Reading:
Brown,Cannabis:David. The TaylorGenus andCannabisFrancis,. 1998.
Matthews,CannabisPatrickCulture:. A Journey.TrafalgarthroughSquare,Disputed2000.Terr
dc
MIDDLE EASTERN POLICY, US

Since it was founded in 1948, the state of Isra living within its own bordersand the United St to
recognize the legitimacy of the Israeli gover and diplomatically. The US has also been instru The central
issue in the conflict today is the c Israeli rule (primarily on the West Bank of the regard as their right.
Although the US has voice do more to make such a state a reality.
PROS CONS
US policy in the MiddleDo Eastno forgethasbeenthatconsistentlformost the side of Israel andborshas
saidignoredthattheIsraelrightshadofn
peoples.
Although
the
destroyedUSrecognized.US
supporttheneedhasforb Jewish homeland, it hasvivalnot. made a commitment to recognizing that Palestinians
need a homeland as
American policy in theThroughoutMiddleEastthehasworld,been theguidU by politics, not principlestedto.

Onthethedevelopmentonehand, ofpreo have responded to the Israelpressureis fromthe
onlyJewishfunctionvoters support Israel. On the Eastother,andpolicysharestowardmany ofArabAme has been
shaped largelydeservesbyeconomicAmericanneeds:supportTheUS. been friendly to countries with large oil
reserve Saudi Arabia, but has ignored poorer Arabs, e.g. Palestinians.
American policy toward Athedistinctionmilitarizationmust beof madethe M East has been inconsistentand
militaryandunfairaggression.Although.
Thth
has
taken
a
strong
stanceassistanceagainsttotheIsradevelsopmentha
weapons
in
Arab
nations,counitriehas
thatsold
haveweaponsopenlyto I and condoned Israels developmenttions.The USof must,nuclearhowevercapa ity. of
weapons in countries wit
for example, Iraq, which l attack on Kuwait.
The
US has claimed thatTheitUS supportshasalwayIsractedelbecauas

PROS CONS
it is the only democracying inconcthessionsregionfrombut botsuch supid port of democracy has

notinflubeennceatofirmlyhave
heldIsraelprincipcons
and
not
acted
on
in
othertohavepartsArabof
nationstheworldand. ThengoU has knowingly supportedemandscorrupt. and unjust authori-tarian regimes in Arab
countries when their oil pol favored America.
The US has been inconsistentTheUS inhastheactedapplicationingood faiof moral principles. It

haspeople,routinelybut
negotiationscondemnedPalesthave
ians
and
other
Arabs
forleader,troriYastsiractions,Arafat,butis itcorg immediate recognition bleto.the founders of Israel, wh were engaged
in a terrorist campaign against the Br ish.
Sample Motions:
This House supports US sponsorship of a Palestinian state. This House would value democracy more than votes and oil.
Web Links:
Great Decisions Guides: Middle East. <http://www.fpa.org/ content.htm?section=research&attrib_id=2331&frame_id=2490> The

Web site of the Foreign Policy Association provides doz US policy.
Israel and Palestine. <http://www.foreignpolicy-nfocus.or Web site of a think tank without walls is highly critical o
Israel/Mideast Briefings: Five Basic Talking Points on Isr <http://www.ajc.org/Israel/IsraelMideastBriefingsDetail.asp? The Web
site of the American Jewish Committee offers a proFurther Reading:
Friedman,FromThomasBeirutL.Anchor,toJerusalem1990..
Peters,FromJoanTime. Immemorial: The OriginsJKAPofPublishers,theArab-Jewish2001. C
Said, EdwardTheEndW.of the PeaceKnopf,Process:2001. Oslo and After.
dc
MINORITY LANGUAGES
Throughout human history, numerous languages have centralized governments, unified education, and ma
Arguments for preserving linguistic diversity as p efforts to build unified states and with increased majority
languages in certain countries are themse existence threatened by global languages.
PROS CONS
Any language is a reflectionInthe ofcoursehumanofculturehuman progreandi an invaluable cultural
disappear;artifact. Humanityisnormalsuffers.Hista loss when languages becomeples
ofextincteven.theLingreauistestic divelan sity deserves no less proteonesctionomigandto
careprominence;thandoesth diversity or biodiversitytragic. about it. English, the
|137
PROS CONS
language, may itself break just as Latin did.

Currently
about
100
languagExistesncenjoyof
manythe
langstatuagesof
cial
or
state
languages,tivepromotedandhindersthroughitsnationadevelo
cation
systems.
This
isnationalverydisadvantageousideologyare
imposfor
ity
languages.
Minorityguagelanguages.Supportdeserveofminorityofficia
tection.
No
language
shoulddangerousbea
becausevictim inof the nath statehood. Only through one lingua fra
trial states able to reach ment. Unity means progress.
The spread and dominationOtherofthanglobalthemotherlanguagestongua the legacy of colonialism;and
atheserightlanguagtospesakaretheanl ple of cultural imperialismbalization.Deprivingsupportsminoritiemultili
their linguistic rightstionaryisdenyingprocess,theirhumansright disto tity. longer useful and adopt tho
them.
The death of minority Thelanguagesadoptionnegativelyofwidespreadreflec the intellectual
linguisticeconomiccapacgaityns ofandhumansresults.B language is the means
nicationofdevelopingandeducationtelletheprog less linguistic diversitynationsequalsthatlesswereinteabllectuato
Moreover, each extinctablelanguagetoreachcontainedthegreatestirrecov able information that could have
greatly contribu human knowledge had it survived.
Sample Motions:
This House supports protection of minority languages. This House would not give special status to minority lang This House
agrees that there should be only one official
Web Links:
Language Rights. <www.linguistic-declaration.org> Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights represents a m
Multilingualism. <http://www.linguasphere.org>
research network devoted to the study of multilingualis

U.S. English. <http://www.us-english.org>
American
nongovernmental organization lobbying to make En
World Languages. <http://www.ethnologue.com>
A
comprehensive resource on languages of the world, with
Further Reading:
Crowley,An TerIntroductiony. toOxfordHistorUnicalversityLinguisticsPress,.1998. Crystal,LanguageDavidCambridge.Death.
University Press, 2000. Pennycook,TheAlasCultairural. Politics of AddisonEnglish-WeAsley,an Internatio1996. SkutnabbKangas, Tove, RobertLinguisticPhillipson,HumanandRights:Mart RannuOverc tionMouton. de Gruyter, 1995.
dc
MONARCHY, ABOLITION OF
Although the United Kingdom (UK) has perhaps the b Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Spain also f in
Africa and the Middle East (e.g., Morocco, Jord heads of state anachronisms who should be swept a when the
leaders of many new republics still strug
PROS CONS
The concept of monarchyConstitutionalisundemcraticmonarchy.Iftheismona-arch retains any
significantsystem.politicalAhereditarypowers,headthesof unjustifiable. Why shouldelementthe
ofpinioncontinuityofone withinperson in office by accident ofrealbirth,powersbe ofableEuropeantoifluencmonar
outcome of elections ortheoryofpoliticalBritishdecisionrulercanmakinve Monarchy may also be usednone
tohaspropdoneupsoothersince unjustheear-tifiable elements withinfiguresgovernment,abovetheforpoliticalexample
thco House of Lords in the UKretain. an important symbolic
unity. In Britain their right warn the prime minister has overly
radical policies. In S ally faced down a military co
The concept of monarchyMonarchyisalsoactsinegalitarianasguardian.Eveo if the monarchy

retainslivingttlereminderorno politicaloftheeventspowe presence sustains the trshaditionalped. Asclasuchsysitem,is
senap message that the classandyou a aresourceborn ofintostrengmattershinmot than what you make of
ayourselfreminder.Thisof enduringcanstiflevaluesaspi tions and lead to a
cultureingtheofpositionsdefereceofthatheaddoesof value the entrepreneur mentor individualalsomakesabilitygreat
practicandin tive. A system of royalundertakeshonorsmaymuchbe usedoftheto ceremotieac ers into the
traditionalbroad,socialleavingstructures,theprimemakingmin social and political chanongoverninglesspossible..
The costs of monarchy areMonarchyunjustifiableishighly.Typicallycost-effecm archs and their immediatethe

expensefamily receiveofmaintainingsubstanti amounts of money from andthe equallystatetostringentmaintain
securitluxuri-ous lifestyles. The statedencesalsoarespendsheld aingreattrustdealfor t tain and run palaces andthe
othersame royalupkeepresidences,costswhether are seldom accessible themotheorgeneralnot.Monarchypublic
thatmore suptha them through taxes. Securityitsgenerationcossareofalsotouristvery revhi
associated with royalty and t ing trade and industry abroad

Royal families have becMonarchymenationalispreferablembarrassmentstoan. In an age of mass
media,identsmonarchiesinevitablyare noarelongerassociaab to maintain the mystiqueandthatthusoncecannotset
representthemapartthefr the common folk. InsteadPublkicngs,trustqueens,ofpolitiprincianses, ani princesses are
revealedcountries,tobemortal,anotherfallible,reason andwhy times foolish. As theirtowardrobes,providea
squabbles,focusfor nationandfa marriages have become cmonstantarchy sourcesisalso ofa moremediaeffecscr
|139
PROS CONS
tiny, any remaining respectbecauseforitmonarchyvestsreasl anpowerin tion has waned. How

manycraticallypeopletravelingaccountableabroadlead
to
find
their
head
of
stabute,avoiands
byallextheensiondagersthei country, a source of amuresement?ultfrom conflict betwee
ernment.
Monarchs no longer claimMonarchsdivine canrightbotho ruleform. andFor turies the main
justificationAlthoughofaboveroyalpartyauthoritypoliti religious one. Roman Catholicprovedablerulersto
raisehadtheirimportle macy supported by the larPope;issuesProtestantthatwouldrulersotherof headed their own
stateexample,churchesin. Inthe bothUKPrincecases C monarchs rightful authoritycussion wasof
environmentalpreachedinchuis every Sunday, while thedebatruler abouinturntheprotectpurposed ofa national
church. Today Dianassocietiesworkincludewith AIDSmany sufffai and many people have noopinionreligion. at
all. Hardly an believes the monarch has a spiritual right to ex authority. Indeed, those whose religion differs that
of the monarch (often ethnic minorities) may alienated by the privileges granted a particular
Sample Motions:
This House would abolish the monarchy. This House would storm the palace.
This
House would rather be free citizens than loyal subje
Web Links:
Australians for Constitutional Monarchy. <http://www.no Australian organization opposing the creation of a republ
The Centre for Republican Democracy. <http://www.centre Articles in support of a British republic from a radical
3
4
Future of the Monarchy. <http://www.guardianunlimited.c SpecialTherportGuardianonbythe contemporary British monarchy.

Republic. <http://www.republic.org.uk/>
Offers policy statements and articles in support of an e

Further Reading:
Freedland,BringJonathanHome.the Revolution:FourthThe Estate,Casefor1999aBritis.
Winterton,MonarchyGeorgeto. Republic: .AustralianOxfordUniversityRepublicanPress,Gover
dc
NATIONAL TESTING
Responding to mounting concerns that the Americ Behind Act (2001), which mandates that states d state
tests are then compared with those from a Progress (NAEP). The intent is to use the resul and students
who are falling behind. Education measure vastly expands federal oversight of educ and will not
accomplish its objective. Others ar them against other schools and other students i
PROS CONS
A national curriculum Thefor mandateostcoreforsubjecanationalsalreate exists without school
teachboardstheandsamelocalcurriculumcommunities.E even realizing it. Mostshouldhigh
schoolbeablestudentstodeterminearepr ing for standardized collegeschoolsentacrossancetheexamscountryand
thear fore study what is neededbeableto dot makewell decisionsthese testat Also, only a few textbookbe
taughtcompanieswithinproducetheirtextsclassrf high school students. Whentestinglocalitiesremoves
selthectraditiononeof textbooks, they are, inadapteffect,to communagreeingty tostandwhatrdsamo to a national
curriculumcurriculum.Besides,decisionsstudents. across country should learn the same skills.
As long as school boardsMandatinglocalitiesnationalfollowtest wilth national curriculum, studentingto

thesuccesstestson. theStudentstest w follow. Drilling and toeachingtaketeststotheat testtheexpenseoccur o when
schools
make
a
decisionedgethatto
willtest
helpwithoutthemalteribeco
their
curriculums.
Studentstributeundeniablyinmeaningfulneed
waystohaveto
certain
basic
skills
andgoodsubjecttest
takersmasterybutwhenwilltheymisg uate. The National AssessmentforlearningsofEducationalsake.SubjectsProgres
and
the
state-developednotassessmcoverentsdon
willthe
standardiztestthose
school
day
affords
plentychildrensoftimeeducationforstudentswouldto bel the basics and still participateonyearly intestadditional. act
and attend classes that go beyond the basics.
The entire reason thatUsingpublica nationaleducationtestin Americatodete was founded was to developdents
aaremoreworkingproductiveoversimplifwork-force. Although educationof nationalbyitselftestingisa worthyusetermgo
ultimately what we wantoforbusiness,ourchildrenasif ischildrenforthema be successful individualsout whoat theare
endableoftoanearnassemblli when they graduate fromnationalhghschooltestingor collegeuseterms.Foculi ing on
word choices thattingmayresults,alsobe andusedthein thebottobu ness world is just a
distracter,ournationsusedchildrenbyopponents.Wecann national testing to shiftrupt,theanddebateprofitawaydrivenfromworldwha really needs to happen ourin ournationsnationsclasschrooolsms..
In a society where educationUsinga isnationalsoimportanttest toto detsu cess, we must make

suremasteringourschoolsmaterialareperformingisunfair
f
our
nations
children.
ersThe
outprimaryofourreasonclassrooms,fornatiom
standards
and
assessmentworseis.toA
makebetterschoolsalternandtiveteai ers accountable for whatwhichgoeslooksn inat themultipleclassroommeasu.
schools and teachers arehas doinglearned.goodInsteadjob, oftheytestiha nothing to fear as we multiplemovetomeasurenationassessmentlsystem ofu accountability through teacherassessment-created. tests, and st
occur over the entire school benefit students who are not g
Developing acceptable Thenationalidea ofstandardsationalis standardnoteas but other countries haveone
demonstrateduntilyoustartthattocreaactualin good standard tests thatdardsmotivthate teachersstudnts mustand
teach is possible. Excellencebe istaughtcreatedis difficultbybringingenoughtoge the right people,
examiningallysuchtextbooks,agreementandislookingprobab standards already put inhistoricplace byfiguresmany
shouldnationalallteas
|141
PROS CONS
ers associations. In partstheUnitedofhistorySates,arethemostquai education that studentsdareceivedsare

dependsdifficulton towhatcrafs county, and town they livevagueinsoandtheevtestn inmakerswhat anpa town
they
reside.
This
materialviolates
tothefocusprincipleon,orofth
that
is
fundamental
toteachersthevaluesandofstudentsourcountryare. teachers are expected tonumberachieveof subjectsthesame
thatstandarmus quality of education for all children can go up.
Sample Motions:
This House
This House
This
House
This
House
would ban national testing.

believes that national standards are more valu
believes
that
national
standards will have a d
believes
that
national
standards promote equal
Web Links:
Education Commission of the States (ECS). <http://www.e Offers a wealth of information about the practical implic
National Education Association (NEA). <http://www.nea.o Site maintained by the major national organization that o of the
initiative.
PBS Frontline: Testing Our

PBSbalancedshow overview of the
Schools.
<http://www.pbs.org
This
companion
WebFronsipresentslinetothea
Further Reading:
Ohanian,OneSusanSize. Fits Few: TheHeinemann,Follyof Educational1999. Standa Orfield, Gary, andRaisingMindy
StaKorndhardsber,oredsRaising. Barriers?: I tionCentury. Foundation Press, 2001.
Tucker, Marc S.,StandardsJudy forB. CoddingOurSchools:. How JosseytoSet-BassThe 1998.
dc
NATION-STATES
The question of whether the nation-state has a number of challenges to the very idea of soverei the
current international order (largely based in a globalized world. In this debate, the nati and economy and
contains a population that has international law regardless of its size and po
PROS CONS
Perceiving the world asIna thecollnearctionfutureofdistinctthepre states is still viablestatesas
constructwillbereplacedofthe worby Nation-states remain formregionadableorganizations,andwillbeableeno
resist the tide of globalizationrations,andforintercenturiesational. nature wants to
remainonsepnationalrateandidentityqual, willmaintad ing an identity and markingtural and defendingeconomic
advancescertain ritory. No amount of internationalizationculturalcohesion.Globalizcandes the system that has
workedand anysuccessfullynationthatfortriesalmost years. margins of the world order.
PROS CONS
What we are seeing is Globalizationnotglobalizationisgettinbutgrowinstro

fearofthemayworldchallengeorder bytheone nation-state. nation-state.
regionalism,
which
peopletion
No
viable
alternative
Growingtothe
currentfederalismorderandexistsregiona.
nation-state
is
the
besthavesystemprovedavailablethathumansfor
canpreseo
cultures
and
institutionsconcerns.DeprivingThiscombinatipeopleonf
ofthe
national
identity
for
thegovernmsakentof
isglobalizationlikelytobeisre tion of human rights. ment in the future.
Ongoing secessionist movThementssystemareofevidencenation-stateshatnoi amount of unification canoflictkeep

andtransnationalcannotguaranteecoun-tries intact. Numerousogyethnicoftheandnational-stategrojupssti fighting for
their own thenationnation-states,and thusand thisruns trendcoun continue. of global peace and security.
loyal to their nations often lations.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the nation-state system does not d This House should endorse nation-states against globalizati This House
holds that nation-states have no future.
Web Links:
Advanced Research on the Europeanisation of the Nation-St Provides links as well as an annotated list of journal arti
The Globalist. <http://www.theglobalist.com>
Daily online magazine on key issues before the global commu
The Nationalism Project. <http://www.nationalismproject.o Provides essays, articles, bibliographies, book abstracts a
Nations, States and Politics. <http://www.scholiast.org/n Research program on the changes in Europe with a primary fo
UN Report on Globalization and Nation-State. <http://www. A page devoted to political theory as it applies to nations
Further Reading:
Friedman,TheThomasLexus.and the Olive Farrar,Tree:UnderstandingStraus&Giroux,Globali20
Gould,Carol, andCulturalPasqualeIdentityPaquinRowman,andedstheand. NationLittlefield,-State. 2001
Holton,GlobalizationR.J. andMacmillan,theNation1998-State..
Huntington,TheSamuelClash Pof. CivilizationsSimonandandtheSchuster,Remaking 1996ofWor.
Soros,GeorgeSoros. PubliconGlobalizationAffairs,2002..
dc
|143
NAZI WAR CRIMINALS, PROSECUTI

Following World War II, many of those responsibl subsequently lost or destroyed. Since the collap and
many criminals identified and prosecuted. Th for crimes committed over 50 years ago.
PROS CONS
No matter how long ago Athesesomecrimespoint wereprosecommitteution their horrific nature canago
leaveservesnonodoubtpurposethat.
Thethe
petrators
must
be
huntedusuallytotheveryendsyoungoftheandEarthof. time has elapsed is notare legalnotGermandefenseand.
Theycooperatwoul been prosecuted if evidfearnce. Mosthad beenoftheavailablemajorfigat end of the war. We
mustiesmeteareoutnowequaldead,justiceandtheto
war
criminals.
The
statuteinmanyof
limitHolocausttionsmuseumsnver.r on murder. cumstances, and after such
pose.
We owe it to those whoAlthoughperishedprosecutingtofightonthein arth name against bigotry, tion,andto
whoprsecuteareallthosedead resnow sible for their deathssuch.If rweasoningdonot,isthenlesstheyrele vain.
ipants we are dealing with merely following orders and in the cause that they fel
a more practical level, as prosecutions are likely to

identification and proof aft
Holocaust survivors
prosecution,
their behalf. Nor
exculpating
them.
and we
their
areTrialsamonglikethosethesemostarein notfavori
shouldtims, notwhomakemay assumptiosufferincreso
shouldforcedwe insulttotestifyhem (possiblbypubli
torturershavebeenand subpoenaed)refusingto. prosWem
wounds in the name of retri
With the terrible genocideAregenocidesandethnicbasedcleansingonrati recent times, we need tosionsendof

Germansigalresourcestocriminato they will pay for theirmajorcrimesreason.OtherwisewhyHitlerleaderlos
continue to implement notsuch likelypolicies,to deterbelievingwar crth selves safe from retributionfanatical.
hatred.
Trials will remind theInworldfact,ofprosecutingtheterriblesucheven promote greater peace. voke sympathy

for them, pos gence of activity by the fa
Sample Motions:
This
House would prosecute war criminals.
This
House would hunt them down.
Web Links:
Holocaust Study Resources. <http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/D Extensive site with links to information on historical an
and
survivors.
The Holocaust Teacher Resource Center. <http://www.holoca Provides teachers, students, and the general public lesson
Holocaust.
The Jewish Resources Site. <http://www.us-israel.org/jsou Links to resources on the Holocaust and the international r
Further Reading:
Rosenbaum,ProsecutingAlan. NaziWestview,WarCriminals1997..
Wiesenthal,The Sunflower:imon. On the PossibilitiesSchocken,1998and. Limits of Fo
dc
NUCLEAR VS. RENEWABLE ENERGY

Since the mid-1980s, nuclear power has been a maj nuclear power in the US and the rest of the world will
have dropped dramatically by 2020, by which build further reactors in the US. Yet the use of n be running out
of fossil fuels. There is much pub Island, and concern about disposal of nuclear fuel
PROS CONS
Currently, the majorityEstimatofthesworldsofhow elongectricityfossili erated using fossil fuelshave.
Althoughremained estimatunchangeds vafory tg about the worlds supplydictingoffossilwhen fuels,these fuelssome
estiwill suggest that oil could impossiblebeexhaustedbecausewithinew50 deposiyears coal within 25 years.
becausThuswe themustratefindofa newuse sourccanno of energy. We must startIn toadditionconvertsometo
nuclearexperts enersti now so there is not a 350majoryeacrisisof naturalwhenfossilgas. fuWel run out. search for a
new power source
exploration would be better s ogy to clean the output from

Nuclear energy is cleanEven.Itapartdoes fromnot producethesafetygaseois emissions that harm
thentsenvironanumentber. ofGranted,problemsit. Firdo produce radioactive
wastivelye,butinefficientbecausethis.Theiscostas it can be handled easilymousandandstorthed priceaway
fromofsubsequpopul tion centers. Burning themfossilis fuelsalso hugecauses.Thenfar theremore ronmental damage
than usingNuclearnuclearwaste canreactors,remain evenradi we factor in the Chernobylyearscatastrophe.Itmustbe.
Consstorequentldfor nuclear energy is preferable(intowhichtofossilitcan fuelsdisolve).Furt more, as new
technologies,activitysuch. asSuchfastoragebrederis reacvir become available, they concernswillproducehav
lessarienuclovear thewa With more investment, scienceevena fewcan decadsolvestheago.problem associated with
nuclear energy, making it even mor desirable.
Unfortunately, the nuclearThe nuclearindustryinduhastrya badhas reputash tion for safety that isThreenot
MileentirelyIslanddeservedwewere.
Themin
whelming
majority
of
nucleardown,
andreactorsChernobylhavefunctionthe
|145
PROS CONS
safely and effectively.penedThe.twoThemajoreffectsnuclearontheacc Three Mile Island and

ronmentChernobyl,wereweredevastatingboth. olT style reactors, exacerbatednstillinthebe latterdetectedcasein
byou safety standards. We arenuclearadvocatingreactorsnew areactors,safer to the highest safety
Disasterstandardsis. Suchalwaysreactorspossibleha impeccable safety recordhad. Perhapsnumbertheof
bestminorguaranacc safety in the nuclear industrytold thatisthetheseincreasingproblems ency within the
industrytime. Manyd oftimetheagainearlytheyproblre were caused by excessivethatcontroltheindustrydueto
isthetoorigdo nuclear energy from militarytoreallyapplicationscareabout. Assafetyc nuclear industry
develops,tobe itaccountablebecomesmore.In accouaddi able. has had a terrible impact o
plants. The rate of occurre such as leukemia, is much

around nuclear plants.
We must examine the alternativesAlthoughalternativetonuclarenenerrgy For the reasons
explainsedrveabovthe, enwergycan needsrule ofutt fuels immediately. We
alsoitcould,seeenormouswithinvestmentproblems iw other forms of
energy.efficientThemostenoughefficienttoservesourcehu renewable energy has
beencatinghydroeablanketectricsolutionpower. Hot ever, this usually createsprojectsmore
couldproblemshavethanbeenitre Building a large dam necessarilythetechnologyfloodsbeenanavailabenormo
region behind the dam,triesdisplacingusuallytenshaveofatthousaleast of people. Dams also causethey
canenormoususe: tidesdamageforto isth ecology and incur enormcountries,socialhotandrocksculturalfor cov
Solar energy has never quently,livedup anyto expectatiocountrycans, bi it is hugely inefficientself.Windsufficientenergy iswithonlyrenewabmarg better, with an unsightlybutionwindof fauraniumthe issizehugelyof
needed to provide the energythanforforfossilTexas fuels);alone.Theac irony is that not only powarer
mostgivesrenewablecountriesourceswith ficient but many are alsoportionateecologicallyeconomicunsound!
power. T opposition to building ablywind becofarmse insubjcerctainto areathe been just as strong asthatthe
theoppositionOrganizationtonuclearofPe because wind farms destroyiestheassceneryforoil.. This pre
self-sufficiency in energy
The nuclear industry isSuggestingamajor employerthatnuclear.It powcre
withproviderinvestment,iscompletelywicreatefatue more. always provide roughly the
numerous
jobs
and,
spending on the nuclear in renewable energy, then jobs the

one to the other.
Sample Motions:
This House would look to the atom.
This
House would go nuclear.
Web Links:
Greenpeace International: Nuclear. <http://www.greenpea Information on the organizations campaigns against nucle
Further Reading:
Berinstein,AlternPaulative. Energy:OryxFacts,Press,Statistics,2001. and Issues.
Blair, Cornelia, Nancy REnergy:.Jacobs,An aInformationssuedJacquelynofthePlu90sF..,Quiram1999.. Makhijani, Arjun,The
andNuclearScottPowerSaleskaDeception:. U.S. Nuclear My to InherentlyApex,Safe1999Reactors..
dc
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasak Cold War that followed was dominated, above all, b
raced to produce increasingly powerful arsenals, e nuclear arms race led to the concept of Mutually their
weapons would totally annihilate one another situation substantially. The fear of nuclear war by rogue states
and terrorist groups.
PROS CONS
Nuclear weapons are morallyTheuserepugnantofnuclear.Overweaponsthepaswo 50 years, we have seen
tragedy;movementbuttowardso, tolimitedagreatewar fare and precision weaponswar. Ttheatreasonminimizefor
themaintainiimpact on civilians. Nuclear weaponsarsenal haveistomassive,prevent indiscrwar.Th inate destructive
powerusing.Theynuclearcankillweaponstens discouroftho sands and cause catastrophicWarwas harmone toof the
worldmost peacenvi ronment. largely because of the nucle
superpowers.
The idea of a so-calledThenucleardeterrentdeterrentprinciplenostilllong applies. During the
ColdGulfWar,War,peacefor example,wasmaintainedthefe only by a balance of power;ation wasneitherone
ofsuperpowerthefactorshad an advantage large enousingghtochbemicalconfidweaponsntof victoragains However, a
balance of maypowerpreventnolongerrogueexisstates. Withfrom the proliferation of
nuclMorearover,weapons,althoughsometheroguecitizest may develop the abilitypowerstotrikemay
opposeatnationsthe usethatofha nuclear weapons. Would theirmajoropinionsnuclearwouldpowersrapidlythen strike
back at the aggrweaponsssr? Theof massanswerdestructionisunknownu. addition, most of the emerging nuclear
threats woul not come from legitimate governments but from dicta tors and terrorist groups. Would killing thousands
civilians ever be acceptable in retaliation for the of extremists?
By maintaining a strategicThe nucleardeterrent,genietheiscurrentoutof nuth powers encourage the

proliferationbackin.The idealofweaponsofglobalfma destruction. Countries inbelitheveorythatbu beingitwilla
membernotwor the nuclear club increasesnotdisarmtheirif inttheyrnationfearal rogst Also, nations at odds
withcapabilitycountry.Withoutwith nuclearthethreaca bility feel that they roguemust devenuclearop theirstate
owncouldcapabiatt to protect themselves. Therefore, nuclear powers mu take the lead in disarmament as an
example for the
|147
PROS CONS
of
the world.
Nuclear weapons can fallWhileintonuclthearwrongweaponshandscan.Thb particularly true in

Russibeeasily,whichdestroyedcontrols.Speciathef Soviet arsenal. The
militaryage.Inisaddition,disastrouslydismauntlider nuclear experts and officerstheweaponccus-tomedgrae
toplutoniumahigh dard of living are now headsfinding.Plutoniumthemselvesis withoutthemos sometimes for
years. Atsile,the hencesame time,theriskotherof natthe and extremist groups arein
willingfact,increasetopay.substantiaSecurity for their services
andisforoftenaccessinadequate;tonuclearmoreovwea Only destroying the weapoquantityswillof
endplutoniumthedangerise someone stealing a weapon or extremists taking ov nuclear base.
Sample Motions:
This House would abolish nuclear weapons.
This
House would ban the bomb.
Web Links:
Abolition 2000. <http://www.abolition2000.org/>
Links to sites offering general information in support o

Federation of American Scientists: Nuclear Forces. <htt Maintained by an organization of scientists advocating el the status of
nuclear proliferation, terrorism, and weapo
Further Reading:
Athanasopulos,NuclearHalambosDisarmament.McFarland,inInternational2000 Law.
dc
NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING

Efforts to stop the testing of nuclear weapons Test Ban Treaty banned tests in the atmosphere, Treaty
included a statement of intent to work to only when the Cold War ended. USSR president Mik declared
unilateral moratoriums on testing and w of 1996, which ruled out any nuclear tests, has include the United
States, China, and India, al themselves to its strictures.
PROS CONS
The CTBT is the best wayThe toCTBTstopis athemisguideddevelopmentatt and proliferation of
more,nuclearndpowermore balancecomplex,. Itnuclw weapons. The treaty notthatonlypresentlimits
notherealtechnicalthreat opment of weapons but byalsorestrictingreduces theseextentcountr which they can be
displayed,reality
thusof
Mutuallyreducing
Assuredtheir
as
a
bargaining
chip
andactuallysymbolencourageofpowerreckless.TheCT means fewer weapons inpowersfewer. countries and is
the fore a valuable way of reducing nuclear tensions.
PROS CONS
Nuclear
explosions
haveOverta
massivetesting
environmentalbynuclearpowe
impact
and
cause
massivemostharmdeserted.Large andareasenvironmentareirra ated by the blasts and exampthelonge,Siberiatermeffectsandtheof deserad tive materials thrown intoern Australiatheatmosphere.Thus,bytheir expen sions
are uncertain. Nuclearjustminimaltests ofbutenmuchinvolveless moth people off their own landsmight
(astakewithplacethetoFrenchcircumventest Polynesia in 1995) and involve the destruction of ha tats. Although
information is scanty, the undergrou tests conducted in China are suspected to have caus earthquakes.
The CTBT can be effectiveTh CTBTinstoppingistoothlessthetestinganduneo nuclear weapons. The treatycific

measinclurdesispecificxpulsionmeasurfr of redress and gives scopeobligations;forwiderit actionislikely.Moreovto
voluntary commitments whosetocurtailnuclearnucleararmoriestestingpose dt hold moral force. The
thisFrenchtreatygovernmentputsthewaitooled forof the end of a one-year
moratoriumoftheleastbeforescrupulousresumingof testh ing in 1995.
Verification of the testVerificationbanisnowcanpossible;neverbetheperfC prehensive Test Ban

Organizationmistrustwilln Viennaalwaysisbeinprescha of the international monitoringcoverttests,system,not
onlyanetworkaretho stations throughout theductedworldinthat morecan dtangeroukeseismie hydro-acoustic, and
infrasoundtestswillmealsosurementsincrease inteall environments. These stationsofthe
canuncertaintyalsomeasureaboutradiothe nuclide levels in debrisnuclear.The treatypollutionalso. providesFurther, of
inspection between signatorieswasbanned bylikethethoseLimitedincludeTes the US-USSR weapons reductionlikely
totreatiesbeused. if tests ar
The
CTBT
does
not
threatenComputerexistingmodelingnuclearworksarseonally
Other
aspects
of
nucleardataweaponsfrom
likereal
guidanceexplosionssyste.T
and
missiles
can
still
lessbetested;reliablebesides,computercomputermodeli
eling
now
does
much
ofdevthelop,workmodelingfortestingwillbecomeexplo
sions.
Russia
and
Britaintoryhave.Morebover,thratifitisedexactlytheCTB neither has any intentionare ofimportantreliquishingthe
itstestsstatu.T nuclear power. ensure the weapons are workin
has been found highly useful industries that are specifica
Proliferation Treaty.
Voters in the United States,TheCTBTforis examppole,iticaloverwhelmdead ingly favor the CTBT; 73%is
nonexistentto16%say that(provedthe Unibytheed States should ratify thenationstreatyinvolved.World
opinionitsdevelin but a few rogue statesit)strongly.Atreatyfavorsthatbanninghasnonucleo testing, thus showing
comesignificantintoforcesupportis clearlyandcreatno political impetus for stigningmeandtheenergytreatyo.
Sample Motions:
This House would
This
House
This
House
would
would
ban
nuclear testing.
ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban
ban
the bomb.
|149
Web Links:
Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. <http://www.clw.or Provides information on a wide variety of issues involvin
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization. <ht Summarizes the current status of the CTBT.
Physicians for Social Responsibility. <http://www.psr.o Offers detailed essay on the US response to the CTBT.
US State Department Arms Control Bureau. <http://www.st Information on current US policy and diplomatic negotiati
Further Reading:
Arnett, NuclearEric,edWeapons. after the ComprehensiveOxfordTest Ban:
University
Press, 1996.
Lambers, WilNuclieamr KTest. Ban Treaty:BillABetterLambers,Shield2001Than. Mi
Pande,CTBT:SavitaIndia. and SouththeNucleAsiarBooks,TestBan1996..
dc
OLYMPIC DREAM, DEATH OF THE

The Olympic flame is still burning, but is it an higher, stronger, but perhaps a new triad shou is probably
whether any of these has suffocated
PROS CONS
The use of performance-Wenhancingshould havedrugs someiswidesprsympat at the Olympics and
makesoften,the thevictorieseam ofcoacthosecom take them meaningless. ThNewredrugsare storiessuchas
oftheChinesgrow hormone EPO are very difficultlacednoodlestodetect,.TheInternatbutth Olympic authorities
are(IOC)doingConferencelittleto inaddrFessbruath lem. that coaches take the Olymp
Olympic authorities are em to detect drugs. A new mas

installed for the first tim An Independent Anti-Doping in
Sydney in 2000 as was a detect if an athlete has ta six
months earlier. The bat of doping in 1984; two in 1 down hard
on those who take a two-year ban for the firs
The
man
who
revived
theTheOlympics
atmovementtheendgivesofth
nineteenth
century,
BarcommunitydeCoubertin,sports programsinsisted t educating the public inwhile,the spiritDream
ofTeamsfairareplayess the importance of takingOlympicpart ratheraims: faster,thanwinninghighe just as
important as the Games themselvescanonlybe. Today,goo Games are played by DreampetitionTeamsgivesof
younghighlyathlettrain athletesindividuals wecancanworkwatch. with awe but ne hope to copy.
The
massive commercializationTheOlympicsoftheofferGamesno erodemonet

PROS CONS
the idea of participationpicsforareitsstillown thesake. competitWithso prize money at stake, cwialnningbreakst allin
coveragecostsis isthea is table aim. The sponsorsof andpeopletheirto hbeavyablehands,tosee.tg interrupting
televisionotcoveragehavesignificantofeventcontrolfora o mercial, seem more importanthasthe thanstrongther
sporthand. andCorpoa-w rate sponsorship concentratesWithout onanyathletessponsorship,from themanyr est
countries. The US teamnots,endforteamsexample,.Sponsorshbenefitp fri huge funding and can thusprocesstrainof
toputtingfar higherallcountrleve than can those of developing countries. This preven competition on an equal footing,
one feature of th Olympic dream.
The Olympics have beenWhyijackedshould sowe manyexpecttimesthe forOlym political purposes

thatmuchcompetitiongravermattersfor theof worldglory sport cannot help but behavean
beenexcellensmotheredway.toThebring1972a Munich disaster is the alitiesmosthorrifying:together,
PalestinianbuttheOly rorists killed nine IsraelioftheathletesUnited.NationsYettheasGamwels only temporarily
suspendedonly. realAre optionthose whoopenplayto the Games less important thand thecondemnedspectaclethe
ofUSSRsthe Gameinva When the US boycotted andthe approximately1980MoscowGames80% ofto the protest the
Soviet invasiondemadingof Afghanisboycottan,. the ide sport for its own sake was devalued still further.
The IOC and many nationWhalteverOlympicgoes committeesoninthe commi lack integrity. This
kiOlympiclsthedreamGamesitselfspiritthat.Foris e ple, several of the judgesofthewhoathletesselected.
ItNaganoispossibfor 1998 Winter Olympics, strongerSydneyforwhereverthe2000theOlymGames- a pics, and Salt
Lake Cityersforarethedetached2002Winterfrom Olympicthe are known to have taken bribes from the winning citi and
from some of the other competing cities as well
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the Olympic dream is dead.
This House believes that the battle against doping in sport This House wants to win at all costs.
Web Links:
International Olympic Committee. <http://www.olympic.org> Official Web site of the Olympic Games provides information
Further Reading:
Jennings,
Andrew,TheandGreatClareOlympicShambrookSwindle:. WhenSimonthe& World W
Schuster,
2000.
Lensky,
Helen,InsideandVardathe OlympicBurstyn.Indus.Stry:ate Power,ofNew PYoliticsrkUniva
Press, 2000.
Schaffer,
Kay, andThe SidonOlympiecsSmith,attheedsMillennium:.Rutgers Power,UniversityPolit
Press, 2000.
dc
|151
OUTING GAY CELEBRITIES

Outing is the practice of making public a per 1990 articleOutwe,Michelangelokin Signorile named the mil
after his death. This article prompted a furiou activist group Queer Nation, which made headlin Jodie
Foster, as gay.
PROS CONS
The 1990s saw a welcomeThetrendgay towardrights themovementfull hasinc sion of gays and
lesbianstheseinradicalsoiety,tacticsbutmuchare wu remains. Homophobia andarediscriminowopenationlygay
areand stilcan linked to the perceptiongaysthandt gayslesbiansare.a Thetinyneemin of the population.
Thatistentsomany.Everyonegaysremainhasa inrigh closet (pretending toprivacybeheterosexual). contribut this
misperception. Outing celebrities increases number of gay role models and improves the public perception of
gays, making the process of coming easier for all gay men and women.
Celebrities enter into Thean publicsunspoken obsessioncontract with fans. In return for
theForvastmany,amountssexualityofadorationisvery money, they must surrenotder somethingagooddealthatof
celthebirit vacy. The public has thefansright. to know about the p who profit immeasurably from its support.
Outing celebrities is particularlyIndemocracyjustifiablepoliticiansin cal world, where sexualityIf

cansocietybelisnkedhomophobic,tolegis Many politicians are responsiblepolitician canfor succeedlawsthatis at
sexual practice, such naveasthetoageexpectofconsentpoliticians.Clo politicians are hypocritthessakeif
theyofsexualwinthedisclosusuppo homophobic voters on the basis of their heterose ity.
Outing can actually be Manybeneficialpeople instillthe condemnlongrunho. closeted gays and

lesbiansoutofregrthetclosethavingcanto bringlive life and would prefer relationshipstobehonest,.
butWhenfearhomospers them to remain silent.thenUltimately,heisoftenoutingfullyendspret fear and helps them
leadThushonestcominglivesout. is a person
vidual should be allowed to the time chosen by someone his
situation fully.
Sample Motions:
This House would force celebrities out of the closet. This House would name (but not shame) gay celebrities.
Web Links:
Does Human Dignity Require Outing Homosexuals? <http:// Academic article evaluating outing from a philosophical s
Further Reading:
Gross,ContestedLarry. Closets: TheUniversityPolitics ofandMinnesotaEthicsofPress,Outing199.
Johansson,Outing:WarrenShattering.Haworth,theConspiracy1994. of Silence.
Mohr, RichardGayIdeas:. Outing Beacon,andOther1994Controversies..
Murphy, GayTimothyEthics:. Controversies inHaworth,Outing,1995Civil. Rights, a
dc
OVERPOPULATION AND CONTRACEPTI

Despite scientific advances, no amount of technolo finite resources. Attention has therefore turned t would be
far easier if natural resources were sha accelerate if the rate of global population incre about whether
widespread use of contraception is world.
PROS CONS
Population is a major Manyproblempopulationtoday; theforecastsworld popare-ulation of 6 billion
istakeexpectedintoaccounttoreachthe10differe.7bil by 2050. Given the straingrowthon.
globAnationslresourcespopulationandt environment today, an earlynvironmentalstages
ofdisasterdevelopment,isclea waiting to happen as theand populationrisinglevelstimeofbombeducatioticks away.
While reproductionstabilizeis fundamatthentalreplacementhuman right, rights come
withfigurerespofnsibilit10.7iesllion.We byhave205 responsibility to futureto remaingenerations,steady
andthereafter,populati control is one method of ensuringtodayachievethat naturalmaturityresou.De will be available
for ouralternativedescendantsmethods. to solve
social problems arising from able options should be exhaus

drastic decision to curb repr
Contraception is an easyImplementinganddirect widespreadmethodof slowicontr population growth. The
nicalpopularitydifficultiesandsuccess.The
costofcoc
traception
in
the
developedwhen
consiworlderedistestonamentnaionaltot
trained workers are required the correct use of contracept ment in
training, birth contr incorrectly, especially by th
Contraception can reduceManyfamilyagriculturalsize.Withfamiliessmallerne families, a greater proportiondrenas

pofssibleresources.Childrenscanbe cated to each child, improvingtothefoodhis theor herfamilyopportunieatso for
education, health care,Inan andundevelopednutritionnation. with
fare system, children are the Furthermore, having a large n
ensures that some reach adult very high in the developing w tality
rate is reduced, famil tion.
|153
PROS CONS
Contraception
empowers
Womenwomen
mayby
givingnothavethemthereprocho-ductive
control.
Delayingtivespreg.Inancymanygivesdevelopingopportu
ties
for
education,
employment,insexual
andrelationshipssocialand andpo cal advancement. Birth familycontrolplanningcantherefore.Religiousbea term
investment in politicalchildrenreformaspossibleandoffersmay als protection of womens rightsmaynot. even be
socially ac
advanced by contraception? reality, contraception typi
national population control Chinas one-child policy), often
violate womens right
Contraception can help Whilsave thebirthlivescontrolof womenshouldin developing world. The opinglack
ofnations,obstetricsuchcarenationds prevalence of disease moreand malnutritionpressing,issuescontribut.Prov
a
high
rate
of
mortalityproperamongsanitationpregnant
canmothersimproa
their
newborn
children.family,Thisriskin additioncanbeoverto redu100 that of mothers in developedamajorcountriesreasonfor.
parents
number of children). Spendi and services is a far bette
providing contraception.
Supporting contraceptionContraceptionisaneasy wayis aforcontrovethed oped world to help the
opdevelopingdanddevelopingworldcopenationswith
population
crisis
and
itthe.
Thiconsequentcanreducestiflingthe ofsu opment. Contraceptives,gramscomparedinthetodevelopingmonetary
aidwor are less likely to be misdirectedcalappeal ofinto(andthethuspocketfun rupt officials. policies in the
developed w
Sample Motions:
This House supports contraception in developing nations. This House would cap population growth in the developing This
House believes that there are too many people.
This
House believes that there isnt enough room.
Web Links:
Global Population Information. <http://www.popnet.org/> Provides a comprehensive directory of population-related
OverPopulation.Com. <http://www.overpopulation.com/> Extensive site with information on a wide variety of popu

controversy.
Paul Ehrlich and the Population Bomb. <http://www.pbs.o Site connected with a PBS show on PaulThe
PopulationEhrlich,explainingwhoBomb, 19h population growth damages the Earths ability to sustain
The United Nations Population Information Network. <htt Offers links to population information on the UN systems
Further Reading:
Cohen,HowJoelMany. People CanNor ton,he Earth1995. Support?
Zuckerman,
Ben, andHumanDavidPopulationJefferson,andJonesedsthe. EnvironmentalandBartlett, C
dc
OVERSEAS MANUFACTURING
In the new era of globalization, American compani outside the United States. Many countries are eag bring;
overseas factories usually can be run at s are much lower than wages for American workers. T many
questions and raised many issues. Their work unreasonable hours; they may be paid less than a are schoolage children. Increasingly, the public treatment of their foreign workers and to provide
PROS CONS
Companies build factoriesManufacturersoverseas forknow onethatprimarymistr reason: Foreign
workerspayareincheaperthelong.Whenrun.companiesTheykno are driven by the profithappymotive,workforcethey
haveisgoinganincenttob to pay as little as possiblegivetheirand operationtoskimp onlongequipm-ter and procedures
that wouldfacturersprovide carecomfortaboutandthesafetbo to workers. Workers needthato concebeprotectednthat
motivatesfromcorpot rations that care more wellabout. profits than people.
Some foreign governmentsThearepresoenceeagerof toAmericanattractcompaAme ican investment that theyon

thefavoreconomiesmanagementof thoveir labohos They do not protect theirtaughtownskillscitizeands
exposedwithstrong labor laws, and they dostrnotngguaranindusteerialworkerseconomythehasri to form unions.
Workerswayareto liftatthepeoplemercyoutofoftheirpove employers. will achieve wages and workin
to those enjoyed by American w

American companies locatedWages inmayforbeignlow countriescompared tohavU no incentive for
makingthecommitmentscostoflivingtothein localthese community. If the
workersaburd,becometherefore,tooexpensive,toexpector the companies are forcedthe tostandardspend
moneyminimumto USimprovewag conditions, they simplythatpullwageouthasnd10movetimesto anothebu country
with cheaper workersAmericaand. lower standards.
Because they have no unionActivistsprotections,liketo sayworkersthat arefac

absurdlyareintolerablelonghours,and
withundesirablnoex
pay
for
portindangerousthatasertionconditions.Peoplewithar
hazardous
Theywhenfeartheirthalternativeiftheycomplisainki
refuse
to
demanded,ofbackbreakingtheywillagriculturalbefiredand
replaced
whoinisAmericandesperatefactoriesajobreprese.
higher standard of living.
often asked
overtime,
work
by
to
work
and
materials.
when
someone
Child labor is condonedThe inAmericanmanycountriesobjectionwheretochi American companies do

thebusiness,idealisticbut Amernotioncanthatcom-ch panies should refuse toButakein manypart
countriesinthisabusewhere. Tht is little hope for theversalfutureschoolingofcoutries nonwhexisterea must provide
manual labothrown,insteadoutofofa gettingfactory anjobedug tion. many cases, the child who doe
will simply work someplace el expected that anyone who is a

wage to support the family.
|155
Sample Motions:
This House will not buy materials made in foreign sweatsh This House would force American companies to let foreign
Web Links:
Solutions for a Global Problem. <http://www.sweatshops. This Web site is sponsored by the activist organization C and
encourages citizens to take action to eliminate them.
Sweatshops for the New World Order. <http://www.fee.org This essay, from the Foundation for Economic Education, a
Further Reading:
Featherstone,StudentsLiza,Againstetal. Sweatshops:Verso Books,TheMaking2002.of
Sweatshops:H. Foreign Direct BrookingsInvestmentInstand tion, 2002.
Mo
Moran,
TheodoreBeyond
Varley, Pamela, andTheCarolynSweatshopMathiasen,Quandary:edsCorporate.InvestorRespo Responsibility Research Center,

1998.
dc
PACIFISM
Pacifism has a long history in the United States every American war from the Revolution to the P to policy
changes, as was the case in the Vietn military action against terrorists in Afghanist of terrorism. The
debate between nonviolent obj morality vs. practicality: Is violence ever con diminish evil. The debate also
contrasts the li and thus raises the difficult issue of sacrifici
PROS CONS
Violence is never justifiedWeare underot arguinganycircumstancthatvi Life is sacred, and no thingcause.

Weor arebeliefsayingallowsthat whp take the life of anotherto. endanger principles as f people have a
duty to stand
so would merely allow evil
Neither side in a war emergesDisputesasdoa sometimesvictor.Warpersiar tles issues. (For example,wars
WorldcanleadWr toI createdtheresolth ditions that led to Worldexample,War IIWorld.)WarWaralwaysIIprevecre
suffering on both sidesover.OftenEurope,the iannocentdthe GulsuffeWa the case of the
firebombwithdrawalngofDresdenfrom Kuwaitorthe.dropIn of the atomic bomb on actHiroshimawould
duringhaveledWorldto theWar II. permitted an aggressor to t
Pacifists
believe
that
Pacifismviolence
isbegetsaluxuryviolencethat.
s
do
not
have
to
retreatotherscompletelyfight.
fromPacifistsworld
claan
domestic
affairs;
theyenjoyingarenot
thecowardsliberty.Duringfor Wow War I, conscientious foughtobjectorsbothstworldodupwarsagainsttoc
militarism and cynicaltadinplomacyjusticethat.We haddid ledour tom conflict. In many countriesanny. they were
executed for
PROS
CONS
beliefs.
When
war
is
inevitable,Thispacifiststypeofcanprotestestis
thenot
tc
elties
of
war,
such
aswartortutrightre,a.tacksByadmittingoncivilianth
other
contraventions
ofitable,theGenevayou
areConvention,acknowledging attempt to curb violencesannotexcessessitby. and do nothing.
Great religious leaders,In suchpractice,asJesusmot andworldGandhi,religi always advocated

pacifismn.theTheyshapebelieveof crusadesthatHeorwh lives by the sword diesendsby. theAnd
sworddoes.notForthethousandBible of years the wisest thinkerseye? Whaveen
anbelievedaggressorthatendanvio does not end suffering,dom,but humanitymerelyincreasesmustuse itviolen.
Sample Motions:
This House would be pacifist.
This
House rejects violence.
This
House would turn the other cheek.
Web Links:
The Good War and Those Who Refuse to Fight It. <http://ww PBS Web site providing overview of pacifism in American his
Pacifism. <http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/pacifism.htm> Philosophical discussion of pacifism.
The Paradox of War and Pacifism. <http://www.leaderu.com/s Historical discussion of pacifism from a Christian point of
Further Reading:
Cooper,PatrioticSandi. Pacifism: WagingOxfoWardonUniversityWarinEurope,Press 1815onDeMcCarthy,AllColmanofOne. Peace:RutgersEssaysUniversityonNonviolencePress,. 1994.
dc
POLITICIANS AND SPECIAL INTERE

Political dialogue in America is frequently peppe interests are organized groups that play active p and
candidates, or through lobbying government of policy. Some special interest groups act in their farmers
groups); some special interest groups ac Organization for Women, National Association for as the
American Association of Retired Persons], dedicated to public causes or policies (e.g., Sie Union,
National Right to Life Committee). Many of question is whether this money corrupts the polit donors and
lobbyists than they are with respondin
PROS CONS
No person who is financiallyIfpoliticiandependet wereonsomeodependen else
funding,servetheunduepublicinfluencegood
mightadi
ested
way.
politicianmanyspecialdependsinterestonhuge groupssumso
is
truly free
When
|157
to
a
PROS CONS
money contributed by anthatorganization,politicianshisgetorcontriher is inevitably influencedhundreds,bythe

wishesofthemof. Ttheatinflorg tion rather than by whattherefore,isbest foris negligible;thecountry.e
is only a drop in the buck lions.
The
size
of
contributionsAccusationshasbecomef
unduesolargeinfluet
donors
certainly
expectunsupportedomekind
ofby
paybackfacts..WatchAma
facturers
association
makewill
statisticalnotgive$100,000correlatioawa as a gesture of good will;votes,itbutexpectsthat isto notsee realits
favorably addressed in boughtlegislation.Dont. forget that
crime
and is vigorously pro
For generations, lawmakersSpecialhaveinterestsrecognizedare thatconde power of special

interestsinfluence,canleadbut tothecorrcausalptionl than 50 years ago, fordamentallyexample,
flawedCongress.Whenforbadthe unions from acting to ReproduinfluenctivefederalRightselectionsAction the
creation of politicalontributionsactioncommitteestopolitician(PACs the proliferation of
softlegislatorsmoneyhavewho allowedwouldhavespe interest groups to violateductivetheissuesspirit. Rather,of
NARlaw obeying its letter. dates who have already indi
cies in line with NARALs p

Money
purchases
accessPeopletopoliticians,whowanttowhokillarespem
willing
to
make
time
forallydonorsthinkingthan
oforgroupsaverageth
zens.
Access
leads
naturallyoppose.
toSpecialinfluenceinterest.The grav citizen is shortchangedtrumby andthe representcurrentsystem,manypoiw
favors cash-rich organizationsvariety.of groups with comp
tion of a healthy and vigor
Organizations often speIndividualshundreds shouldofmillionsorganizeof lars to lobby politiciansrepresent.They
themselveswouldnot spendmore e sums if they did not thinklaws suchthat expendituresaffectthedailywere tive
in helping them getsurely,what theyteacherswant.haveAgain,them clearly is shaping legislationheardthrough.
their unions
drawn
up.
Sample Motions:
This House would change campaign finance laws to allow co This House would lobby Congress to advance its interests.
Web Links:
Missing the Point on Campaign Finance. <http://www.clar An essay from the Claremont Institute for the Study of St special
interest groups has been exaggerated.
Money and Politics: Who Owns Democracy? <http://www.net A project of Information Renaissance and National Issues
proposals to change the role of money in politics.
Your Guide to the Money in U.S. Elections. <http://www. Web site of the Center for Responsive Politics provides d alerts
flag instances where contributions may have influ
Further Reading:
Drew, ElizabethTheCorruption. of AmericanOverPolookitics:Press,What2000Went. Wro
Elder,Showdown:Larry. Confronting Bias, Lies,St.andMartinstheSpecialPress,Inte200 Judis,TheJohnParadoxB. of American

Democracy: Elites,.Routledge,Special2001Int. Phillips,WealthKevina.d Democracy: A PoliticBroadwaly HistoryBooks, 2002ofthe.
Amer
dc
PORNOGRAPHY, BANNING OF
Most adult pornography is legal in the United Sta of freedom of speech. Nevertheless, many campaign
restrictions were based on moral grounds, but in studies have shown that pornography contributes t
PROS CONS
Pornography debases humanFreedominteractionsofspeech byis reducingoneofo love and all other
emotionsCensorshiptothemightcrudelybejustifiedexual. is an important elementoffensiveinrelatitonships,others, but
itthis the be all and end all raphyofthem.It. Pornographyisfilmedlegallyalsodebby the human body and
exploisentsingthoseadultsluredandintothusitoffen.It encourages unhealthy, obinjuresectifyingnooneattitudesandis
atowardlegit opposite sex. Pornographyfeelingsisnotanda emotionsvictimlessin muchcrim The victim is the very
art,fabricandofliteraturesocietyitselfdo..
Pornography helps to reinfPornographyrcetheisidealegitimateofoursexu identity that sees

peopletasy,asoneobjectsoftheandmostdebasesvital pb their thoughts and
bodiesogists.Wehaveconfirmedseenevidencetheimpo this in the way picturesroleofthatseminakedsexual
womenimpulses(hardlypla ever men) are used in Repressingadvertisingor. Societysdenying thisaccepta of
pornography leads tobotheprudishobjectificationandignorantofwome.Co and thus directly to
sexualphyshoulddiscriminatbeavaionlable. for a
Indeed, far from corroding t nography can help maintain an by
letting couples fully expl
Societys apparent toleranceThisis ofnot legaltrue; pornograslippehy encourages illegal
forms,Peoplesuchinterestedaschild inpornographchild Are we to allow
pedophilesregardlessthelegitimateofitslegalsexualstatuex ration of their feelings?that mereThe
oppositionexposuretocannotadult l human impulses overrideencouragesocietalindividualsrulesthattoprotecexpl
children.
Many
rapists
are
obsessedSaly,withrapepornographywillexist.It
withencou
ages
them
to
view
womenRapistsasobjectsmayuseand
pornography,helpsjustif
their
contention
that
wnomentcreatearewillingrapistsparticipants.Theclaim
the
act.
Indeed,
feministsinvalidhveproposed.Ourlegalthatsystempornog
phy
is
rape
because
it
bexploitstweenthoughtwomensandbodiesact.thatPorn raphy serves only to encouragePornographybrutalis
asexlegitimatecrimes.
enjoyment. Government should interests of sexual repressio
|159
Sample Motions:
This House believes pornography does more harm than good. This House would ban pornography.
This
House believes that pornography is bad for women.
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union. <http://www.aclu.org/> Information on court challenges to censorship, including
Pornography as a Cause of Rape. <http://www.dianarussel Summary of scholarly book showing the relationship betwee
Further Reading:
Cornell,FeminismDrucilla.ndOxfordPornographyUniversity. Press, 2000.
Juffer,At HomJane.With Pornography:.NewWomen,York SexUniversity,andEveryday1998.Li
Strossen,DefenNadineg. Pornography: Free SpNewech,YorkSex,Universityandthe PF
dc
PRIESTLY CELIBACY, ABOLITION

One of the requirements set by the Roman Cathol the renunciation of sex and marriage for the mo
propelled to the forefront of public discussion accused of child molestation. The vow of celiba rampant
within the Catholic church in America. of the controversy, but some within the church
PROS CONS
Until 1139, priests in Thethe earliestWestern church werefathersper ted to marry. The Biblesupporteddoesnot
themandatecelibatecelibacyprie in fact, St. Peter, thetury,firstchurchpope, councilswasmarriednac.T history and
traditionsmarriedofthe
menRomanwhoCatholicwereordainchur
include
the
option
for
relationsprieststowithmarrytheir. wives.
the apostles, other than Pe do know that they gave up e
More important, Jesus led a
The number of priests inProtestantAmerica ischurches,onthe declinewhich many parishes are withoutare
havingpriestproblems.Theprohibecruit on marriage pushes somenumbermen awayofnewfromprieststheprisesti
hood.
The
requirement
opedfcelibacyworldhasdraseenticallydeclired
the
pool
from
which
therecenthurchstudycan
showedelect
thatpriestsvo
means
that
the
church
diocesesisnotalwaysinthegettingUSthathewer and the brightest. the church, including pries
Protestant clergy successfullyAcelibatebalancepriesttheircan devotwork church and their familiesioners.Were.A

marriedpriests priesermittem marry and have families,familytheir.Protestantfamilies couldclergyseh examples
to
others.
In
theaddition,church
marriagewiththeircanfamilpro
priest
with
increased
socialdifficultysupport.Manyandwivesintimacyandf
report
feeling second to th
PROS CONS
Priestly
celibacy
is
outdatedThepriest.It
issetssettheapartpriestfromap
the
therole:xperiencesHerepresentsofhisChristparishito ners. Jesus led a life of chastity
must
modern
world
and
offer his life to Gods
Celibate
priests
can
nevTher
cexperilibatencepriestthe
intimatehasuni
complicated
marital
relationshippowerofself.They-controllack
credibiandthe
when
conducting
maritalareandkeyfamilyideascounselingmarriage.Mar.Th-ried
priests
can
betterchurchserveandtheircan
parishionerscounselcouplebe of their marital and familyknowledgeexperiences..
The prospect of celibacyCelibdracyws andsexuallypedophiliadysfunctionare men to the priesthood. abuseThey

hopealso thatoccursby intotallyreligionden ing their sexuality, theyd willtomarrynot.engageStudiesin havepedophs
but unfortunately theyaccountoften cannotforlessovercomethan2%theirofR deviant desires. Permittingfigure
priestscomparableto marrytoclergywouldinb men with healthy sexual desires to the priesthood.
Sample Motions:
This House would permit priests to marry.
This House would have the Vatican stop requiring priestly c This House believes that a married priest is a better pries
Web Links:
Celibacy of the Clergy. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Offers a detailed article on the history and theology of pr
How to Refute Arguments Against Priestly Celibacy. <http: Clear presentation of arguments against celibacy, with refu
Lets Welcome Back Married Priests. <http://www.uscatholi Article, written by a married former priest, argues against
Further Reading:
McGovern,PriestlyThomas. CelibacyFourCourtsTodayPress,. 1998.
Schoenherr,GoodbyeRichardFather:A. The Celibate MaleOxfordPriesthoodUniversityandt
Press, 2002.
Stickler,TheAlphonsoCaseofM.Clerical Celibacy: ItsIgnatiusHistoricalPress,Deve1
Stravinska,PriestlyM.J.,Celibacy:ed. Its Scriptural,Newman Historical,HousePress,Spir20
dc
|161
PRIVACYVS.SECURITY
In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of Se rights and powers to law enforcement agencies. and in the
surveillance of material transmitted identification cards, facial profiling systems, aimed at protecting
Americans from further terr government will be able to gather more informat this invasion of privacy is
unwarranted and rep Constitution.
PROS CONS
The primary function ofThegovernmentrightto privacyistosecureunderl general welfare of itsto
citizenstheConstitution,.Security iswhicha good that is promised tosearchallAmericans,andseizureand.
itWhenmus primacy over individualandconcesharnse aboutinformatprivacyonabou.
ing an electronic version o
Electronic
surveillanceAnyof
proposalfinancialthattransactionsincreases
exampleis
an
essentialagenciestoolforshouldtrackingbe
dismissetheact
terrorists
when
they
areagenciesplanning(e.attacksg.,the.
IRS)The
goha
ment
cannot
stand
by
andcitizenswait.untilIncreasedcriminalpoweractsm committed; it must stopabuseattacks. before they happe
Tighter security controlsTighterat airportssecurity andcontrolsbrderc help prevent damage andethnicloss andof
lifereligious.In additiogroups their deterrent effect,discriminatorytheywillenable. official attacks as they are
happening.
Tighter immigration lawsPreventiveandmore measuresrigorous affectidentif tion procedures for

foreguignerslty. Thisenteringisesptheciallycount reduce the possibility
nationals:ofterroristsTighterenteringimmigratthe foreigners whose presence i
cial to the country.
The right to privacy Historybynohasmeansshownabsolute,thatthea Americans already
allowritythehasgovernmentoftenledtotocontrothe some of their private
rightsactions..For(Theexample,govrnmentJapanec require drivers to wearinternedsafety duringbelts,
WorldfexampleWarI intrusions on privacy shouldforthenotsakeallowof securitythegovernw be minimal, and
fundamentalsteps inrightsadirectionwould stillthat cb respected.
Sample Motions:
This House supports the creation of a national identity c This House would give the government more power in time o
Web Links:
1 Privacilla.org. <http://www.privacilla.org>
A Web site devoted to gathering information on privacy is
1 Privacy vs. Security: A Bogus Debate? <http://www.busin
In an interviewBusiness,DavidforWeek Brin,The TranspauthorarentofguesSociety,thatthe conflict be security is a false dichotomy.
Privacy vs. Security in the Aftermath of the September 11 privacy.html>
From the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clar conflict between privacy and security. Includes links to oth
Further Reading:
Alderman,
Ellen,TheandRightCarolVintage,toPrivacyKnnedy1997...
Brin, TheDavidTransparent. Society: Will TechnologyPerseusForcePubliUshing,toC
Etzioni,TheAmitaiLimits.BasicofPrivacyBooks,. 2000
dc
PRIVATE LIVES OF PUBLIC FIGURE

The extent to which the media should be free to p whenever the press gives extensive coverage to th
protecting personal privacy, but in the United St article is libelous. The arguments below apply pr like film stars
and sport figures.
PROS CONS
The people have a rightPeopletoknowwillaboutalwaysthosebe fascinapowe Their salaries are paidof forthe
powerfulbythepeople,andfamouswhethe.N through taxes, in the urescase haveofpoliticiansthesamerightand civiltop
vants, or by revenue generatedjoy.Norbyshouldfilms,publicCDs,TV,figuret in the case of celebritiesdards.
ofThepersonaldecisionsbehaviorofpolitth affect many aspects ofa peoplessensationalilivest; pressinexchange,.Ifth
people have the right ciestomakend publicinformedactionsjudgmentsofpo about the kind of leaderspersonalthey
foibles,want.Anydemocracyattempt tw restrict what may be reported about public figures c easily become a
conspiracy to manipulate voters or keep them in the dark.
All elections are to aPrivgreatermoralitylesserandextenteccentriabo character of politiciansrelated.Unlessto

someonesthevotersabilityknowabt politicians private lives,politicalthey leaderswillnothavbe ablehad met informed
decisions at others,pollingwith boothblameless.For examplprivat many would think that failurespolitician.If
modernwhobetrstayedndardshis wife by having an affairsationalismwasequallyhadcapablebeenappliedofbrea his
promises and lying respectedtohiscountryleaders. would have
office?
If investigative journalistsSuchcloseare preventedpressscrutinyfrom scruact ing the private lives
underofpublicconsiderablefigures, thenstrain,corruma and crime will be much manceeasierintoffhidec. and personal
Where is the dividing Colintinualebetweenprobingpublicintoandthepriva behavior? Drawing up rulres toactuallylimit
theharmspressdemocracywillm
|163
PROS CONS
that some questionable didatesbehaviorhavemay spotlessneverbe privarepor For example, President

andFranoisunforgivingMitterrandpressofscrutFra hid his cancer from theseekingFrech
publicelectorateofficeforandyeard this a public or a privateThose matter?whodo runHe alsofor officehada tress
and illegitimate tativedaughter,individualswhosecretlyofa accpur nied him on some of
hisonforeignsex,famvilysitslife,at statedrugs,e Again, was this a privateerantor. a public matter?
Many
politicians
point
Whenout
thepoliticiansrfamily
usevaluestheirand
licize
aspects
of
theirlivesprivatetowinliveselections,whenit
theis
advantage.
If
the
publicapublicimage
issuethey.seekThistodoescrean at variance with theirprivacyownpractice,ofthosesuchpoliticianhypocr deserves
to be exposed.personal lives in a campaig
Public figures seek electionManypublicorfamefiguresknowingachievethat will bring attention

tobytheiraccident;privateit lisvesa.byConst-pro tiny is the price of famecess.
Manyintheircelebritiesparticularactivfi media exposure to advancerole
theirmodelscareersandclaim.Oncenosucsp has been bought in suchshouldafashion,their
complprivateininglivesof intrusion into those fewtiny?aspects the star would pr remain hidden is hypocritical.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that public figures have no right to This House demands the right to know.
This
House celebrates the power of the press.
Further Reading:
Collins,ScorpionGail. Tongues: Gossip,Morrow,Celebrity,1998. and American P
Wacks,
RaymondPrivacy. and Gaunt,Press Freedom1995..
dc
PROSTITUTION, LEGALIZATION OF
Prostitution has long been opposed on moral gro particularly AIDS, and about the violence that stop the
selling of sex. Criminalizing prostitu legalize it to protect prostitutes and monitor selling sex is legal; the
Dutch city of Amsterd for or against prostitution. Nevada has made pr arrangement also has enjoyed
notable success in
PROS CONS
Prostitution is an issueProstitutesofindividoualnotlibertyhavea. gT trol of ones own bodyencouragedisthemostor
forcedbasic ofto humwor rights. We do not imposetheylegalare oldpenaltiesenough onto makeena women who
choose
to
behavepromiscuoustheirreasoning.Whyshouldimpair
the
exchange
of
money
background,suddenlymakepreviousconsensualsexual
PROS
CONS
illegal?
be compelled to enter prostit

beyond their control, such as
necessity to provide for a fa
Prostitution
has
existedGovernmentsinallcultureshavea
throughoutdutytop
tory.
Governments
shouldphysirecalognizehealthatof theytheircannotciti eradicate it. Consequentlywould theyimplicitshouldy
passapprovlegislad that makes prostitutionpracticesafer,. ratherProstitutionhanperisistnev futile and dangerous
pryohibitunggionrl.
Prostitutes
have
performedProstitutionavalid
harmssocialthefunctionfabric
thousands
of
years.
Prostitutioncourseoutsideactuallyofmarriagehelpsmaino marriages and relationshowips.disregardApurely
forphysical,thesancto mercial transaction doesthe notherjeopartnerdize inthea emotionrelati stability of a
relationshipment.isIninextricablyItaly,for example,linkedt a prostitute does not violate the law against adult
Many libertarian feministsFeministsbelieveoverwhelminglytatprostitutioppo reflects the independenceradicaland

dofeminanceist schoolofmodernthat women. The majority of porotstitutestheidearethatwomenprostitut.Once
the danger of abuse fromtionmaleof womenclients.Menandwhopimpsuse wois removed, the capacity
ofsexualwomengratificationtocontrolmensdonotsexut responses in a financiallylack beneficialofrespect
relatiodehumanizesship bi erating. Furthermore, manyclientcampaignanddoers notfor representtherigh of
prostitutes note that the hours are relatively and the work well paid. Prostitutes are paid for ser other women
must provide without charge.
Some studies suggest thatHow prostitutioncanyouprovelowersthat somethe i dence of sex crimes.

prostitutes would otherwise h offenses? Psychological thera
use of prostitutes have been number of reported attacks on
siderably greater number of s ported suggest that prostitut
most serious crimes. In Victo legal, two rapes of prostitut
Legalization would imprMover thesexualsexualhealthhealthproblemsofpros tutes and, as a

result,prostitutionthatoftheiris lawfulclientsand.Theso transaction would occurnumberina ofcleanmen
andwillsafeuse enviroprost ment rather than on theshowstreetthat. Intheareascondomwhereis onlyprost tion is
legal, prostitutesduringhavetheregularperiod hbealthtweenchecea condition of working intuthe
couldbrothelscontract.Furthermoandre,anst use of contraception
isdiseasecompulsory.Consequently,andcondomsthearele freely available. will result in the transmissi
diseases.
Legalizing
prostitutionThewouldlegalizbreationktheoflinkthe
pimps.notPimpreventsphysicallythemajorityabuse prostof tutes
violencoutside;ofthey conli
betweeBunny
prostitutes
and
and often threatenig greatertowok
|165
PROS CONS
cate part, if not all, dependoftheirnt earnings,onpimps. andLicenseoft age the women to
becomeforaddictedprostitutestodrugsto.workProvidin a secure environment inbusinesswhich tohasworkto
freespayformenrena
women of pimps.
rity; prostitutes working o
worry
about such expenses.
vate apartments, while othe
izing
prostitution will not
the
dangers associated with
environment
is a consequenc
controls.
Licensed
brothels
willProstitutesimprovethewillqualitycontinueoflit
people
who
live
and
workareinunlikelyareascurrentlytowork
nearfrequt
by
prostitutes.
Regulatheionslicensedcanrequibrothelsbrothels.Furt in areas away from homesmentsand wantschoolsto.create
ghett
tain areas?
Existing legal prohibitionsMerely againstbecause solicitingsomeindividan titution do not work.
meanProstituthatesthearelawregularlyitself isa and fined. To pay the fines,abolishedthey. mustThe
easeprostitutewithwh selves. The laws banningto workprostitutionsuggests arethatcounterpenal ductive. severe
rather than removed
Legalizing prostitutionAn wouldeconomgicvebenefitgovernmentscannote nomic benefits. A tax onresultthe

feefromchargedthelegalizatiobypros and the imposition of itiesncome. Otherwisetaxontheweearningswoulde
prostitutes would generatebecomerevenueinvolved. in other u trafficking in drugs. Moreov to declare
their true earni tial relationship between t the amount of revenue gener
The problem of a high Legalizingconcentrationprostitutionofsextouriwou in a small number of

destinationsquestion destinationwilldisappearfo
a
larger
number
of
countriescontrolslegalizeonprostitutiontutioin
porting
this
motion,
therefore,andinthewillNethreducerlandsthehavp of sex tourism. attractive to these undesir
Sample Motions:
This House would have lots more sex. This House would legalize brothels.
This
House would decriminalize prostitution.
Further Reading:
Chapkis, Wendy, JillLivPoesnSexr,Act:and WomenAnnieRoutledge,PerformingSprinkle.1997Erotic.
Ivison,FionasIreneLittle.StoryBrown,. 1997.
dc
REFERENDA
In contemporary democracies decisions are made by an issue should have a fuller demonstration of pu
questions put to a popular vote. They can have th which governments use them varies from nation to history;
half of them in Switzerland. The United e.g., California, use them frequently.
PROS CONS
In a democracy the peopleGoverningshouldinvolveshavethestablishiirsayas often as possible.
Referendathepeoplewereelectuncommontheirinreprthes past because they
werepermitdifficultthemtotoorgenactnizetheir.Now plt technology (i.e., the
Internet)isunpopularmakesinitthiallystaskbuteasib should utilize it to furtherpopular,thein spiritthelongof
rundemocrac.Su increase the involvementsurviveofthea preoplefer.ndumSwitzerland.Ifpeop an example of a nation
governmentthatuses frequentisdoing,referendatheycan ciently. of office. Governments job i
especially on social legislat limited support. Weve seen d during

the 1950s and 1960s, w ernment forced desegregation ern white
opinion.
Freakish
results
can
beFreakavoishdedresultsbyrequiringcanoccuracertif
percentage
(say
ofrequirtheelectordforatereferendumtocasta tovot a referendum to be valids. too high, no referendum wi
30%)
People are apathetic aboutPeoplepolitiarecurrsbentlycauseboredthirwiv is heard only at the votingtheywantboothis.

toFrequentvotemorereferenoft would stimulate interestgreaterin poliapaticshy andbecauseeven lowerpeopl would
actually get a say classiindecisionsexample. of frequent
noticeable interest.
In many cases legislaturesReferendadecideareonverythe artificialwordingof referendum, but countriestrolcouldthe
timing,establishwhichan isndepeak dent body that would takeoutcomeover. Thethismedia,task andby playinoverse
the process. It could becandonefurtherbythedistbodyrt thateresulover general elections. In mostthe alldemocraciesimportantthesewordingauthoriof are acknowledged as fairReferendaandunbiwasedte. a huge amount
Many
countries
have
partyIfnonesystemsofthewithpartieslittlesuppordiff
ence
between
parties.
Consequently,hasnosignificantlrge supportsectorsamoof public find their views unrepresented. Referenda wou be a
remedy.
Sample Motions:
This House calls for the increased use of referenda. This House would vote on it.
This
House would give power back to the people.
|167
Web Links:
Direct Democracy Campaign. <http://www.homeusers.preste Information in support of direct democracy, a system unde
To Collect the Wisest Sentiments. <http://www.vote.org/ Scholarly essay on the referendum in US history as well a
dc
RELIGION: SOURCE OF CONFLICT

Religion has always been one of the most influen has served as a cause, if not a genuine reason,
fundamentalism in Islamic areas, the Western wo September 11, 2001, proved that such concerns w
resentment among those for whom Islam was a pea harmful or good? If it can be a source of confl
PROS CONS
Religion is a stronger Religionforcethanis anyextremelymaterialdangeinc It is far better at
directingtojustifybehaviorbrutal
towardactionssoc.
terment
than
either
lawstorturephysicalinthe
forcename.ofForGodex. both Gandhi and MartinthemLuther King,so-calledJr., GermanconducteC nonviolent
protests baseders oni reltheirgiousFhrervalues.Religi.
in politics because it can control or to achieve a rul
The very existence of Theocratic states, become.g., Irto that religion can be
atheylegitimatearebasedsourceonobedienceofpol power. Governments in
theocraticGodsrepresentativestatesare rathermuchm stable than in secularstitcountriestion. because leaders
viewed as appointed by God. Political stability, turn, leads to economic welfare.
Biblical
commandments
areReligionsthebasliskeofIslamWesternjustiet
unfaithful,Religionteachmesaningus
tolerapeopl
people
andgiousreligionsconvictions.Usuallylike
beliethes
more
tolerantoristhanttacksnonbelievofSersptember.
cal
of
and
legal
other
peaceful
systems.
races
and
In the states where religReligiondevelopshasledfreelytotheandcr have free access to placeshasalsoof

worship,ledtoitschurchesdestruc always served as a shelterdestructionfortheofpoorthe. greatSome ofBu
greatest works of art weorse,createdreligioin thecan namebe ofso Furthermore, Woodrow
WilsonInIslam,suggestedChristianity,thatstronand
affinity
exists
betweenasreligiousmighty
warrcommior,tmentjustand p otism. Love of country,Hejustpunisheslike lovethe unjust,ofGod, thce inspires
good deeds. obedient. The idea that a n
Gods will has led to war a viewed as ungodly.

Most wars are not startedWhetherbyreligion, althoughisgenuir
PROS CONS
often serves to justifypretthextm. isMostnotwarsimpoartantes.artedWha economic reasons or

forcanterritorialbeandis gainoften. used to m name of high ideals to furthe religion causes more harm tha
Western states grew as NortharesultAmericanofrelignationsandemerelge philosophy. Western

Eurnomicpeanfandctors:NorththeAmericanexistence societies are still basedtiononinProtestantEuropeon
idthealsoneofhanddi thrift, and moderation.the United States on the othe
ism, not the tenets of religi be diligent and thrifty.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that religion is a positive influence o This House believes that church and state must be kept sepa
Web Links:
United States Institute of Peace. <http://www.usip.org/re Site reports on the Institutes Religion and Peacemaking In
Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. <http://www.r Presents information on various aspects of religion and inc brief
description of each.
Further Reading:
Gopin,HolyMarcWar,. Holy Peace: How ReligionOxford CanUniversityBringPeacePress,to
Hunter, ShireenThe.,FutureandMarcof IslamGopin.and the West:Praeger,Clash of Ci 1998.
Kepel,Jihad:GillesThe. Trail of PoliticalHarvardIslamUniversity.TranslatedPress,by Ant20 Smock, RelDavigiousdR. Perspectives on
War:.RevChristian,.ed.UnitedMuslim,StatesanI Peace Press, 2002.
dc
RELIGIOUS BELIEF: RATIONAL OR

The majority of the worlds population is at leas in some parts of the Western world that religious ment go
hand-in-hand with secularization, in many including in the United States, arguably the most for debate: the
question of the existence of God; religious belief on individuals and communities b
PROS CONS
Religious belief is completelyEvidence thatirrationalGodis. a Godrealitexi Wheres the proof?

Therebautiful,isnone.orderlyReporteduniversemiracles
healings,
etc.,
are
neverand
reliablyhavespecialprovedmoral.In anyand casp ones religious experiencesclearlyareto differenttheexisteanced
showofa psychological differencversebetween.Billionshumanofbeingspeoplerathhav than proving any objectiveall
ofdivinethem realityvealing.Belieftheexin is simply wish fulfillment. A loving all-powerful be
|169
PROS CONS
watching over us would be nice, but there isnt an

The world is full of theMostsufferingandandpainpainof canth cent. If God is good andfreeallwillpowerfulthat
humathenswhyexercis suffering permitted? EitherweuseGodthatdoesfreedomnotexistfor evior not worth
believing inillnesbecauseandhe disease,oesnot itcareis a human suffering. God, but it may be that the
of a world in which free an evolve and develop.
Modern science has shownWhatreligiousaninaccuratebelief tocaricatbew From Galileo to Darwinbetweentothe
scimodencern dandy, religioscienti have continually uncoveredscientiststhetrueof historynaual havemech nisms
behind the beginningmore andwe levolutiarnaboutnofthethephyu verse. These leave no seemsgaps
forthatGodan tointelligentactin;scG has revealed a closed naturalhumanlifeorder.Thegovernedphysicalby sin
laws. Science has also anyprovedcase,thatprecludthere isa spiritnota but that all our
mentalfactsathatesarethesimplymind
andcausedbraib
activity.
Accordingly,
thattheretheyis
noarereasonthesameto beliethin after death, one of the main tenets of religious
Religions through the Religioages,andmaystillhavetoday,been thehave agents of repression,

sexism,andpoliticalelitism,wrongs,homophobiabuti
flict,
war,
and
racial
behatredsure.
thatThe
evilsifyoufortookwhicaw gion is responsible inpeoplethesocialwould andstillpoliticalidentif easily outweigh
whateverand smapoliticalpsycholgroupsgicalandcomfgo religious belief may giveEqually,. elitism and bigotr
nature with or without rel religious belief is a force moting
humility, morality, justice. Social justice is gospel.
Religious traditions andWe theneedirrationalreligious fervortraditionwit people adhere to them

divideandvalueshumanityina. rapidlyTheyprovidsec proliferation of incompatolibleticiansd
caonnottradictorytellus m codes and values. The onlywrongprospect.Weneedforthea moralglobalin ity is a
secular one basedtions,onwhichrationalare consensualrepositori and positions rather
thanspiritualonpartwisdom,an, local,toguideirr prejudices. In the interest of global harmony, we discard religious
beliefs.
Sample Motions:
This House rejoices that God is dead. This House does not believe.
This
House believes that religion has done more harm than
Web Links:
1 Counterbalance. <http://www.counterbalance.org>
A
science and religion site sympathetic to Christianity
The Secular Web. <http://www.infidels.org/>
Contains
essays and articles supporting a metaphysical p
Theism, Atheism, and Rationality. <http://www.leaderu.com Philosophical essay in support of a theistic world view.
dc
REPARATIONS FOR SLAVERY

Reparations are compensation given to make amends believe that the descendants of slaves should be the
argument are universally agreed on. Europeans America. Once there, the slaves labor developed from the
produce cultivated by slaves greatly imp involved. Historians have debated the economic im apparent. The
transatlantic slavery system brough and to maritime Europe. Africa was left with the commodification of life
that made the slave trade calibrate. Several legal decisions are pending on
PROS CONS
The legal precedent behindReparationsAfrican-areAmericannothistoricademands for slavery
reparationsreparationsoriginatesisfrommerelyUS Armythe merFie Order 15 issued by Gento.
WilliampopulismTecumsehbyAfricanSherman-Americ in 1865. It stated
thatlitigiouseachfreedmannatureofshouldAmericanrece 40 acres of land and a woulddraft hanimalvegivento
workpropertythe lanand compensation for their paymentsenslavemeandt. propertyBitternesstransfeover
governments failure toIfhonorthe governmentthatorder wantsexitstoinhe culture and contributesit
toshouldracialofferhostilityopportunities.Repara could possibly reduce somement
ofandthateducationhostility.Furthermoandlea better race relations inbe Americadecided. on, how would they
much is an 1865 mule worth in the government execute the or

cost-of-living changes and ec reparations entrench percepti as
victims, a sure road to le
Historical precedents forWho reparationsshouldreceiveto Africanthepaymen-Am can descendants of slavesor

Africansarethe
paymentorboh?byThGermanhis
to
Israel
for
the
Nazi
areHolocaustinvalidand.Germanythepaymentswasforcma
by
the
US
federal
governmenttoIsraelfor
becauseitsinternmentGermanyofhaJ anese Americans during againstWorldWarhumanity,II.In addition,genocide, hia
torical
precedent
for
ofreparationsEurope.Genocidexists
inis
thedifferong
provision
of
social
servicesically,toslaveryNative mandatesAmerican bettpop tions in North America.slaves possessed value on the
nese Americans in concentrati horribly by the US government

also a very easily defined and uals who could be monetarily canAmerican slaves are many their ancestors who were actu who is
descended from whom w
|171
PROS CONS
not impossible, task. Nati ments and social services b the

United States governmen the Indian tribes. The des have no
nation-state or tre
Slavery was deemed a crimeTheUSagainstgovernmenthumanityisnotin aft summer of 2001 at the

UnitedTheRomeNationsStatuteWorldof
theConferInt
ence
Against
Racism
inhasSouthnot
Africabeenratified.Thedesignatbythe has legal implications.sovereignMostimportaimmunityt,thereand coulis ute
of limitations for citizenscrmagainstAmericanhumanity,courtsme US institutions could rations,beCatoheld
vliable.th(1995),UnitedfortranwaStatesgredi
dating
to
the
first
instanceciting
ofUS
slasovereigntradeimmunitinthe in 1619 in Jamestown, Virginia.
Africans should be paidAllowingreparatisonsme forharmedslaverygroups. entrenched a violent

andfromcorruptthegovernmentpoliticalwillsystemen
fostered
a
culture
thatgroupsacceptedtoproducethecommodificaandprese
of
human
life.
The
harmsarationsinflicted.Reparationsbyslaveryclaimhind
Africas
development,
thusrupt
Africansourgovernmentshould andreceivetor pensation and reparationsshould. the US government p
other nations participated African nations. Many Arab the
institution of slavery. slaves for development exte the
institution of slavery Western Hemisphere.
Private corporations shouldPrivatepaycoreparationsporateliabilitytode dants of slaves. Many Mergersprivate

andcorporatacquisitionsheld mas or sold slaves and profitedtoocomplicatedgreatlyfromto trace,heir pat pation
in chattel slaverycially.InimportantMarchof corporatio2002,law for Deadria Farmer-Paellmanthis folfilyed.
aThinkclasson-actthions a rations lawsuit in Brooklynthoughtfederal-outcourtcourtrulingagainstco Boston
Financial Corp.efforts,Aetna toIncbring.,andthisCSX issueCorp seeking $1.4 trillion forsion 37in
milliontheUitedAmericStatesns.of can descent. In July 1998, Volkswagen AG admitte to using the forced and
unpaid (slave) labor of 1 Eastern Europeans during World War II and announce plans to set up a fund to
compensate these worker
Sample Motions:
This House would give reparations to the descendants of s This House believes that the United States federal govern slave
trade.
This
House believes that moral and/or financial atonement
Web Links:
All the Current Slavery Reparations News. <http://slave Impartial site offers scores of links to other Web pages
Millions For Reparations. <http://www.millionsforrepara This Web site, maintained by an organization in favor of
thoughts
about reparations.
We Wont Pay. <http://www.wewontpay.com>
This Web site has the personal testimony of more than 100 I participants are qualified and cite sources; others do not. logical
fallacies in argument.
Further Reading:
Horowitz,UncivilDavid.Wars: The ControversyEncounter,over 2001Reparations. for S Robinson,TheRandallDebt:.What
AmericaPlume, Owes2001.to Blacks.
Winbush,
RaymShouldnd AAmerica.,ed. Pay: SlaveryAmistad,andthe 2003Raging. Debat
dc
RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COOPERATION: OR LONG-TERM

War creates unexpected alliances, and the war on between the United States and Russia. These two f
economic, and cultural ties. For the first time s common enemy: international terrorism. Moreover, and in
reducing nuclear weapons stockpiles. But d build new defense systems, while the United State states, as an
example of its untrustworthiness.
PROS CONS
The Cold War ended moreRussiasthana desiredecade toagoregain.Now, its the two most powerful solidaritycuntries
inwiththetheworldUnitedfindSti natural and necessary cooperationtocooperate. Russiatofighthasterroribeen and in
other arenas. Bothininternationalcountrieshaveaffairselectedsincne presidents who quicklyUnionestablished.
friendly, even p sonal, relations. Good relations between leaders of improve relations between countries.
Good relations betweenSuchtwo ansuperpowersalliance doesmakenottheper world much safer. Becauseany

ofsafer;its location,thisallianceRussiaisis to fighting internationalperiodterrorismofthe. warRussiasonterrorisintell
services have monitored the activities of Islamic f mentalist groups on its borders for years.
Economic cooperation betweenGoodeconomRussiac andrelationsheUnitedare p States can be nothing thebut

UnitedpositiveStates.RussiabelievesdesperatRu needs investment and techbrinologyits toeconomydernize,into
linewhichw
the United States
can IfsupplyRussia.ThedoesUnitednot
conformStates, toi
turn, can buy oil
from investmentRusia,huswillreducingstop. Theits peorl
on Saudi Arabia.
energy assets are resisting t
tate foreign investment becau
We must also remember that Rus
are often at odds with Americ
For
example,
Russia
benefits
to
China and
Iran,
which the
|173
PROS
CONS
Accordingly, close, long-te

states with very different
Russia and
the United RussianStates mustand USjointlyinterestsface wia

of problems, from environmentalicallythe degradationtwocountriesto net growth of ethnic
violencechallengesandtheassumingchallengestheirposei globalization. Addressingmilitarilyhese
problemstheywillwillremainfor close relationship betweengicthenucleartwonationsplanning. will potential nuclear
threat. L not rule out a US attack on
Sample Motions:
This House believes that long-term cooperation between Ru This House believes that todays warming US-Russia relati the war on
international terrorism.
Web Links:
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. <http://www Presents a detailed report on US-Russia relations by the Council on
Foreign and Defense Policy (Moscow).
Center for Defense Information: Views from Moscow. <htt Provides an article by the former deputy chief of staff o relations
between Russia and the United States.
Radio Free Europe. <http://www.rferl.org/nca/special/RU Includes an archive of all the recent articles concerning
Further Reading:
Ellis,DefenseJason Dby. Other Means: The Politics ofPraeger,US-NIS 2001Thre Pikayev,Russia,Alexnderthe. U.S. and
theOxfordMissileUniversityTchnologyPress,Contr1
dc
SCHOOL UNIFORMS
Traditionally, students in American parochial s smattering of public schools had uniform polici uniforms in an
effort to stop school crime. The that students in many schools with uniform poli floodgate of uniform adoption.
President Bill Cl message. To avoid legal challenges, school dist for parents to opt out of the uniform
requireme
PROS CONS
Uniforms help create a Uniformsstrngsensesuppressofcommunity,individua promoting discipline
anddentshelpingfrom acceptingraiseacademicrespon dards. This is why
educatorsownlivesfrequ.Thentlyencourageadopt th when trying to revive failinggroup schoolsrather.than as indi
ters and abilities. Uniform of rote learning and milita
PROS CONS
not belong in modern educatio imagination and intellectual ing

increasingly important in schools, indeed many countrie high
standards of discipline, performance without adopting
Wearing uniforms acts Studentsasasocialwaysleveler;find waysall stoud are equal in the eyes
ofregardlesstheschoofl andwhatofclotheseachothar institutions without unifsciormsus willstudentsown theare
sameoftennumbco petitive in dress and worryofwhetherendlesslyornotabouttheytheircan weap ance. Pupils without
expensive,willchangetrendytheminuteclothesclassemay
become
social
outcastsfind.Manysomeparentsuniformpreferitems,uniformsuch because they save moneysive. and complain that
they c
the school.
Uniforms have practicalUniformsbenefitsmakeoutsidestudentshe veryschooid building. If students sizeare
identifiedthedivisionswithbetweenapartiscu institution, they may beilitymoreofawarebullyingoftheirand fightsbehavi
They may act more consinstitutionsderaelyof.others while trav ing to and from the school. On organized trips, tea
ers find keeping track and monitoring behavior of st dents easier.
Uniforms prepare studentsThe businessforlife worldafter isgraduatioincreas when businesses will expectcodes,
themmakingto adheretheschoolstocorpoth rate dress codes.
anachronistic. Adults who att uniforms do
not appear to str
Uniforms make it easy Oftenforteachersitis theto monitoruniform dresthat codes fairly. School
administratorswarmenoughin andwinterstudentsortooco stantly battle about whatbecauseclothingitis
isbadlyapproprdesignedate schools without uniformsGirls. complain about being fo in the coldest months.
Some g tive Muslims, may oppose spec cultural reasons. Students wi vert dress codes, so the staf
any case.
Sample Motions:
This House would introduce school uniforms.
This
House would create a stronger school ethos.
This
House believes successful education rests on firm disc
Web Links:
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): All Dressed Up and Uniform Policies. <http://www.aclu.org/features/f110499a.ht Site
summarizing one campaign against school uniforms with
ACLU: Philly Adopts School Uniform Policy. <http://www.ac 2000 press release presenting opposing viewpoints on Philad
ACLU: Litigation Resulting from Mandatory School Uniform UniformLinksLitigation.html>
Links to information on ACLU challenges to dress codes as w
|175
U.S. Department of Education: Manual on Uniforms. <http 1996 summary of arguments in support of school uniforms, on
uniforms.
dc
SCHOOL VOUCHERS
Over the past decades, Americans have been incr particularly in inner-city neighborhoods, where
suggestions for improving education for all chi of these programs vary with locality, all would to help pay
the cost of private, including paro damage public schools and argue that they subve help the children
most in need.
PROS CONS
The current public educationTheAmericansystem publicisfailingeducaticou students, particularly tralin
innertoAmerican-cityeighbodemocracyhood.
an
era
where
education
foris
theall
keychildrentosuccess,regardlessthe dren are not being providedtheir withreligion,thechancetheir toacadedev
the skills
necessary toto competepay.It
inhasthehelpedmodernmilliwo
Vouchers
give
poor
pareandtsprovidedtheabilitythe
civictosendeduct
children
to
better
schoolscitizens.Theseto
childunderstandenshouldAmer sacrificed while we wait vfoucherpublicsystemschoolis reformsaying.
public education. Instead o our efforts into reforming

The competition for studentsThecompetitionwillforce allstudentsch to improve. They will
publichavetoschoolsusetheir.Muchresourceofth educate their
studentstorathbetterthanprivsquatenderschoolsthem bureaucracies as many
dowithtodaylittle.Eventually,tonofundingthe.u vageable schools will schoolscloseandis thedeterminedothers
bywillnu stronger, producing an Ifoverallnrolmbetnterlags,learningthen then
ment. The market will asregulateitwas the previouseducationyearpro
duced. funding increases. Thus, ev
vated
to improve they will
The money would help someThe families,governmentandvouchersthatisarewo the risks. Not all
studentstialenoughinnonperformingtogivetrue
scfi
will
be
able
to
attendare
privatenotlargeschoolenough.However,tohel
the
students
who
can
affordschoolsuch.Thean
voucherspportunitymakel nonperforming schools, affordablemoreresourcesfor peoplewillbewhoavaic at those
nonperforming addition,schoolstoprivateeducateschoolstherem ing students. Private allschoolsstudentswould
withhave vouchersano o change admission standardstuitionor ortuitiostandards,nor foris tha reason to think
that impactgreat vouchersswellinwouldprivatehaves. enrollment would result.
Vouchers
will eventuallyVoucherlead programstoschoolwouldsystemset

PROS CONS
is liberated from bureaucraisnots accountableandpoliticians,tothe enabpu educators and parents

torentdetermineprogramshowin bestMilwauktoee,ducaW children.
land, Ohio, have found
unlawf ments, illegally imposed fees
No violation of the separationVouchers involveofchurchthe andindirecstate would occur. No

studentreligiouswouldbeschoolsforced. toThisentertrans religious school. Only violatfamiliones andof
thestudenoctsrineintereof in a private or religiousstateducation. would use the vo ers. Any students who desired a
more traditional cu riculum would be allowed to study in public schools
Sample Motions:
This House believes that the government should cease the us This House recommends that educational vouchers be used for This
House believes that the issuing of vouchers by the gov
Web Links:
School Vouchers: The Wrong Choice for Public Education. < This is an anti-school voucher Web site containing a detail option.
Vouchers and Educational Freedom: A Debate. <http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-269es.html>
This Web page from the Cato Institute presents a debate on the site offers links and policy analysis.
What Are the Issues: Vouchers? <http://www.pta.org/progra The PTA Web site provides excellent background on the issue
Further Reading:
Doerr, Edd, Albert J. Menendez,TheCase AgainstandPrometheus,JohnSchoolM.SwomleyVouchers1996...
Kilpatrick,ChoiceDavind WSchooling:.LoyolACasePress,forTuition1990. Vouchers.
Kolbert,
Kathryn,JusticeandZakTalking:Mettger,NewPrSchooleds,. 2002Vouchers..
dc
SCIENCE:
THREAT TO SOCIETY?
As the twenty-first century dawns, science is exte further than many people feel comfortable with. B
established procedures, such as in vitro fertiliz God. The development of nuclear weapons is just advances.
PROS CONS
Science gives humans theTalkabilityofplayingtoplayGod!GodAsideand to interfere in areas tenceabout

ofwhichadeityweknowthatnothingmanydo. Scientists have alreadyof clonedplayinganimals,Godimpliesand
recentaviol some scientists announcedWhat thatboundaries?theywillSetattemptbywhom?t clone humans. Such
irresponsiblesimplyafraidand ofpotentiallyhingsaboutda gerous meddling is takingThe assertplaceion
thethatnamewe areof sciemed tific advancement. understand should be replaced
ula tion
of scienti fic enquir y
|177
PROS CONS
Science has greatly increasedScience thedoescapabilitynotkill; ofhuma women to kill each otherscience.Wars
forthatheusedflawsto inbe hufo face-to-face on the batttributelefield,sufferingwithcomparativetoscie casualties,
are now foughtorphilosophy,frommiles bothaway ofin whicano ity. The buildup of
nuclearexamplearsenalsgivenillustratesduringhe h War gave humanity the
accompanyingcapabilityofresponsibilityobliterating entire world 10 times overtion.
ensurAtcertaindthattimesneitherin h such as the 1962 CubanSovietmissileUnioncrisis,deployedthe wornuclde
stood on the brink of destruction.
Science has perverted theSciencefundamentalhasgreatlybasisincreaofhu relations. The word sto

cietycommunicateitself.
Telephonescomesfro
socializationthe
ideapeopleof
interactionopposite
andsidescommof nication. With the Internet,TheInternteletvision,allowsandpeoplecomp games, humans are
commuinformation,ingwitha anythinglifeless fromcolle tion of microchips, notcribeachsheetsother.. Any study of
p
that computer games appear previously held by recreati
Science
is
despoiling
Modernthenaturalmedicinesworldhave.Powermoreg
ruin
the
countryside,
acidexpectrainncyfromand
coalprevente-and
gaf
power
stations
kills
fish,worldsand
populationanimalsarecouldcruellyno mented on to further researchandpesticides.Notonlyto increasedoesscie
give us the potential to destroyharvest eachthem other,efficienitlya. a massive toll on our
naturalessentialsurrountomodingsern.existen
care and not abuse them. Bu menace is ludicrous.
Sample Motions:
This House believes science is a threat to humanity. This House fears science.
This
House believes that scientists are dangerous.
Web Links:
Institute of Scientists in Society (ISIS). <http://www. Maintained by ISIS, a nonprofit organization working for issues in
science.
International Center for Technology Assessment. <http:/ Site provides information on the organizations initiativ impacts of
technology.
Scientists for Global Responsibility. <http://www.sgr.o UK-based organization promoting the ethical use of scienc
Further Reading:
Collins,
H. M.,TheandGolem:TrevorWhatPinchYou. CambridgeShouldKnowUniversityAboutScienPr
The Golem at Large: What CambridgeYouShouldUniversityKnowAboutPrTess,chnology1998

Peacocke,PathsArthurfrom. ScienceOneWorldTowardsPublications,God. 2001.
dc
SECURITY AND LIBERTY

The events of September 11, 2001, forced governme the security of their citizens. Measures included frequent
searches of possessions when entering pu random searches of Internet content by intelligen privacy.
Extraordinary security measures seem jus terrorists, who have become much more cunning and measures,
however, comes at the expense of some o some liberty for security, but what is the ideal
PROS CONS
The current tension in Wethedoninternatiohavenoughalarevidencenaisl to increase, leading
toisgreatermoreofdissatisfacthreatthanion inwithp ican policies. This, inareturn,likelymay toresulttake
inadvantagemoreter attacks. Terrorists nowseizeuse advancedthemomenttechnologytostrengtheand organized in
networks governmentofhard-to-agenciestrackcellsare. sophiAddre ing modern terrorism isterimpossibleterrorism
without curbimpingi some rights. What is not acceptable is to
using
the events of September
Liberty depends on securityTheUnited.WemustStateseliminatewasfoundedterro ism to protect our

freedomlimited.We
govneernmentdtoupdateand
inaliewire-tapping
laws
to
conformernmenttochangingcantaketechnologiesstepsto than give law enforcement agencinfringingesaddedon
ourpowerightsof.searcFor and seizure. agencies broader rights of de
do better work in collecting bring credible charges.
Our immigration laws haveIn thebeenwaketoo oflax,Septemberandthe 11,Immi gration and Naturalizationover
Service1,000nonhas-U.failedS.natioinalsit The terrorists responsibletody for Septembermonths,deprived11enteredof
United States legally, underand undoubtedlyinternationalotherslaw. areThis here in hiding. We
neednationstricterhatimmigrationpridesitselflawsona better enforcement. freedom.
In
any
large-scale
attemptHistorically,fightterrorismmanylimitationsomeab
of
rights
are
certain
togodoccurintentions.However,.Permittingendingallv rity measures because atheyfew maycases,violateis
therightstop isof noa good idea. The majoritywillof toleratehemeasuresincreasedareintendeviola to safeguard civil
liberties,allyfundamentalnotabuse rightsthem. will
Security
measures
have
IfnothereallyUnitedlimitedStatesfreedom,losesit
comparablerorism,withthethoseterrofrisotherswindeve. oped countries.
US
measures
are
Random searches at airportsFruitlenssureandomagainstsearchesethnicofp filing. In many airports,and

theuniformedsoftwareairlinethat runspilotshe line reservation system,US calledairportsComputerasmoe
AssistedandmoreP senger Prescreening Systtreatedm(CAPPS),likesuspselects rpathssern|179
PROS CONS
gers whose carry-on andthecheckedredflagsbagsforwillCAPPSrequiresyst tional security

screeningmethods.CAPPSof alsopaymentchooses(ticketpas gers at random for screeningsuspect);. or
whether a rent ria are very vague and do n
Sample Motions:
This House believes that security is the most important g This House would not trade liberty for security.
Web Links:
Amnesty International Concerns Regarding Post-September AMR510442002?OpenDocument&of=COUNTRIES\USA>
Report by international rights organization expressing co for possible terrorists following September 11.
Balancing Security and Liberty. <http://www.heritage.or Article in support of Bush administration anti-terrorism
Office of Homeland Security. <http://www.whitehouse.gov Bush administration site providing latest news on the dom
On Trading Security for Liberty. <http://www.objectivistcenter.org/articles/wthomas_tradi
Article by the Objectivist Center views Bush administrati recommends alternatives.

Further Reading:
Chang, Nancy, SilencingandHowardPoliticalZinn. Dissent: How Post-Septe LibertiesSeven. Stories Press, 2002.
Dempsey,
James TerrorismX.,andDavid&TheColeConstitution,. Sacrificing
First Amendment Foundation, 2002. Netanyahu,FightingBenjaminTerrorism:. How DemocraciesNoondayCanDefeatPress,D
1997.
dc
SELF-DETERMINATION AND NATION

Across the world nationalist movements like the ists in Gibraltar, campaign to determine their peaceful,
but some have degenerated into violen future of (predominantly Muslim) Kashmir (under continues to
rage over the proposed establishme reflects the democratic goal that a people choos and nationalism can
generate dangerous conflict Yugoslavia). Can minority rights can be success
PROS CONS
Self-determination is Callsfundamentalforindependencerightthatdestmu afforded to a native
orinnationalNortherngroupIreland,.The UNKashmiGen Assembly Resolution 1514areas(Theof
DeclarationSpain,and SGrantinLa Independence to ColonialhumanCountriesright,andit Peoples),almostalw
Helsinki Act, and the AfricanminorityCharterisableof toHumanactiveRig all assert that selfdeterminationandrepresetativeisan goveimpornmetan
is
viewed as an illegitimat
PROS CONS
The UN General Assembly Reso that territorial integrity an selfdetermination.
Some
claims
for
self-detTherminationwrongsinflictedependandbythenceo
were
nourished
in
the
soilfautofofthetheillnew-treatmentgovernmentsof.
peoples
by
colonial
powersare.
Themovingrecognitionawayfromofnatmino ity rights protects culturalalismisidentitiesaboutdifference,thatriskwh
diluted. The activitiesideaof ofterroristtheglobalgroupscitizenshould.N undermine the politicalpursueagendasby
ofviolentnationalistterroristpart and the protests of minoritybe groupsrewarded. for their dis
trying to recognize minority the risk of giving minorities expense of

the majority. Nati ing less significant definers British Muslims,
Catholic Afr ing Arabs are all coherent id the solution to the fear of
t or oppression.
The state borders drawnThe(particularlyredrawingofincountryAfrica)bounby nial empires were completelywayto

promoteartificialstability.Ethnicingron were split and dividedIn. In1964thethepostOrganization-colonial envirofAf
ment, these borders areCaironappropriateResolutionandthatdo itnotwoudel eate true nations. Selfdrawndeterminationbycolonial
powerswould.
alloGov
borders
to
be
redrawn
centraterealisticallyonbolstering.Nationstatesof world can have self-determinateralismisononeonlygovernmentifthey
havstr statehood. modate self-determination wit
For example, in Canada, Quebe including some native courts.

Self-determination doesHownotto alwaysdetermineanwhoindepenhasthe-dence; in Gibraltar in is2002a
nativreferendum?Shouldon rejoiniallof Spain was voted down byto residentsvoteonthe.Morefatethanof 99%Gibra
chose to maintain historicthe BritishandlegalmainlandtiestohaveBritainvot determination is about
tionalrepresentationcontext mayand meanidentitythat choice. agreements must take preceden
Kong to China after over 100
Sample Motions:
This House believes
This
House
This
House
believes
believes
in native rights.
self-determination is a human right.
that one mans terrorist is another man
Web Links:
International Institute for Self-Determination. <http://w Site maintained by an organization promoting peaceful self-selfdetermination, a bibliography of print resources on th
Michael
Freeman,
National
SelfPeace-DeterminatioReview,vol.10,no,.
<http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/freeman.htm>
Article providing an overview of nationalism in the 20th ce
Peace2.
and
|181
Self-Determination for Gibraltar Group. <http://www.sel Site illustrates the kinds of issues involved in a campai
Further Reading:
Hobsbawm,NationsEric Jand. Nationalism SinceCambridge1780: UniversityProgamme, PreMy
Ignatieff,BloodMichaelandBelonging:. JourNoondayeys intoPress,the1995New. Nation
Ranger, Terence,heInventioned.CambridgeofTraditUniversityon. Press, 1992.
dc
SEX EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS

For years conservatives and liberals in the Uni whether this responsibility is that of the pare diseases,
particularly AIDS, the focus has shif advocate sexual abstinence (refraining from sex assume that the
students will be sexually activ
PROS CONS
The primary cause of unwantedJudging bypregnanciesthenumberandof the spread of sexually

transmittedcontinuingdiseasespread
(STDs)ofSTDs,is
rance
about
safe
sex.
Tthe
AIDSmessagecrisis.Sexofeducationthe1980
1990s
has
shown
that
sexproductiveeducationbecausemustbeteensavitalfi
of
the
school
curriculumwhatandteachersmaybe
supplemadvocatented.The frank discussion at homes.x education is the media,
magazines.
As the US Guidelines forThis Comprehensiveisthewrong approachSexuality. Education (1991)
state,roomallencouragessexualdecisionsyoungteenahave or consequences and
alltheypearsonsereadyhaveandtheadds. .to. tion to make
responsibleuallysexualactivechoices.Inaddition,.While H lywood promotes casual,to thoughtridicule,ssthussex
devaluingastheo teacher-led discussionsibilitycanencourageshould rbesponsiblediscusse tudes about sexual
relationshipseitherwith. older siblings
Abstinence
is
an
outdatedClassroomapproacheducationbasedonshouldtradit
religious
teaching.
Someeducationyoung peoplencouragesmay choosesexual but we cannot expect itbothto safebe thesx
normand.restrTeenaintger express their sexualitydrenas arepartatofrisktheirof developsevere Having sex is not
the harmproblem;from having unsafesextoo sexyo hurting people through agsexualdto choicesabstain.is.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that sex education should take place This House would rather not discuss it with its parents.
Web Links:
Avert: AIDS & Sex Education. <http://www.avert.org/educ Information on sex education from a leading UK-based AIDS
Sex Education Forum. <http://www.ncb.org.uk/sexed.htm> Part of the larger UK National Childrens Bureau site pro sex.
Sex Education, Teenage Pregnancy, Sex and Marriage: An Is sex_education.htm>

Essay advocating sex education in a religious context.
Further Reading:
Moran, TeachingJeffrey PSex:. The ShapingHarvardofAolescUnivencersityin Press,the20th
dc
SEX OFFENDERS: PUBLICLY NAMING

During the 1990s the US Congress passed two laws released from prison. The first law, the 1994 Jaco
requires states to register individuals who have Law (1996), compels states to make information on states
discretion in establishing the criteria fo 7-year-old girl who was sexually assaulted and mu have implemented
this law. Many post the name and information on CD. Others permit law enforcement Law has generated
heated discussion. Those suppor it say that it is ineffective and will force conv for the rest of their lives.
PROS CONS
Sex offenders, even moreThisoproposalthanotheris acriminfundamentls,a prone to repeat their crimesciples.
ofMakingour penaltheir system,namespubw enables parents to protectasettheirprisonchildtermenandand
threducenb rate of sexual crime byimposrepeats aoffendersnewpunishment. for
itably, will lead to sex offe their neighbors. Offenders ha their
homes or lost their job Innocent people will also suf have been
subject to threats, tion made public by the polic ment of innocent
people. Such ated; we cannot as a society of justice.
Crimes of a sexual naturePsychologicalareamong evaluationsthemostabhorcan-rent and damaging

thatwhetherexist; antheyoffendercanruinis astillchil life. Those guilty of suchShouldcrimesthe
offendercannotbebeincarcerfound forever, thus extra precashoutionsldremainmust inbecustodytaken.onIfth release
to ensure that offtheynderposeisnonothreatlongertoa thethreap
allowed to live a normal life this distinction and stigmati inely
reformed. Our penal sys ciple of reforming offenders. change is
both ludicrous and
These laws help the policeRegisteringotrackoffendedownrse-offendewithth

|183
PROS CONS
more
quickly,
thus
theyenforcement,arealsobroughtbutmakingtojusticpub
swiftly
and
surely.
Theseaboutslawsaddsand notheiradvantagesrong an enforcement provide a tivestrong.Thdeterrentabuse
andagainstharassmre offenses. suffer could drive them und
monitoring more difficult.
We cannot know how manyWhatchildrenevidenceweredo savedwehaveby th these laws, but even
oneeffectivechildsavedinprotectingfromsexualpeo justifies them.
Very little. As a result of reluctant
to charge juvenil they do not want children s offenders are not getting t
future
risk to the public.
Sample Motions:
This House supports a national register of sex offenders. This House would name and shame.
Web Links:
Megans Law Legislation in All 50 States. <www.klaaskid Offers background information on the Jacob Wetterling Act laws.
Revising Megans Law and Sex Offender Registration. <http://www.appa-net.org/revisitingmegan.pdf> Detailed

essay in opposition to Megans Law.
Further Reading:
Pryor, DouglasUnspeakableW. Acts: Why NewMen YorkSexuallyUniversityAbuse Press,Children1 Ryan, Gail, Sandy
LanJuvenile,and
SexAlanOffending:Rizler,
edsJoCausse.ys,-Bass,Conseq1
Sampson,ActsAdamof.
Abuse:
Sex
OffendersRoutledge,andThe1994Criminal. Just
dc
SINGLE SUPERPOWER: BENEFICIAL

When the Soviet Union collapsed, people talked Union and the United States. Ever since, the Un the
world culturally, economically, and militar say that US domination will bring stability and debate on
whether the world is multipolar, wi real power concentrated in the United States.
PROS CONS
The world is safer withWithoutasingleanystrongother superpowenationt it was in the bipolarUnitedCold
WarStateswithcancomoperateting gla alliances. It is also ignoringfarsaferthethanwishesitwasof durinothe half of
the twentieth goalscentury,.At whleastnhavingthe bipolarnumb of powers resulted in twoworldworldkeptwarsthe
andtwo manysuperpowsma conflicts. History shows that the world is best of nated by a single democracy.
PROS CONS
The existence of a singleWhiledemocratictheUnitedsuperpowerStatesextolpro motes the spread of

demodictatesrcy. toIf thereorignoresisto thbe oc one superpower, let it andbe democraticiswilling
sincetointdervenemocracyi the most desirable formotherofgovernmentnationsfor. its own pur definitely abuses
its power i Democracy abhors the one-side
of power. Democracy prospers power is divided among many p

As September 11 demonstrated,Septembermany11 demonstratedinternationaltha actors are hostile to
peacematterandhowsecuritypowerful,.Thecannotworld a powerful leader to unifyWorld thedominationglobal
effortbyasingleagains rorism and provide betterconceptsecurityofequalfor allnationpeople-state.W out a single
superpoweretycoordinatingisbased.Itglobalisboundsecurito measures, Earth is much more likely to be a trouble
place in the near future.
Sample Motions:
This House agrees that the existence of a single superpower This House supports a multipolar structure for the world. This House
condemns the single superpower.
Web Links:
Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs. <ht US international relations think tank focusing on ethical a
Foreign Policy Association. <http://www.fpa.org/newslette Features a variety of links and resources on the US role in
Muslimedia.com. <http://www.muslimedia.com/>
collection of anti-American views, among them a few posit
Further Reading:
Brilmayer,AmericanLea. Hegemony: Political.YaleMoralUniversityina OnePr-ss,Superp199
Huntington,
Samuel PForeign.The78,LonelyAffairsno.2Superpower(March/April. 1999).
Kagan, TheRobertBenevolent.ForeignEmpire(SummerPolicy. 1998).
dc
SINGLE-SEX SCHOOLS
Studies have shown that boys gain more academical schools promote greater achievement in girls. But
success of the education system. In 1996, a long-only policy resulted in a landmark US Supreme Cou the
Court left room for private (i.e., not state-where needed to redress discrimination.
PROS CONS
Women benefit from a singleA1998-sexsurveyeducationbythe. ResearchAmerican shows that girls in singlesityWomen,sexschooalsongparticipate-timeadvoc
in
class,
develop
much
cation,higher
selfadmittedesteem,thatscogirlsehif in aptitude tests, are shmorew academiclikelytoimprovementchoosemale.Th
|185
PROS CONS
plines
such
as
science
glein-college,sexschoolsandarearemoreins
ful
in
theirWhos,careersWhograduat.enInsceofiswomofquestionable
imp
ens
colleges
outnumbereportallothernoted,womenBoys.TheandUnitgi States has only 83 womenslementscollegesofgood.
education
smaller classes, focused ac der-fair instruction. Thes in
coeducational schools.
Children in the formativeThe formativeyears,betweenyears 7ofandchil1 gravitate to their own exposesex.
Theythem
naturallytothecompanytend
t
behavior
appropriate
totheytheirlearngendereach.
Thusothersimplbemh ing an education strategyfor gearedadult lifespecifically.Thenumbertowa gender makes
sense.
Certainsingle-subjectsexdiscu,ssionuch
asis
sexso
cation
or
gender
issues,organizedarebestwithintaught coeducatinsing classrooms.
Boys and girls distractIn eachfact otherboys andfrom girlstheir arest especially in adolescenceother,as
sexualengenderingandemotionalgoodbeh arise. Too much time canticularlybespentas teenageattemptinggirlsto
impress
or
even
sexuallysibilityharassthaneachboysotherof.
theAcads
competition
between
thetionsexesbetweenisunhealthythesexesandis oa adds to unhappiness andat anxietyschool. among weaker
stu dents.
Single-sex schools (suchSingleas-thesx Virginiaschools Militaryforwome tute) are a throwback ofto thethe
feminpatristarchalmovement;societm the past; historically schools,inmany cultures,whyshouldntonly womemen
allowed
an
education
ofexistedanysortonly.Suchfor
singlemen,then-sex
tutions
both
remind
womentory;ofhowever,pastsubservienceaslongas anb continue to bar them fromof attendingfullsocial
sincglusione-sex. i
one),
you cannot call it di
Teachers themselves areTeachoftersn discriminatedfrequentlyfavoragaint single-sex schools; a

ingboyscoeducationalschoolwill classes;usually largely male staff wherecanwomenunderminemayfeelthe
uncomfortaprogress or denied opportunity, deandtsviceby refuversaing. to call o
Sample Motions:
This House believes in single-sex education.
Web Links:
Atlantic Monthly: The Trouble with Single-Sex Schools. Article opposing single-sex schools by a graduate of a w
Single-Sex Education: The Supreme Court Speaks. <http:/ Text of the Supreme Court decision requiring the Virginia
Further Reading:
Miller-Bernal,SeparateLesliebyDegree:. Women Students. ExperiencesPeterLang, 2000.
Ruhlman,BoysMichaelThemselves:. A ReturnHolt, to1997Single.-Sex Education Streitmatter,ForGirlsJaniceOnly:.
MakingStateCaseUniversityforSngleof-SexNew SchoYor
dc
SMOKING, FURTHER RESTRICTIONS

Although most countries put age restrictions on t every day. Supplying this demand is big business. admit that
their products were addictive and had subject to second-hand smoke. In the developed wo substantially
increased taxes on tobacco to disco illness. Yet, while smoking has declined among so tobacco companies
look to developing nations for
PROS CONS
Smoking is extremely harmfulWhilea togovernmentthesmokersha healthresp The American Cancer
Societypopulation,estimatesitalsothathastobaccores causes up to 400,000 domeathsof eachchoiceyear.The
morelawthanpreven AIDS, alcohol, drug abuse,ingotherscarcrashes,.Itshouldmurders,notstopsu cides, and fires
combinedthreatens.Worldwideonly somethemselves3million.Da people die from smokingrockeachclimbingyear,
oneand eveparachutingy10sec onds. Estimates suggestbeenthatpassedthis againstfigurewillndulgingrise million by
2020. Smokersing areactivi22timessuchmoreaslikelyeating develop lung cancer
thanmuchnonsmokers,alcohol.Banningandsmoking can lead to a host of
iotedherintrusionhealthproblems,intopersonalinclud emphysema and heart disease. One of the main responsibilities of any government is to ensure the safety population; that is why taking hard drugs and break ing the speed
limit are illegal. Putting a ban on sm would therefore be reasonable.
Of
course,
personal
freedomCigarettesisimportant;arevery
wedifferentshould
act
against
the
tobaccopoisonouscompanies,foodsnot.
Cigarettesindividualsa.
a
company
produces
foodtheythatareisdefective;poisonous theyora arecar
that
fails
safety tests,Peoplthe prshoductuld
stillisimmediatelybepermi off the market. All cigarettesbettercomparisonandotheristobaccounheapr ucts are
potentially lethalcancontributeandshouldto behearttakendiseaoff market. In short, smokingditions,shouldbutbe
thebannedgovernment. d
turers of these products. Bot are sources of pleasure that, ciated
health risks, are fata They are quite different from cars, which
pose high, immedi
Smoking is not a choiceComparingbecause nicotinetobacco tois hanrdaddicrug drug. Evidence suggestsisthatno

todebilitatingaccocompaniesinthedelisa erately produce the mostnarcotaddicstiveare,cigarettesitisnottheycomp Up
to 90% of smokers beginofaddictiveness,whentheyareandunderit isagen 18, often due to peer
pressurethatleads.Onceto irrational,addicted,contivio ing to smoke is no longerItisanmuchissuelessof
harmfulfreechoice,than of chemical compulsionstances.Thegovernmentandactivitiesshouldcanbanbe tobacco just as
it doesicalothexercise)addictivebutdrugsthis likeisno and cocaine because it galis.thePeopleonly areway
abletoforcetoabstapeop quit. Most smokers say everythat theyyearwantiftheyto kickchoosethetoha
|187
PROS CONS
so this legislation wouldertheless,bedoingmanythemenjoyafavorsmoki. life.

Most smokers are law-abidingCriminalciztingzensanwhoactivitywould l to stop. They would
notworldsresortpopulattocrionminalwouldor bel market activities if cigaretteshibitionofwerealcohnol
longerduring l available; they would justapopularquit. recreationalBanningsmokingdrugw make them quit and
massigovernmentslylightenwouldtheloseburdenthe o health resources. sales, which they could use
care.
The effects of smokingTheareevidencenotrestrictedthatpassivetosmo Second-hand smoke jeopardizeslemsis
theveryheaslimth. ofAt nonmosmot, ers as well. Research smokerssuggestsforthat nlonsmokingtime map ners
of smokers have aincreasedgreater chanceriskofofcancerdevlop. lung cancer than other
cannonsmokersbeunpleasant.Beyondforthenonsmhea risks, smoke also can
responsiblebeextremelysolutionsunpleasantcaninb workplace or in bars
andcouldresthaveurantsdeignated.Smokingsmokicau discomfort as well as taurantsharmo othffers
patronsndshouldthe banned. smoking sections. Allowing
decisions is surely always smoking in public places ma ate;

banning it would be lu
At the very least all Wheretobaccois theadvertevisidengce shoulthat banned and cigarette
packswould shouldaffect thehaverateevenofmoreto prominent and graphic healthcompanieswarningsclaim.
that advert people to switch brands, no smoking because of peer pre
cigarettes will make them cents. As for health warnin arettes
have serious health smoking, then no one would continue to
smoke in the fu risks.
Sample Motions:
This House would ban tobacco. This House would not smoke.
This
House would declare war on the tobacco industry.
Web Links:
Center for Disease Control and Prevention: Tobacco. <ht Research, data, and reports relating to tobacco as well a
Phillip Morris. <http://www.philipmorrisusa.com/>

Major tobacco company site offering government reports on marketing of tobacco products.
3
4
Smoking From All Sides. <http://www.cs.brown.edu/~lsh/s Links to statistics and hundreds of articles on both side
The Tobacco Homepage. <http://www.tobacco.org/> Provides recent information on tobacco-related issues as

controversy.
World Health Organization: Tobacco Free Initiative. <http Information on WHOs worldwide program to stop smoking, as societal
impact of tobacco and smoking.
Further Reading:
Whelan, Cigarettes:Elizabeth. What the Warning Label Doesnt Tell You:
of
SmokingPrometheus,. 1997.
dc
SPACE EXPLORATION
The space programs of both the US and the USSR we War. From the launch of Sputnik, the first artific Yuri
Gagarin in 1961, the first moon landing in 1 of money to outdo each other in the Space Race. S exploration
has become less clear. Russia no long the United States has also cut back. Near the end missions that are
faster, better, cheaper. Expe 1970s seem unlikely to be repeated. In particular disappeared, although
potential missions to Mars
PROS CONS
Humankind
always strugglesHigh idealstoexpandare itsall horizonswelland.
The
curiosity that constantlycomeat thepushexpenseattheof boundarthepre
of
our understanding isby onewar,offamine,ournoblestand povecharty,acte
istics. The explorationstrugglingoftheuniversesimply tois liveahighfroi space truly is the finalof frontierexploring.
Thespaceinstinctarea luxurtoe fundamentally human; alreadyofwastingsome ourof ourtimemostand amazeffor-ing
achievements have theakenspaceplaceprogram,inspacewe. mustNoones can deny the sense of
wonderOncewewehavfeltaddrwhessednforthetheprof time a new man-made starwe rosewill
inhavethetimesky,toorexplorewhenNet Armstrong first steppedthenonto. Tthe moneyon. Sspaceent exploraonprob
tion speaks to that partwouldof usbe thatbetterrisesinvestedabove inthe
day.
planet. A world free from

lives in hunger, would be
dis
a t
The exploration of spaceSatellitehaschangedtechnologyurworldhas. beneSat ellites allow us to

communicateever,launchinginstantaneouslysatellites
witin
people
on
different
continentscantlyfromandexploringtobroadcastspace.to
people
all
over
the
worldand.intoTheinterstellarGlobalPositioningspaced
System
allows
us
to
pinpointourplanetlocations.Moreover,anywheremostinsa world. Weather satellitheyes sarve launchedivesby
andgivingmaintaiadva warning of adverse conditions;es.Spacetogetherxplorationwithotherrequi entific instruments in
sidiesorbit
theyand
willhaveneverhelpedbe
uscommga
a
better
understanding
ple,ofourtheworldVoyager.Researchmissionsintoalo
mate
change,
for
example,ionwould.Thisbemoneyalmostcouldimpossiblbebet without the data provided by satellites.
Space exploration has hadThesemanyauxindiliarectyadvabenefitstage. coTh

|189
PROS CONS
space
program
has
broughtprojectabout.Theygreatareleapsresultinteo
nology.
The
need
to
reduceofmonweyightandonmanpowrocketsr
toleds
the
microchip
and
the
modernresult
computerofaspecific.The prograneedt produce safe but efficientadvancespowerinsourcesminiaturizationfortheA
missions led to the developmentbuildbeterof nuclearpracticalmissilfuel which are now being
exploredcontinueas buildingpossible nuclearpowersouw for cleaner cars. The wouldeffectsbe
offarzerobettergravitydevotedon nauts have substantiallygoals,addedforto example,ourknowledgecancero
workings of the human bodyrenewablendtheenergyagingsourproces.s.T can never know exactly
manywhichsidebenefitsbenefits,will emergebutwou the space program in the future, but we do know t we will
constantly meet new obstacles and in over ing them will find new solutions to old problems.
Space exploration is anSpaceinvestmentexplorationintheis futureawast. world is rapidly runningto tackleoutof

resoutheproblemsces.Overpoof lation could become a dsepletionriousworldwideofresources,threatwe. C
sequently, ignoring theinsteadvastpotentialfchasingof anourelusiown systemmining resourcestheon
problemsasteroidsof orourotherplanet ets, or even colonizingmustohertackleworldsthemwouldwithbeallfo ish.
If we fail to developpoliticaltheabwillitywetohavetake. ad these possibilities, we may find it is too late.
Sample Motions:
This House would
This
House
This
House
would
would
explore
the
explore
the
reach for the stars.
universe.
Final Frontier.
Web Links:
European Space Agency (ESA). <http://www.esa.int/export European Space Agency and the earthly use of space.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). <http://www.jpl.nasa.g Describes the research conducted by the JPL and provides the
solar system, and deep space.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). < Vast site describing the US space program and the other N
Further Reading:
Cooper,LeapGordofn.Faith: An AstronautsHarperCollins,Journey 2000into. the Unk
Launius,
Roger, BertramNASA Ulrich,andthe andExplor.StewJohnationrt,GlennTaboriof.Space& Chan
dc
STEM CELL RESEARCH AND THERAPE ING

Stem cells are cells that give rise to specialize developing embryo. Researchers believesuchthast these
diabetes, Parkinsons caudisease,dby andthe Alzheimersdisruption ofdi issues surround stem cell use
because such cells (Stem cells can also be derived from adults, but destroys the embryo and thus ends future
human li clone themselves (therapeutic cloning) to create
PROS CONS
Although therapeutic cloningMerely willhopinginvolvefora thegoodcreatou and destruction of
thousandsimmoralofactionsembryos,acceptabletheresult.M benefits will be so greatgovernedasto byoutweighmoral
moralandethicalconsi ations. Once the researchthe goalsduty everyhave beenhumanachbeieved,ngow use of
embryo treatmentsmuchcansympathybegreatlywe fereducedlfor. sufTh likely result of curingeaspes,oplewe
ofcannotfataltoleratedisesstheis the cost. means to an end. Stem cell re
tradictory: Lives would be cr in order to save other lives.

We already accept the ThecreationlossofandembryosdestructioninIVF isof spare embryos for cyclestreatmentofin.
vitroItis fertilizationnotreason IVF facilitates the creationdurethatof willhumansacrificelife.Stemmuch treatments will
save existing human lives. The infe will still survive. The sufferers of Huntingtons c or Alzheimers will not. If we
accept the morality IVF, we must accept the morality of stem cell trea ment.
The creation, storage, Mediaand destfearsuctionof madof embryosscientist be strictly

controlled.andTheredestroyshouldhumanbe nolifearmayof be kenstein science.
research projects carry a
sig thousands of embryos for litt
The moral status of theTheembryonicisdistincthuman shouldfromtha the fetus. What reason statusisthereas
totheassertfetus thatorthelifech at the stage of embryophysiolcreatiogicaln?Thepointaccepteddowetestdecl clinical
death is an absArencew toof baseraina stdeclmarationctivity fetus first acquires a calfunctioningappearance?
brainThatsixtheweeksmbr the embryo has been createdthefetus.We cannotandfromcondonetheadultthe wastage
of human embryos. However,isnota wehumanmustbeing. wary of regarding the loss of an embryo as the loss
human life.
We cannot equate human Theembryproperswithtesthumanof humanitybeings s just because they

couldhasdevelopthepotentialintoadultstoorganiz.Betwee
50%
and
70%
of
embryoswholeare.lostEverynaturallyembryo throughhasthis failure to implant in theembryoswall areof
thelostuterusnaturally.The pd
|191
PROS CONS
tial of an embryo to developdestructiondoes notof embryosofitelfis m embryo human.

Further research requirResearcherstheuse ofhavethenostemneedcellt in embryos. Research doneResearcwith
adulthascontinuedcellshasforyi very little progress becauseadultstemof thecellsdifficulty.Thesecelof gramming
an adult cellusedto fordevelopthe purposesastheparticoftr neuron or tissue cell
requiroutthed.destructionThegreaterofunderemb ing of human cells that scientists will gain from with embryo
stem cells may increase the utility o cells in the future. For the present, resources be concentrated on research
with stem cells harve from embryos.
Sample Motions:
This House would allow stem cell research.
This
House supports therapeutic cloning.
Web Links:
American Journal of Bioethics. <http://www.ajobonline.c Provides a wide variety of resources on the ethics of clo
Ethics of Cloning. <http://www.wits.ac.za/bioethics/gen Scholarly article that argues that no ethnical issues ar
ReligiousTolerance.org. <http://www.religioustolerance. Provides good explanation of cloning for the lay person.
Further Reading:
Harris,Clones,John. Genes and Immortality:OxfordEthicsUniversityandthePress,Genet1
Holland,
Suzanne, KarenThLebacqz,Human EmbryonicandLaurieStemZoloth,Cell edsDeba.
PolicyMIT. Press, 2001.
Lauritzen,CloningPaul, anded. the Future.OxfordofHumanUniversityEmbryo Press,Research200
dc
SURROGATE MOTHERS
For many people, the first time they heard about 1980s. In this case the surrogate (biological) hiding
rather than give her to the biological f parental rights but gave custody of the child t regarding surrogacy,
ranging from outlawing pai sprung up around surrogacy in the states with m and match them with
potential adoptive parents. parents, costing as much as $35,000 (and higher be genetically linked to at
least one of the pa couples, surrogacy presents one of the only pat reproduction make it contentious in
debate and
PROS CONS
Adoptive parents can requireBecausepsychurrologicalgatemothersevaluatido for their surrogates
todren,suretheytheyhavewillno incentivemakesacri for the unborn child. theyInaddition,arecarryingmost
haveofthethewomebe who commit to being a surrogatetakedrugsmotherormedicinesdosobecausethat they have a
caring attitudemaymakeandunhealthywantto helplifestylepeopl This attitude would likelynancy.contributeAmother
whoto theirwill raismaki the best decisions for givtheschbildrthbeforeismoreit liskelybornto.
advantage.
If surrogacy is done correctly,Thebreakingtheof birthsurrogate(surroagar mother and birth
fathermoreandcomplicationspartnerorspousethan theunderb stand the ramificationscontractsoftheir.
Surrogacydecision beforeshould tn pregnancy is embarked childupon. shouldAlthoughnotmorebe knowinglyexpensive, agencies are a goodstanceoptionwhere. The oragencyshe couwildl psychological screeningwithof
andsuchcounselingtroversyof. theSurrogsu gate mother and will ensurepened inthatmanythemedilegalhypeddocumentcas are in order. In a recentdrenstudygrowing Britaupwithn, 90%one ofsets gate mothers had no
anxrietiespped awayaboutfromhandingthem thevia babcou over to the adoptive panotherrents afterset.
Enteringbirth.Onlyintothea s cases where there is arisksproblemthatmakeare toohe mediagreat. The many
surrogacy success stories do not.
Surrogacy enables parentsMany tochildrenhavechildrinthen USwhoandare genetically linked to thements.

Thesechildchildrencanactouallyldbe the DNA of both the fatharer insteadandthe usingmother,surrogacydependingt
on what method is used.individualsInthisway,wantparentstoraiseknowa tc genetic background of theirothe
childadultsandcouldcan chooseinteracto w the child from birth. make their family.
Women who are doing surrogacySurrogacysolelyisfundamentallyforthemoneycap are usually weeded

outfeelthrough-good psychologicalimagesandrhetestsoric Most women who become aresurrogatessimply
rentingenjoyed theirbng womb pregnant and love theirin childrenexchange. forThey a wantmonetaryothersre enjoy
parenting too. Manypeoplesurrtogatesbuy organs,haveseenso peopwhy close to them deal withto
infertilityrentawomb?andThe wantethicsto ofhe others avoid the pain
ofwombwantingandthenchildrensellingandthemnot arbe able to have them. The notmoneypermitpaidtheto
sellingurrogatesof chiis compensate them for thetheffortsellingit takesof childtocarrywhilea c Often the money is
usedbetoutlenablewed.theSurrogacysurrogateviolatto have to work during the pregnancy, so she can con-centrate
on keeping as healthy as possible. Surroga and adoptive parents are more concerned with findin people whom they
want to have a special relationshi with rather than selling services to the highest bi
A recent study showed Childrenthatthe ofadoptivesurrogateparenmothersof babies born to surrogate

birthmoerstheyhavewrehigherturned-thanove-average
parenting
skillsfor.
Theafeesurrogate.Theymustborndealbabieswit normal temperaments. Parentsthattheof personchildrenwhosebornwombto suth rogates have
worked hardthemto. Thebecomeadoptiveparnts,motherusuallydoe turning to surrogacy asnitya lasttobondresortwith.
Theythe babytrulyin
|193
PROS CONS
a desire to be parentstheandconnectionultimatelytoarethegoodbabypa to the children they adoptThe

adoptatbirthve.motherOften cannotthead parents will keep in tofuchbreastfeedingwiththesurrogatetothe babmo
and sometimes allow theabosurrogatehisor toherhavebirtha relatmoth ship with the child.
Thisadoptivecreatesparentssituatidonotn conwhe child knows that he ortheshesurrogatewasborn. inIf
atheuniquerelatw but if handled correctly,mustthenegotiatechldknowsarelationshhowmuc or she was wanted.
relationship with the adopt
a relationship with the sur or developed.

Surrogacy gives gay couplesGaymalewhocoupleswould likeare majortosh their lives with childrBecausenthe
manychancestatesohavewilla nof Studies have shown thatrogacythechildristhen onlyofgaywaycouplthes well
adjusted. What isPlacingimportantchildrenisthatin theasituachi are born to adoptive parentsmale andwho
femalewillloverolethemmode care for them. Gay mendrenservewill toalwhaysve bethea optiminorn become
fathers just as hardshipsheterosexualthat menotherdo.childrIfa gate mother feels comfortablecouples
prshoviuldingsimplythe gayremaic with a child, the state should not attempt to re this private arrangement.
Sample Motions:
This House
This House
This
House
This
House
would ban
believes
advocates
believes
the use
that the
a federal law
that surrogate
of surrogate mothers.
potential harms of surroga
protecting
the right
motherhood
is the mo
Web Links:
The American Surrogacy Center, Inc. <http://www.surroga The purpose of the site, which was founded by a woman who on
the third-party reproductive options of surrogacy and
Surrogacy From a Feminist Perspective. <http://www.heal This article, which lays out many of the arguments oppos
patriarchal system.
Surrogate Mothers On-Line. <http://www.surromomsonline. This Web site is run by women who are involved in the sur
personal stories, a classified section where you can find
Further Reading:
Dutton,A MatterGail. of Trust: TheCloudsGuide Publishing,toGestational1997Surroga.
MacKlin,SurrogatesRuth. & Other Mothers:TempleTheDebatesUniversityover Press,Assis
Saban,MiracleCheryl.Child: GeneticNew MHother,rizon,Surrogate1993. Womb.
dc
TERM LIMITS
For years, the president was one of the few US po politicians grew in the early 1990s, voters looke 18 states
had passed laws automatically forcing l limited the terms of mayors and other elected off 1994 Contract with
America, but Congress twice amendment needed to make the change. In the early political agenda and some
states moved to repeal
PROS CONS
Term limits ensure thatExperiencepoliticianscountsdo innotpoliticsbecome corrupted by power
andnewloseofficeholdertouchwithwillthe takepeopleman and principles that firsttofullygot
themgraspelectedthejob..RepresePolic tatives who spend too aremanycomplicated,yearsinoffice,andthelivingpub
the national capital farsystemfromthattheirallowsconstheituentsre-elea surrounded by lobbyistsciansd.
fellowIflongpoliticians,-termofficeholeas become part of a professionalfromthe governingvoters, theyclass,willremol
from the concerns of normalreguarpeopleneed. toTermrunlimitsforrerecr-el ate a class of citizenitylegislatorsandkeeps whopoliticiansseepoliticain as a brief chance to improveion. their country, rather as a long-term,
comfortable career.
Term limits will overcomeTerm thelimitsadvantagesare thatinsultincumto bents have in any re-electwhoiona
campaigndemocracy. Theseareatadvanlib tages include name recognitiisfactoryn andincumbentgreater.
Preventiaccess funding from special interestsfromrunning. simply removes t
important political decisions have an unfair advantage, it of the
political system, e.g. paign financing.
The regular need to wageCorrupcostionly reis-electionactually campaigmorel may damage elected

representativeswithtermlimitsjudgmentbecause (andoffic even their honesty). Theytodomusttheirdo bestwhatforis
thepopularvote rather than what is right,again.actingIndeed,in lessthe narrowhonest intpo of constituents rather
corrupt,thanconsideringeeingthetheneedgeneraltop fare of the entire countrysquicklypopulationaspossible.In.
Alternataddition iticians running for rebusiness-electionin mustthe hopepanderof tolandispe interests to secure
fundingonce.out of office.
Term
limits
would
bringAmateurfresh
faces,politicians,talents,thrownandexi
ences
to
the
politicalenfprorcedcess.earlThey wouldretirementensureoft elected officials had experiencecians,are inlikelythe
realtobeworldnav side party political machinesspecial andinterestsbring.moreTermfirstlimit-knowledge of business
andthe industryrelationshiptogovernmentbetweenthe.
branches of government, becau have the experience to deal e
dent.
|195
Sample Motions:
This House would impose term limits. This House would clean up politics.
This House calls for the return of the citizen-legislator This House believes a new broom sweeps clean.
Web Links:
Term Limits: Special Report. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/te WashingtonarticlePost on the

status of term limits at the end o
U.S. Congressional and State Term Limit Action Page. <h Presents justifications for term limits as well as state-on the
topic.
Further Reading:
Coyne,CleaningJames. House: AmericasRegneryCampaignPublishing,forTerm1992Limits..
Crane,
Edward H.,TheandPoliticsRogerPilon,andCatoLawedsInstitute,of.TermLimits1994.
Kamber,GivingVictorUp. on Democracy: WhyRegneryTermLimitsPublishing,AreBad1995fo Will, GReorgestoration:F. Congress,
Term LimitsFree andPress,the 1994Recovery.
dc
TERRORISTS, NEGOTIATING WITH

The rash of suicide bombings in Israel during t negotiating with terrorists to the fore. Over t for example,
where terrorists have come to the once considered a terrorist group, helped bring most nations will not
negotiate with terrorists not always bring an end to terrorist attacks.
PROS CONS
One
mans
terrorist
isTheanotherexamplemansof
freedomSouthAfricfigh
Most
terrorist
organizationsmanycases,donothengagepoliticalnvios simply for the joy of roristsitforoperatepersonalis
fargainmore.I they stand for a particleular politicalwhoisin positiontherightan for a group of people.BottomEvery
line:conflictKillinghas atpeopleleas sides. Look at the AfricanviolenceNationalas CongresspoliticalintoS Africa.
For many years morethe Souththan murderersAfricangovernmenandsho and many foreign governments
regarded it as an il gal terrorist organization. South Africas black m on the other hand, viewed it as a champion
of free History will record that it was on the side of jus the apartheid government was in the wrong.
Any governments primaryGivingresponsibilityintoterroriststo masa lives. History has showntermthatbut

mislitharmfulyactiontheas chance of succeeding agroupsainst rtesortrroriststo.violenceDefeatinb rorist groups
is almostableimpossibletoachievewithouttheir unbeargoals restricting the freedomsBy ofmakingthe
inconocentcessions,.In the prolonged internal campaigdangerousofterprorism,ecedenttheandprb ise of
negotiations willwhoalmostuseviolenceaways leadare moretoa l
PROS CONS
In the case of more isolatthosed thatincidents,usepeacefulsuchasmethohos taking, making

concessionsdemandusuallythat groupsaves livesabandon. vi terrorism before negotiations
Many terrorist campaignsIn fact,aretheterroristsesultof willingnlong-sta ing political disagreementsundue.
powerTerrorismattheis negotiatinoftenfuel a long history of hatredthatandalldistrusttheir.demandsInsuchbesituamet
the government must takegtedtheandfirstrandomstepsmurderbecause.In itN always the more powerfuland
sideIsraelin thenegotiationsconflict andhavec more readily make concessionsstumbling.Onlyblockby
againtakingandtheagale will the government be trustedableto. end the killing.
Refusing to talk to terroristsAgain,negotiatingcancloud withthe issuesterro rounding their activitiesmacy.

thatPublictheysympathydonot deserveforthe cause may be aroused becmeanusetotheyachievappeartheirto
begoalsfigh ing an unresponsive, evenwho opprmurdessive,rand terrogovernmizentinno.B negotiating, a
governmenttreatedniesnotthemas politicaltheopportunitlead to present themselves as martyrs and permits publi
scrutiny of their often radical demands.
Sample Motions:
This House would talk to terrorists.
This House believes that force cannot eliminate ideology. This House would bomb their beliefs out of existence.
Web Links:
Federation of American Scientists. <http://www.fas.org/ir Information on steps taken to combat terrorism after Septem
International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism. <ht Maintained by an Israeli institute, the site offers general international and
national counterterrorism activities.
U.S. State Department Counterterrorism Office. <http://ww Provides current information on terrorism as well as a stat
Terrorist Group Profiles. <http://web.nps.navy.mil/~librar Maintained by the Dudley Knox Library of the Naval Postgrad sites on
terrorism.
The Terrorism Research Center. <http://www.terrorism.com/ Offers essays on current issues as well a link to documents
Further Reading:
Hoffman,InsideBruceColumbiaTerrorism.University. Press, 1999.
Lesser, Ian O., BruceCounteringHoffman, JamtheRandsNewArquillCorporTerrorismation,et.al1999.. Reich, Walter,Origins edof.
Terrorism: Psychologies,Woodrow WilsonIdeologies,Center,Theo19
dc
|197
TOBACCO REGULATION: ADDICTIVE

Historically, the production and sale of tobacc Administration (FDA). Early in the 1990s, the n tobacco
products under the control of the FDA. the FDA definition. After investigation, he conc an addictive drug
and that they deliberately ma ruled that cigarettes and smokeless tobacco sho FDA, and he introduced
rules forbidding their s He was supported by an executive order from Pre in 1997; the court concluded
that the FDA had j a higher court ruled that the FDA had no jurisd Supreme Court in 2000. In some ways,
the questi Congress has the power to give the FDA appropri
PROS CONS
The Food and Drug AdministrationWhenCongressisdelineatedresponsibleth for regulating drugs, Food,which
Drugae defined&CosmeticsassubstAct (other than food) that latre intendedthatthe toFDAaffectshouldthere ture
and function of theexistencebody. ofSinceanother nicotinagency tobacco has this effect,viewit
theshouldBureaube ofclassifiedAlcohol,a and its sale, distribution,clearandthatpromCotionngresshouldhad
controlled by the governmentCongress. clearly regards to
substance, the FDA has no b
Restricting the sale ofYes,nicotinetheFDAishasespeciallyregulatoryim because it is harmful

isandalsoaddictiveresponsible.Most forpeopleens smoke are unable to
quit,effectiveeventhoughbeforetheyallowingwantt earlier FDA statements, cle intend to rule that
tobacco
plans to rule that tobacco ban it from the market comp gress
never intended to ban
The addictive power ofThenicotineFDAhasistakenrecognizedadvantageby tobacco industry. Internaltion
ofindustrydrug documentsinorder tosh that tobacco companiesaddition,recognizelabelingthatnicotineis
element in cigarettes makesthat smokersitsoundcravelike mostheroin.T have taken care to ensuntrue)rethat.
Millionsevenlow-oftarpeopleciga remain high in nicotine,withoutand oneutsidetobaccohelp,companyandf
actively tried to developcurrenttobaccosmokersplantsin withthe adulhigh otine content. Clearly, the tobacco
industry inte this drug to have an effect on the function of th
Given that nicotine isTheaddictive,dangers ofdiscouragingsmokinghavey people from smoking isthanvital30.

years,Surveys andshoweverythat c few people start smokingedgesafterthemthe. Butage theof 18indivi.Ther we
must ban the sale ofthosecigarettesdangerstopersonallyminandano advertising directed towhetherthem. to
smoke. The gove
interfere with that right o
PROS CONS
individual.
Unquestionably smokingThecreatesdecisionhealthtoclassifyproblems;toba indeed, tobacco has causpled ofa

majorgovernmentpublicbyhealthfiat. criTh The FDA has a responsibilitypeople, tomembersthe citizeofCongress,ofth
United States to do whatsion;it itcanwastomadeimproveunilaterallpublic health, including implemonentinghat
wasregulfationsrexceedingtoreducit the use of tobacco in thesecondedcountryb. an executive bran
due legislative process.
Sample Motions:
This House would petition Congress to designate tobacco as This House believes that the Food and Drug Administration s
Web Links:
American Cancer Society. <http://www.cancer.org/eprise/ma National organizations Web site supplies cancer informatio
American Lung Association. <http://www.lunguse.org/tobacc National organization Web site offering information on the
Brown Universitys Smoking From All Sides. <http://www.cs Web site includes several documents discussing both sides o
Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco. <http://www Symposia of abstracts on tobacco and nicotine addiction.
Further Reading:
Gately,Tobacco:Iain. A Cultural History ofGroveHow Press,anExotic2002Plant. Sed Lemieux,SmokingPierreand. Liberty:
GovernmentVariaPress,asa Public1997. Health Pr
Rain, Robert L., andRegulatingStephenOxfordTobaccoD.SugarmanUniversity.. Press, 2001.
dc
UN SECURITY COUNCIL VETO, ABOL

The United Nations Charter gives the UN Security international peace and security. It is the only diplomatic
and economic sanctions or vote militar the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Fra are held by member
nations that are elected for t affirmative vote of nine of the 15 members, any me registers an unpopular veto,
reformers often call
PROS CONS
The veto power is an anachronismTheP5has.wieldedTheP5 vetogot powerthis privilege for two
reasonsboththatduringhaveando afterpplicationtheCoi post-Cold War world. First,and1990,to protectmembers
nationalofthe P5intv ests, the Big Three (theYet US,betweenBritain,1990 and the1999 Sovithe Union) made the veto
a onlyprerequisitesevenoccasionsforestablwhileshingma United Nations followingpeacekeepingWorldWar
operatiII.Seconsd,. Tthise P5 held unrivaled strategicnumbermightofoperationsthroughtheirundertaknucl weapons
technology or yearsnuclear.Thecapacityuseof. Tthe P5vetowilldu
|199
PROS CONS
not abandon the UN or thehavecausesavedoftheglobalworldpeacefrom ifn lose the veto power.

Moreover,proliferationtheglofbalnucleapower weba has shifted
dramaticallytainsingcethe1945unity.NuclearoftheweapP5 have spread in the
pastP5decades:issplitPakistan,onmatterNorthof K Egypt, Iraq, and Iran itshavemembersorare
coulddevelopingbecomenuca weapons. the logic of divide-and-rul
arena.
Statistics do not revealWe mustthe trueexpectdefectthat ofnationsthe tional arrangement.
TheritySecurityCouncilCouncil.Folowicongsisteth fails to consider issuesritythatCouncilmight
endorsedbevetoedNATO.Fo ple, NATO initiated milcitarylthenactionauthorizedagainsttheYugosdep without
Security Councilforceauthorization.TheSecuritybecauseCouncilt become evident that Russiaing
forceandChina. would veto U military involvement.
In
the
rare
recent
circumstancCollectives
securityinwhichistheoftev
has
been
exercised,
itnationalhasbeeninterestshijacked ofby thideolP demands and petty nationalmembersintereisstsuch. Cthinaat
theyprevem peacekeeping operationspreserveinGuatemalainternandtionMacedonilpeac because these
countriescasthadthetiesveto forTaiwanselfish.The r is no longer applied formoretheimportantmaintenance(and
ofmorecollecr security. multipolar world.
The issue of abolishingAbolishingtheveto theis worthyvetoisofimpodi sion. A debate will clarifyingly cedethe
natureitspreeminentofthevep its application and educatetics. theAnd publicremember,on theeachChame aims.
The public could thenpowerpressureofvetomembersovertoanyac accordance with the Charvetero..
The veto power operatesYoutocannotthedetrgliblyment attrofinterbut tional arms control agreementseffective.

systemTheSecurityforarmsCounl directly or indirectly Venforcestonotheveto,web whatofreatieshoul with
weapons of mass destructionateSecurityeitherCouncilbecauresponet ties make the Council
liferationtheenforcingtreaty?agentUnderorbecath members of the P5 are prominentauthorize
sigeconomicatoriessanction.The prevents the Council fromventionfulfilling.Would itseithermostovertvita tion.
Iraq, for example,age hasdisarmament?breached everyDiplomacyCoun measure pertaining to
armswithoutlimitationthebig tostickthe ofextenth UN inspectors were withdrawnthyfor fromIraq
Baghdadisnot.limitedThe absence of an effectivemember,responsehas canobjectedbeattoributthe Russian
support of Iraqthat. country. Nonproliferat
nations have different inte likely be inflamed without veto

provides for power pol
Sample Motions:
This House would abolish the Security Council veto. This House would say no to the veto.
This
House would veto every veto.

Web Links:
Commission on Global Governance. <http://www.cgg.ch/unref Presents proposals for reforming the United Nations.
Global Policy Organization. <http://www.globalpolicy.org/ Offers documents on the Security Council as well as proposa
The United Nations: Security Council. <http://www.un.org/ Provides information on the Councils members, structure, p
Further Reading:
Roberts,
Adam, andUnitBenedictNations,KingsburyDivided. World: The United N
Oxford
Russett,
Bruce,The Oanced Iand HurdFuturePalgrave,.Security1997Council..
dc
UN STANDING ARMY
A standing army is a permanent military force tha This is almost always a national government, alth
maintained their own private military forces, as 1920s). At present the UN has no military force o instead it
must gather together troops and equipm each individual crisis.
PROS CONS
The UN must reform theA wayUN standingitraisesarmymilitaryisunnecemis-sions. Under the presentUN

missionssytem, monthsareverypasssuccessfbefor troops are in the field;fromtheselengthyforcesand aredifficultoften
Sein quate to the assigned tions,missioninadequatebecausemembermandates,state have pledged fewer
troopsatwhichthan
therequestedUNgathered.Thus,a
thpe
UN
has
often
acted
too
UNlate,had
withastandingtoolittlearmy force,itwou as a result, has failedusetoinaveppropriatehumanitaforiance. Adisave in
Somalia, Bosnia, andworsSienrraproblemsLeone.. ATheUN timestanditng army would be able to rapidlyinsert
acontainUNforcerisesmay providebefore turn into wars and humanitarianwarringgroupsdisastfersel. compelled
side
intervention becomes a r
Because a UN standing Onlyarmy governmentswuldbeindependenthavestandin of the great powers,

itwouldwouldinevitablyberespectedmakeasthea neuUN peacemaker and peacekeeponertha.It iswouldnot
alsodemocraticbefreeano accusations of meddlinghasandvetoselfpower-interestover keythat deacisco pany the
troops from neighboringarmymaybestatescounterin-productivUNiner ventions. rent perceptions of the UNs
its moral authority and abili ments.
A UN standing army wouldDifferencesbemore ineffectivelanguage,thancult the troops currently
staffingoperationalmany
effectiveness,missions.Mo
esUN
operations
are
suppliedtionsby.developingInaddition,natioinsa
whosemult
troops
are
underequippedcionandalwaysbadlyarisestrainedthat.A a UNgre standing army would be maybetter
takingprepared,sidesandinitsa soldpart would be more highly motivatedsoldiers tobecausepulltheyd wouldoutfr
|201
PROS CONS
be enlistees rather thantherebyconscriptsweakening.A singlethewholeUN would also have

betteralsocommandbeveryand poorlycntrolequippethan currently the case: Often,powersdiffseerentthe
nationalUNas potefor their commanders fail torefusework toeffsellctivelyittheirtogethebes cessful forces like the
French Foreign Legion sho differences in language and culture need not be p lems in combat situations.
A UN standing army wouldThebenefitcostofthesuchworldan economyarmywo by preventing refugee

wouldcriseshaveand tothertrain,humanitartransp disasters. These costs
everyarebothpossibldirectype(throughofcomba indirect (as developed UNnationscandrawoften
becometheequipmenthed nation of illegal immigrstantste fleeingtodeal conflictswithvariousat War also disrupts
trade and thus damages the glo economy. Greater confidence that war can be avoid will encourage long-term
investment and contribut greater prosperity. The UN pays member states for viding troops, so a UN standing
army would not b much more expensive than the present system.
Without the creation ofThea UNstandingcanimprovearmy otherresponseUN reforms will not

addresstandingthecentralarmy. problemsARapid Reacof keeping. A rapid reactiontary forcecapability,drawn
frompledgedmembein states might speed up thewouldarrivalbuild ofn theroopsbestslighfea the UN would still
be dRependentmoving theuponvetheo powergoodwillof its members. Security Council would avoi
promises that produce weak intelligence and analysis,

planning, would permit the and draft mandates before p
crises. Rules could be cha Council could not pass reso
members have pledged troops
Sample Motions:
This House would create a UN standing army. This House would give the watchdog some teeth.
Web Links:
UN: Peacekeeping. <http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ho Extensive UN site providing an overview of philosophy and on

missions since 1948.
UN: Report on the Panel on United Nations Peace Operati Text of the 2000 panel report on peacekeeping operations
peace building missions.
Further Reading:
Biermann, Wolfgang,UNandPeacekeepingMartinVadset,inTrouble:eds. Ashgate,Lessons Lea 1999.
Gordon, D. S., andAspectsF.H.ofFrankToase,PeacekeepingCass,eds.2001.. Sarooshi,TheDaUneshited. Nations and
the.OxfordDevelopmentUniversityofCollectPress, Shawcross, WilliamUsfro. EviDeliver:Peacekeepers,SimonWarlordsand
Schuster,andaWor Whitman,PeacekeepingJim.Frankand UNCass,Agencies1999.
VEGETARIANISM
Very few human societies have forsworn eating mea constitute almost the whole of the diet, with mea result of
poverty, not choice. In modern Western Many believe it is immoral for human beings to ea refusing to eat dairy
products or eggs as well be them are raised.
PROS CONS
The main reason to be Eatingvegetarianmeat doesistonotreduceneed anito suffering. Farm animalsA
agreowingsentient,number
livingoforganbeicngsa
humans,
and,
like
us,
providetheycanmeatfeelwithoutpleasurecrueltyandpa. Farming and killing thesewelfarenimalslaws forto
protectfoodis farmwong The methods of farmingmeanand thatslaughteritis arewrongoftenin prinbar-baric and cruel,
even on free range farms. Also, most countries, animal welfare laws do not cover an mals farmed for food.
To suggest that farm factoriesItisnatureal naturalforhumanisbeingabs they are unnatural

andothercruelspecies.Toeat. Thmeatwildis offertope petuate animal sufferingexistenceonahuge.Thatscale,humans
larghaver,s eler, and more systematicgle scalebyexploitingthananythingournaturalfound the wild. Humanitys
suphaverioritytherightoverto useotherloweranimas means humans have the
malsreasoningismuchpowlerssandbrutalmoralthan instinct to stop exploitingmalsinflictother speciesoneach.
otherIfalien another planet, much more intelligent and powerful than humans, farmed (and force-fed) human beings
in factory farm conditions, we would think it was moral abhorrent. If this would be wrong, then is it not wr for
superior humans to farm lower species simpl because of our ability to do so?
Human beings are omnivoresHuman andbeingsare hravetionalevolvedagentos with free will, thus
theysharpcancaninechooseteethwhetherfor totearineat vegetables, or both. Itsystemsmight
beadaptednaturaltoeatingforhumeaan be violent toward one
anothetablers.butModernthatsqudoeamishnessnotmea that it is right. Someannaturalaffectatraitsionofare
decadentimmoral should be restrained. ofIn ourany naturalcase,ourinstinctclosest andani cousins, the apes, eat
toan eallt-bothvegetablemeatanddietvegetable.
diet will inevitably mean we
Becoming a vegetarian Allis anof environmentallytheseproblems wouldfriendlex thing to do. Modern
farmingandfishingone.
ofDeforthestationminsourcha
of
pollution.
Beef
farmingashumanis
onecivilizationsofthemainexpcandus of deforestation, and forestsaslong casn nowpeoplecounteractcontinueit buy
fast food, financiallittleincentivestopollution,willbeandin manyplac continue cutting down existtrees.
toVegetablemakeroomandforgraincattlefa Because of our desire touseeatof fish,nitrates,our riverspesticides,andse
being emptied and many energyspeciescrisisface isextionectionofglob.Mea farmers use up far
morefarmersenergyplayresourcesaminutethanrolethos.F
|203
PROS CONS
growing vegetables and ofgrainsenergy,.Eatingnot limitingmea,fowl,mea fish causes not only crueltyproblemto.
animals, but also the environment.
Going veggie
offers
significantThekeyto goodhealthealthbenefitsa.
etarian diet contains
highand fishquantities-freedietof. fiber,Meat anvi
and minerals,
and is
lowprotein,fatiron,.Aveganand otherdi (wvi
eliminates animal products)oftheishealtheven betterbenefitsbecausof and dairy products are
itshighbeingcholesterolhighinfiber.Eatinand increases the risk of Wdevelopingcanachievemany theseforms
benefiofca
In 1996 the American Cancerfried foods,Societyeatingrecommendedonlyle
that
red meat be excludedincludingfromthea largediet entirelyamount.o
meat
also increases theouriskdietof. heartAmeatdisease-andfish.Aian
diet reduces the riskcan ofresultseriousin proteindiseasesandandi
it
is low in fat, alsoWesthelpsa vegetariantoprevent obdiesityis.
vegetarian sources of luxuryprotein,forsuchte asmiddlebeansclassand curd, are available. are extremely
expensive com
bacon,
burgers, sausages, e
Going vegetarian or veganOfcoursereduceswe tshoulderiskenforceof tracting food-borne diseashygienes.
andThe foodinclusionafetyof. Buan brains in animal feed wledshtouldoutbreaksstopeatingofbovinemeat, giform
encephalitis (madan cowhealthydisease)thing andto doits. h equivalent, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease. Meat and
p try transmit almost all of the potentially fatal food poisoning.
Sample Motions:
This House believes that if you love animals you shouldn This House would go veggie.
Web Links:
BritishMeat.Com. <http://www.britishmeat.com/49.htm> Despite its name, the site offers 49 reasons for becoming ethics.
Earthsave.Org. <http://www.earthsave.org/index.htm> Provides information in opposition to factory farming and
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. <http://ww Radical animal rights organization offers arguments in f
The VivaVegie Society. <http://www.vivavegie.org/vv101/ Essay offering 101 arguments for vegetarianism.
Further Reading:
Eisnitz,Slaughterhouse:Gail. The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglec
Prometheus, 1997.
Marcus,Vegan:Erik.The NewMcBooks,Ethics of1997Eating..
Walters, Kerry, EthicalandLisaVegetarianism:Portmess,edsState.From UniversityPythagoras ofto Press, 1999.
dc
VOTING, COMPULSORY
Voter turnout in US elections has decreased drama only 55% of adult American citizens voted, one of country.
There are many reasons for the decline, To reinvigorate the electorate some have suggeste and Singapore.
Some nations with compulsory votin accommodate those voters who do not wish to vote on the ballot. For
many Americans the issue of co rights vs. civic duties.
PROS CONS
In all democracies voterThisapathyidea is nonshighensest.amongPoliti poorest and most excludedture
sectorsthevotesof ofsocietythe.poorBecau.L poor and marginalized bypeoplemore doeducanotionvote,.In
governadditio-ments do not create policiestheselessaddressing-interestedtheirvotersneed This leads to a
viciouspoliticalcycle ofspinincreasingbecauseisolatpres When the most
disenfranchisedimportantarethanrequiredclear argumenttovote, then local, state,
andalizenationalpoliticsgovernmentsandburywillthe ti notice of them.
A high turnout is importantIndemocracy,forproperthe democratirightnot mandate and the functioningasthe

ofrightdemocracytovote.. Individuthis sense voting is a civicwhetherduty comparabletheywant to votejury. duSo
Weve made jury duty compulsoryinterested toin ensurepolitics,thatandthet courts function properlyabstain.This
fromisa thestrongpoliticalpreceden making voting compulsorythat. those who care enough ab
deserve to be heard above tho election will function withou
smaller turnout will suffice. juries, which do require a 10 Even in
healthy democracies p form jury duty; therefore it However, in a
healthy democra to vote. If they are not votin damental problem
with that de to vote cannot solve such a p resentment.
Soldiers in numerous warsThoseandwhothefoughtsuffragettesfordemocracofma countries fought and

diedtovote,for thenot rightthecompulsiontovote. tW should respect their sacrificeispowerfulbyvotingstatement.
becau which decreases a government unwilling voters to the ballo
make its mandate much larger wish it to be.
People who know they willPeoplehavewhoto arevoteforcedwill toakevotepo tics more seriously
andconsideredstartto takedecisionamore.Atactivebest
worst
they will vote for extr
|205
PROS CONS
Australia
recently.
Compulsory voting is effThectiveidea. isIn notAustrfealsiabletur. are as high as 98%! population decided not to
v
to make every nonvoter pay would have to chase down mi
action against millions who this measure would hurt mos edly
being enfranchised bec pay.
In nations with compulsoryMan peoplevoting, donpostalvoteand becpr voting is available forcannthoset

takewho arethe otherwisetimeoff. bM addition, when Internetwillvotingnot bgecomesttheseavailablepeople t few
years, those with actuallycomputersunablewill beto abledoso.to from their own homes.
Sample Motions:
This House would make voting compulsory.
This House believes that a democracy is no place for apat This House believes that voting is a duty, not a right.
Web Links:
The Great Voting Hoax. <http://www.mind-trek.com/writ-d One individuals response to compulsory voting.
Further Reading:
Smith, CompulsoryLindsay. Voting: MitchellAComparativeCollge,Approach1980..
dc
WAR CRIMES TRIBUNALS

Always controversial and shrouded in the solemn international communitys response to national
international law. Whether held after World War outrage from one corner and vindictiveness from
Slobodan Milosevic in The Hague in the opening international justice and power come to the for
PROS CONS
Wrongdoing and wrongdoersOf coursemustbewrongdoingpuished. sWhoulden a crime has consumed

antrialentireshouldnation,beheldonlyina thefor trial can supply disinterescommitteddue.Anyproceutsside.
inte ereign states is high-hande
Countries
can
explicitlyClosurecedeisjurisdictionthelastthingfortr
internationalatetribunalslargeportion.Theseofbodiesthen
trying
to achieve justiceth andnew closuregovernment,that whillch bei
entire
nation.
foreign imperialists. Such t
crimes
to
PROS CONS
The world community mustNo sendone can cleardisputmessagethe enormithat it will act against
appallingthesetrialswar crimesdamage. aThisnationmust done on an
internationalSpain,stageforthroughexample,internationadidnot courts. lowing the bloody and repress
Franco. Instead, it turned th moved on collectively with no justice
and security there is possible, peace should be se rather than
recrimination.
The
issue
of
sovereigntyWhateverisincreasinglythetruth
lessaboutimpglobart
a
globalizing
world.
Thewarpoolingcrimes oftribunalssovereigntydonotoccs with increasing frequency,are nothingandany morestep
towardhanvictorsanin nationalization of legaltypesystems,ofjusticesuch underminesastheuse inof national tribunals,
is welcome.
We have to uphold the Theprinciplethreat thatof possibleifyou commitlegal

willcountlessbepunishedheinous.If
crimeswedo
notin
t
action
against
war
peoplewillncouragearenot ratfut crimes. for international law.
serious crimes, you

criminals,now?Theswe
Sample Motions:
This
House would have war crimes tribunals.
This
House believes war crimes must be punished.
Web Links:
American University: Research Office for War Crimes Tribun research.html>
Detailed site on actual tribunals.
Issues and Controversies on File: War Crimes Tribunals. < Clear and comprehensive introduction offering historical ba
War Crimes Tribunals. <http://www.globalpolicy.org/intlju Provides information on UN war crimes tribunals in Rwanda a Timor,
Cambodia, and Sierra Leone.
Further Reading:
Askin, KellyWarCrimesDawn. Against Women: ProsecutionMartiusin Nijhoff,Internatio19 Bass, GaryStayJonathantheHand. of
Vengeance:.PrincetonliticsTheUniversityofWarPresCr
Harris, Marshall Freeman,MakingR.JustiBruce Hitchner,Work:The Reportetal. of the Fund Task Force on ApprehTwentdiethng
IndictedCentury Fund,WarCriminals1998..
Hitchens, TheChristopherTrialofVerso,.Henry2001Kissinger..
dc
|207
WATER RESOURCES: A COMMODITY?

With increasing population and growing water us ongoing conflicts. One of the main issues is the
downstream nations attempt to win more water ri in their territories. While current resources a future,
producing tension among nations sharing
PROS CONS
Water occurs randomly, Waterjust likeistheoilmostand vitalgas, whiof treated as commodities

resourthatcanes;beitboughtisessentiaandsol
countries
can
take
advanwaterage-richof
theircountriesgeographichaven tion to sell oil and gas,thisthresouyarcejustified.Everyinhabius resources to
support theirequal economiesrightto.water,Failureandtof water as a precious, marketboundariesblecommodity.
makes it less valued and leads to unrestricted water use b ronmentally unconscious societies.
Control and managementItof iswaterimmoralthe maintenancetochargefor of dams, reservoirs,

andwateirrigasystemsion systemsmaintenancecosts. lions of dollars and isup atoburdacertainon
upointstream.Oncesta budgets. All of these capacity,expenses, itincludingisnot athecommoop tunity cost of
fertileoverlandstheallocateddam.Damsformayreservalso dams, should be coveredtionsby
downstrbecauseamdownsstates,reamwhist are the primary consumersdam breaksofwater.. For example, an
upstream state cannot use the water flowing thr it to produce electricity to offset the costs of w agement is
unfair.
Water resources are distributedFacedwithunequallyscarcity. andUnevendro tribution and wasteful

forceconsumptiontogainwarrantcontroltheofinw
duction
of
the
pay-formakingwaterwaterapproachcommodity.Isit isf prefer to use water toconflirrictsgateandinfertileshould besemiavoidownstream rather than using water more efficien upstream?
Sample Motions:
This House agrees that water flows can be an article of t This House should endorse international commerce in water This
House does not support legislation for trading of wa
Web Links:
The Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database. <http:// A comprehensive resource on water treaties.
Water Conflicts. <www.waterconflicts.com>
A
site promoting understanding of water rights and water
World Water Council. <www.worldwatercouncil.org>
Site maintained by an international organization dedicate resources on water issues.
The Worlds Water. <www.worldwater.org>
Up-to-date information on global freshwater resources.
Further Reading:
Amery,
HusseinWater Ain., theed. Middle UniversityEast:AGeographyfTexas,of2000Peace..
De Villiers,Water:MarqThe. Fate ofIslandOurMostPress,Precious2000. Resource.
Postel,LastSandraOasis:. FacingNorton,Water1997Scarcity..
dc
WHALING, LIFTING THE BAN ON

Whaling became an important industry in the ninet oil used in the lamps of that time. The industry to replace
whale oil. Nevertheless, whales were s made hunters more efficient. The increasing scarci the intelligence and
social nature of whales, led which instituted a ban on whale hunting effective recovered, although the extent of
the recovery is mostly by Japan, which has been widely criticized needs of scientific inquiry. Recently Japan
and No regulation. Most other members of the IWC and con
PROS CONS
Whales should be treatedKillingthewhalessame forwayhumanasotheruse animals, as a resourcepeopletobe
believeusedforthatfoodno andanimaloth products. Whales shouldthenotbenbefithuntedofhumans,toextincbutionev
but if their numbers aresuchhealthy,views, whalesthenhuntingshould thebe should be permitted.
ScientistsWhalesarehaveexceptionallyconducted studinte of intelligence on
dolphins,abletonotcommunicatewhales;thesefluentlystud however, cannot
measurehuntingintelligenceandtheinkillinganyusefulofanw Although people in
somemanyWesternsocialnationsandintellectualviewwhales as special and thereforeimmoralinparticular. need of
prote this view is not widely shared by other countries. impose it upon others is a form of cultural imperi ism.
Whale populations are Wehealthy,should particularlyadhereto precautthose minke whales, which

nowwhalenumberpopulationsover milliarenont.tru A resumption of huntingto underbenowhereregulationnear
aswillgreatnot adversely affect their Untilsurvivalthe. internationalTheIWCdidnotbanimps the ban on whaling
forextinctionmoralreasons.Thisbutcouldto preveneasily extinction. Numbers
havewrenowliftgred,atlyespeincreasedially.becauThe ban has served its originalEven ifpurpose,huntingandwereit
restrictmeis
it.
species of whales, other, les

killed
by mistake.
Whale hunting is an importantTraditionalaspecthuntingofsomemethodsculture For some groups the

huntinginvolveofdrivingasmallwhalesnumberto
ofbea
whales
is
an
importantkillingfeature
themin
theslowlylocalwithsubsistlong economy, a way of reconnectingvulnerablethemselvesnursingmotherswiththewi
traditions
of
their
ancestorssmallnumbersandaffirmingaretakenthewithr
gr
identity
against
the
onslaughtment,theofhuntersglobalizationdonot.deve
sess
the technology to achiev

|209
PROS CONS
necessary to prevent suffer these groups wish to hunt a

gered species? Should these them because of their cult
many traditional practices mutilation) have been outla
society.
Economic factors argueWhalefor-awatchingresumptionnow ofgeneratewhali In both Japan and

Norwaymoreremoteincomecoastalwordwidecommunitiethan depend on whaling for theirbroughtlivelihoinpriodr.
toBothecohun have an investment in tsheips,jobsresearch,itcreatesprocessingremo ters, etc., that would
ardizedbewastedif whaleifthenumberstemporaryfe ing ban were extended indefinitelymalsbecame.much more
wary
Modern
whaling
is
humane,Whalingespeciallyisinherentlycomparedcruelto
the
factory
farming
ofpooned,chickens,it iscows,usuallynd pigsexhau. whales die instantly orchasve.ryBecausequickly,whalesand
Japanarem researchers have developedcanachievenew,moreadirectpowerfulhit haon poons that will make
killsexplosiveeven-moretippedcertainharpoon. wo
often survive for some time by rifle shots or by additi direct hit
is scored, the e Japanese whaling ships repo are killed
instantly.
Whales damage the fishThestocksdeclineonwhichinfishmanystockspeopl depend for their food

whaleandlivelihoodpredation.. CullingManywhale will reduce the declineoceansinfishadstocksplenty. of fish
b began. Indeed some whales e on commercially important s have the perverse effect of
stocks.
A policy of limited huntingAnysystemcouldthatpreventallowsthewhalpot tial collapse of the
Iinternationalg,giventheWhalidemangd fCormmiw sion. The IWC ban was intendedtestsrevealto allowthat
Japannumbers t recover; this temporaryinmeasurescarc hasspeciervedsbeingits takpu If prohibition
continuesNorwayand couldtheIWCleavebecomesthe IWCmore concerned with moral
positionsaninternationalhanwhalingoutcry mand-agement, Japan and Norwaynot inmaytheirleavebestthe
interestsorganiza tion. Nothing in international law prevents them resuming whaling outside the IWC. Thus,
whaling wi again be unregulated, with more whales dying and haps greater cruelty.
Sample Motions:
This House would
This
House
This
House
would
would
allow whaling to resume.

harvest the bounty of the sea.
save the whale.
Web Links:
The International Whaling Commission. <http://www.iwcoffi Links to information on the organization as well as to info dolphins,
and porpoises.
Japan Whaling Organization. <http://www.jp-whaling-assn.c Pro-whaling site offering information on the importance of
Makah Whaling: Questions and Answers. <http://www.makah.c Native American site explaining plans to resume traditional
ODIN. <http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/environment Norwegian Foreign Ministry site with information on that co
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. <http://www.wdcs. Provides information on the status of whales, dolphins, and
Further Reading:
Stoett,ThePeterInternationalJ.UniversityPolitics ofof BritishWhaling.Columbia, 1997.
dc
WORKFARE
Traditionally people on welfare were not required benefits were cut off. Critics claimed that this a United States
programsadopted inworkfarewhich welfare recipients approach, too, has had its critics. Many claim th
necessary to move out of poverty.
PROS CONS
Making people work forWorkfaretheirwelfareprogramsbenefitsaredemeanibreak the dependency
cultureare.Receivingtreated asbenefitsslave forlabordoin.N nothing makes individualslivetoon
relianttheveryonlowtheincomestate p encourages apathy and lazinessefits.Workfare.Tying welfareignores
paymenthet to productive work challengesthoseinvolved,thesomethingtypically-for-notusi ing assumptions of
someandwelfaremanual recipientslaborthat andteachsowt that the state has a right to ask for something in for the
generosity of its taxpayers.
Workfare offers a routeWorkfareoutof povertyprogramsbyaregivingoflittpar pants the skills neededableto.

findOftenandprogramskeepjobsdo. notProd tive work increases selfskill-res,pectsuchandas providesliteracy,thefacp
with
more
confidence
inityheirwithabilitiesmoderninformation.Individualst
are
currently
working
farealsorecipientsmoreattractivearegiventomenpo
tial
employers
than
thosemwhomreareemployableunemployed..Governm
education and training progra Finally, if people on workfar that
need doing, they should normal channels.
Making the unemployed workPuttingfor theirunemployedwefare benefitintow calls the bluff of

thosetheirclaimingopportunitiesbenefits tobutlooknt fr looking for jobs. Movingturnfromto acrimetraditionalrather
thansomethinbe for-nothing welfare policyects. to a workfare system sto individuals from being a burden on the
state. It c
|211
PROS CONS
welfare rolls very rapidly and allows the governm concentrate upon assisting the truly needy.
Spending money on workfareWorkfareprogramsisactuallyisan investmoree ment in people, who
gainwelfaretheoprogramsrtunitybecausetoliftth selves out of poverty. costsWorkfareof settingalsobenefitsupthe
thepro omy, by providing a better supply of labor and increasing consumer spending. Although workfare p
grams might cost more per person than just handi out welfare checks, their ability to deter fraud claims makes
them cheaper in the long run.
Society also benefits fromIndividualstheworkforceddone intobythosewor workfare programs that

toimproveahigh
thestandardeconomyandormayhel
the
elderly
and
disabledwork.
Intheymanydocaisesthereforelabor provide would not haveandbeenraisesavailablenumberin anyof issuoth way.
a bridge built by workfare
aged parent or preschool ch fare?
Workfare
projects
can
Thosebedesignedonworkfaresothatwilltheybe
c
not
displace
low-paid
areworkersalready.In employed,anycase, partimany those in minimum wage jobs. doWhysuchouldworklocalfor
agoverel tively short time beforeup flindingtter ifbetterwokfarepositionsteams sequently workfare willmuchnot
less?jeopardizeIflowthose-paid atworkt end of the job market. mate result may be higher u
Sample Motions:
This House would introduce workfare. This House would end welfare.
This
House believes in the dignity of labor.
Web Links:
Is Workfare Working? <http://www.lincproject.org/Newsle Short article summarizing the opinions of six experts on
Workfare: Boom or Bust? <http://www.poetic-justice.com/ Summary of Canadas experience with workfare.
Workfare Research and Advocacy Project. <http://www.wel Site provides information designed to empower those on wo
Workfare to Wages. <http://www.arc.org/gripp/researchPu Report on the problems of workfare in San Francisco.
Further Reading:
Mink, GwendolynWelfaresCornell.End.University Press, 1998.
Peck, Jamie, Frances FWoxrkfarPiveGuilfordn,StandtesRichard.Press, Cloward2001..
Shagge,Workfare:Eric. IdeologyGaramondfor NewPress,Underclass1997..
dc
ZERO
TOLERANCE POLICING
Zero tolerance policing aims at stopping serious minor misdemeanors such as spray painting graffit although
the courts still maintain discretion in broken windows theory, which postulates that qu respectable citizens
to leave communities, whic criminals begin their careers with minor crimes. future crimes and, in the process,
stops neighbor
PROS CONS
Zero tolerance policingMinorprovidesoffenders,apowerfulgangdeterrenmember

criminals
for three reasonsvery.unlFirst,kely itto isbe accompaniwareof
a greater
police presencecrimes,.Researchsote showsthreat ofdirectpuni
between the perceived tchemance.Manyof detectioncrimesareand resulcrime rates. Second, strict and
cancertainberedpunishmentcedonly
bydeterst
criminals.
Third,
it
prsocviety,des
thenot
short,bythreateningsharpshop that stops petty criminalsshort,fromsharpescalatingshock theirisunconcri
behavior. It gives a clearcriminalsmessageat thatanearlycrimeageis caunot
ated. selves as such. This leads p
more
serious offenses.
Zero tolerance policingArrestingisextremelysmall-effectivescalepushersaga small-scale drug pusherstimswhoseto
stoppresencethe crimeina.neighbAswe hood creates an atmosphferectivein. whichAslongcrimeas flourishethere
Drug use is a major causewillofbecrimedrug becausedealing.addictsDemand u ally steal to support
theirrehabilitahabit.ion.
Zero
tolerance
also
allowsPrionforsentencesrehabilitationcontribute.A
prt
sentence,
particularlyshouldfrjuveniles,havearehabilitativetakesthema
from
the
environment
thatniles
encouragedwithcriminalcriminalityrecords.h Rehabilitation is a centralandso tenaret likelyofmostopenalresortco The
large number of policemeet onestablithestreetshedcriminalsalsoincrwh the supervision of releasedstyle
prisoners,andteachthepreventingskillsner offenses. inal. Prison often fosters re
harassment that juveniles ass also creates an extremely ant the

police.
Zero tolerance improvesZerothetolerancestandard givesofpolicingthepoli. reduces corruption
andpoorracistcommunitiesnttrea. Theybecauseare indabl vidual officers are notharassgiven
individualsthescopetoconstantlydecide actions on a case-by-carese targetedbasis.Their.New responseYorkCityis In
addition, zero toleranincomplaintsepolicingabouttakespoliceofficersra of their cars and puts zerothem tolerancintothe
wascommuinsititutywhedr they have contact with individuals. Chases and shoo outs actually are less common
under zero tolerance.
Zero tolerance is vitalRebuildingforrebuildinginner cityinnerneighbocties tolerance reduces the amountpowerfulof

waysdead ofgroundtargetingused focr
|213
PROS CONS
drug dealing and so returnspendentparksofzeroand toleranceopenspaces. the community. By

offerenewaligprotectionandzero againsttolerancepe crime, it encourages smallated
withbusinessesafalling(vitalcrimeforr borhood rehabilitation)antoareareturnwhereto renewalanarea.has w
Kong). Most important for u als taking pride in their a happen when people dont fe No police
presence is suffi
that has not fostered good nity.

We can afford zero toleranceTheenormous.Protectingexpensebusinesseofze developing a
reputationmanpower,forlow andcrimeprisonsattractslimitb people and investment.
moneyDeterrenceforaddressingreduces crimeserioua thus the cost of policing;crime
althoughratesmayprisdronsp, areserie sive, the reduction inproblemrecidivism. should empty t in time. The
most important question is whether believe spending our tax dollars to guarantee our is a good use of that
revenue. Most voters say ye
Sample Motions:
This House believes in zero tolerance policing. This House would clamp down.
This
House believes in strict punishment.
Web Links:
What Is Zero Tolerance? < http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk BBC site offering general information on the subject.
Further Reading:
Ayers,
Rick,Zero
etTolerance,al.eds.ResistingNewPress,theDrive2001.for
Punishme
andZeroNormanTolerance,Davis,Coronet,Policingeds. 1998aFree. Society. Downes, David
Deviance:Rock. A GuideClarendon,totheSo 1988.
Dennis,
Norman,
M.Understanding,PaulE.
dc
|215
TopicalIndex
ARTS AND CULTURE
American Culture:33Should it Be Feared? Art Subsidies,37 Abolition of Censorship50of
the Arts
Cultural Treasures,68 Return of Hollywoods116Influence Internet
127Censorship
Minority 137Languages
Private Lives of Public163 Figures, Revealing
CHILDREN
AND YOUTH
Adoption of Children97 by Same Sex Couples Child Curfews70
Child Offenders, 53Stricter Punishment for Corporal Punishment59 (for Children)
Drug-Testing79 in Schools National140Testing
School Vouchers176
CRIME AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Capital Punishment47
Chemical
Child
Castration52
Curfews70
Corporal Punishment58 (for Adults)

DNA
Database74
Mandatory
Sentencing:133 Three Strikes
Marijuana,
Legalization134 of
Sex
Offenders:183 Naming
Zero
Tolerance213 Policing
DEVELOPING
WORLD
AIDS Drugs for Developing29 Countries African Affairs, 26Outside Intervention in African
Languages28 in African Schools American Culture:33Should it Be Feared?
Corruption,61Benefits of
Developing-World 72Debt, Cancellation of Economic Development80 vs. Environment
Economic Sanctions82 vs. Engagement Environmentally85 Linked Aid
Globalization: Marginalization104 of the Poor? Immigration, 124Restrictions on
Ivory
Trading131
Minority 137Languages Nation-142States
Overpopulation 153and Contraception Overseas Manufacturing155
ECOLOGY
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Animal 35Rights
Biodiversity
and42Endangered Species
Drilling in the Arctic76 National Wildlife Refug Economic Development80 vs. Environment
Nuclear vs. Renewable145 Energy Environmentally85 Linked Aid
Global
Warming: Is106More Action Needed?

Greenhouse
Gases:109Trading of Quotas
Ivory
Trading131
Water
Resources:208A Commodity?
Whaling, Lifting209 the Ban On

ECONOMICS
Developing-World Debt,72 Cancellation of Economic Development80 vs. Environment
Economic Sanctions82 vs. Environment Environmentally85 Linked Aid
Free
Trade95
Flat 92Tax
Globalization: Marginalization104 of the Poor? Immigration, 124Restrictions on
Overseas
Manufacturing155
EDUCATION
African Languages28 in African Schools
Corporal Punishment59 (for Children)
Creationism
in64 Public Schools
Drug-Testing79 in Schools
Hate
Speech112on Campus
Minority Languages
National140Testing
Same-sex185Schools
School Uniforms174
137
School Vouchers176
Sex
Education182in Schools
EUROPE
AND THE EUROPEAN UNION
American Culture:33Should it Be Feared? European Defense87 Force
European
Federalization89
Immigration, 124Restrictions on Nation-142States
FAMILY
Adoption of Children97 by Same Sex Couples Covenant 62Marriage
Gay Marriages99 Human
Cloning117
Overpopulation 153and Contraception Surrogate192Mothers
GAY
ISSUES
Adoption of Children97 by Same Sex Couples Gay Marriages99
Gays in the101 Military Ordination 98of Gay Clergy
Outing Gay 152Celebrities
HEALTH AND MEDICINE

AIDS Drugs for Developing29 Countries Assisted40Suicide
Gene Patenting102 Genetic
Screening103
Health Care,113Universal Human Cloning117
Human Organs,119 Sale of Marijuana, Legalization134 of
Smoking187
Stem
Cell191Research
Topical|217index
Tobacco Regulation:198 Addictive Drug?

Vegetarianism203
INTERNATIONALAFFAIRS
Afghanistan,24 Invasion of China, 54Fear of
Cuba, Dropping of66 US Sanctions on Economic Sanctions82 vs.
Engagement Environmentally85 Linked Aid Ethical Foreign86 Policy
Human Rights:121Existence of
Human Rights: Imposition122 by Force? Immigration, 124Restrictions on
International125Criminal Court
Iraq,
Invasion129 of
Middle Eastern136 Policy, U.S. Nation-142States
Nazi War Criminals,144 Prosecution off Nuclear 147Weapons
Nuclear Weapons148 Testing Overpopulation 153and Contraception
Russian-American Cooperation:173 Temporary or Lon Single Superpower:184 Beneficial?
Terrorism196
UN
Security Council199 Veto, Abolition of
War
Crimes Tribunals,206 Should They be Used?
MILITARY
Afghanistan,24 Invasion of
Gays
in the101 Military
Iraq,
Invasion129 of
Nuclear 147Weapons
POLITICS
AND POLITICAL THEORY
Assassination39 of a Dictator Anarchism34
Campaign Finance45 Reform Civil Disobedience56
Compulsory205Voting Conscription57
Corruption,61Benefits of
Electoral College,83 Abolition of Ethical Foreign86 Policy
Extremist Political91 Parties, Banning of Flat 92Tax
Monarchy, Abolition139 of Nation-142States
Pacifism156
Politicians and157Special Interests Referenda167
Self-Determination180 and Nationalism
Term Limits for Elected195 Representatives Voting, Compulsory205
RELIGION
AND MORALITY
Abortion on21 Demand
Assisted40Suicide Covenant 62Marriage
Gay Marriages99
Ordination of98 Gay Clergy Does God108Exist?
Human Cloning117
Human Organs,119 Sale of Pornography,159Banning of Priestly

Celibacy,160 Abolition of
Religion: Source168of Conflict or Peace? Religious Belief:169Rational or Irrational?
Reparations171for Slavery
Sex Education182 in Schools Stem Cell191Research
Vegetarianism203
RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES

Animal 35Rights Censorship50of the Arts Drugtesting79 in Schools
Extremist Political91 Parties, Banning of Freedom of Speech,94 Restrictions on
Hate Speech112on Campus Human Rights:121Existence of
Human Rights: Imposition122 by Force? Internet 127Censorship
Pornography,159Banning of
Privacy vs162. Security Security 179vs. Liberty
Self-Determination180 and Nationalism
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
Calendar44Reform
Nuclear vs. Renewable145 Energy Gene Patenting102
Genetic Screening103 Human
Cloning117
Science: A Threat177 to Society? Space Exploration189
Stem
Cell191Research
SOCIAL ISSUES
Abortion on21 Demand Assisted40Suicide
Adoption of Children97 by Same Sex Couples Affirmative23 Action
Alcohol31 Capital Punishment47
Cell Phones, Banning48 of Use in Cars Covenant 62Marriage
Gay
Marriages99
Gun
Control111
Marijuana: Legalization134 of Overseas Manufacturing155
Pornography,159Banning of
Private Lives of Public163 Figures, Revealing Prostitution,164Legalization of Reparations171for
Slavery
Smoking, Further187Restrictions on Surrogate192Mothers
Tobacco Regulation:198 Addictive Drug? Workfare211
SPORTS
Drug
in77Sports
Olympic Dream,150Death of the
Topical|219index
UNITED NATIONS
International125Criminal Court
UN Security Council199 Veto, Abolition of UN Standing201 Army
War
Crimes Tribunals,206Should They be Used?
UNITED STATES IN THE WORLD

Afghanistan,24 Invasion of
American Culture:33Should it be Feared? Cuba, Dropping of66 US Sanctions on
Hollywoods116Influence
Iraq,
Invasion129 of
Middle Eastern136 Policy, U.S. Nuclear 147Weapons
Overseas
Manufacturing155
Russian-American Cooperation:173 Temporary or Lon Single Superpower:184 Beneficial?
Terrorism196
War
Crimes Tribunals,206Should They be Used?

Debatabase Book - A Must-Have Guide For Successful Debate

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1A

THE DEBATABASE BOOK

West 59th Street / New Yo

Debatabase book : a must have debate / the editors of IDEA .

Includes bibliographical refe ISBN 0 - 9702130 - 8 - 5

IDEA Press Books

Abortion 21on Demand

Ethical Foreign86 Policy

Gene Patenting102 Genetic

Terrorists, 196Negotiating with Tobacco Regulation:198 Addictive Drug?

Debatabaseis starting pointCommunication,therad torhetoric,partici- a

This introduction is bothinendedhumantoandprovidenonhumantheoretanima cal framework within

A caveat is needed befotureallyproceedingandindividuallytothetheoretspec cal portion of this

and others English. Theareclearestnotthe examplemostcentralofsymbofe communication is languagements.

Still, all rhetoric thisnotintargumentationoductionalso.Rhetoexcl communication can be dividedmentationto,

to debate is argumentationAlthough. in this introduc Argumentation is the

In some regards this focusThebasicisincompleteToulminmodbelcausid some non-argumentative

- Charles Arthur Willard. On the Utility ofCommunicaDescriptiv-tion Monographs,43(November, 1976), 308-19.

Structure of an Argumentconvergent argument is one bits of evidence converge wit

Toulmin illustrates this diagram using a simple arg gent argument:

claim that Harry is a British citizen because

is generally consid ere

was diagramed by Toulmin:

of the subjects are led

Harry was born

Although this diagram of an argumentReservationclearly illus some of the

only method of test via

a warrant, very few arguments are ever quite a

a potentially life simple.

Jonsens model to illustrate a few different argume structures.

For this reason, I have adapted Toulmin and

that when a researcher gives a

The claim results fromabolishedconvergence.If a ofsocithetypiec of evidence and the warranttaking.

The unique feature of the convergent structure

that, if taken together, supports the claim

structure of the argument is such that all of

th because it takes a life

that any single piece of evidence can provid

presents several piecesCapitalofevidence,punishmentany one of provides sufficient support

for the correction of

a debater may present three pieces of evid

and claim that the members of the audience shoul dict.

10|The Debatabase Book

This example of an indeTypesndentofClaimsargumentd structureProposition is based on two pieces

The Toulmin diagramsystemofan foargumthentdiscussionefulof because it illustrates the various parts of an

definition. For instance,

Claims and Propositions

United States succeeded in de Conceptually claims

- Sonja K. Foss, KarenCotemporaryA.Foss, &Persp.RobProspectrtivesTrappHeights,on.RhetoricIlli 1991, pp. 14

- David Zarefsky, Definitions. Keynote address to the T August 1997.

no further argumentis wasnot requiredcontested. by an aud

In those instances whendefinitionanarguer. chooses to co struct an argument to supportSoclaims

because they9 areand controversbecauseth arguers position to as much controversy as would

12|The Debatabase Book

Illustrating differentof exampleshistoricalof factdescriptive.These claan is important in and

they can serve as evidencewas thefor murdererthedevelopment.Ina draof ative claims.

the nature of the argument)

14|The Debatabase Book

Similarly, evidence derivedquallyfromimportantclaimkindsaboutofa resu ficient cause is a good way to support a

other statements of relationshipbeusedto establishassert evaluarelati of similarity. A claim of similarity asserts

1 Abortion is virtuallykindsthe ofsameclaimsasinfanticidebecausethe.

In some cases, the audiencerather broadmaynotvaluehavejudgmentenough familiarity with eithermoreof

Thus, claims of relationshipcompare twofallobjectsinto threewith rebr categories: sign, causastituteon,