Art and Religion

Art and Religion
Author(s): Richard Shusterman

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Fall, 2008), pp. 1-18
Published by: University of Illinois Press
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Art and Religion

RICHARD SHUSTERMAN
I
Art
in ancient
emerged
times
from myth,
magic,
and
religion,
and
ithas
long
sustained its compelling power through its sacred aura. Like cultic objects
of worship,
to
ordinary
sense
ened
by
common
weave
an
over us.
contrasted
entrancing
spell
Though
a
vivid
their
power
experiential
things,
provides
height
of the real and
realities
than
those
suggests
deeper
conveyed
sense
saw
as
and
science. While
Hegel
religion
superseding
artworks
real
art in the evolution of Spirit toward higher forms that culminate in philo
sophical knowledge, subsequent artists of the nineteenth century instead
saw
art as
superseding
man's
contemporary
religion
spiritual
and
quest.
even
philosophy
Artistic minds
as
the culmination
as different
of
as Matthew
Arnold, Oscar Wilde, and Stephan Mallarme predicted that artwould sup
plant traditional religion as the locus of the holy, of upliftingmystery and
in our
secular
society dominated
by what
of
"the
facts."1
mys
"worship
dreary
By expressing
... of existence,
sense
our
terious
[art] endows
sojourn with
authenticity
and constitutes
the sole spiritual
"More
and more,"
task," claims Mallarme.
writes
"mankind
will
to turn to poetry
to
discover
that we
have
Arnold,
us. Without
our science
life for us, to console
us, to sustain
interpret
poetry,
now passes
will
us for
and most
with
of what
appear
incomplete;
religion
consoling
meaning
condemned
Wilde
increasingly
as a
and philosophy will be replaced by poetry."3

Such
culture,
prophecies
artworks
art almost
seems
ists perennially
have
have
In
largely been realized.
twentieth-century
we have
become
the closest
to sacred
thing
a form of
its prophetic
breed
religion with
new
and its
class
purveying
gospels
priestly
Western
texts, and
of creative
art
of interpretive
Richard Shusterman
is the Dorothy F. Schmidt Eminent Scholar in the Humanities
at
Florida Atlantic University. His most recent book is Body Consciousness: A
Philosophy
and Somaesthetics (Cambridge University
Press, 2008). Other authored
ofMindfulness
books
include Surface and Depth (2002), Performing Live (2000), Practicing
Philosophy
into twelve languages).
(1997), and Pragmatist Aesthetics
(1992, 2000, and translated
He edited Analytic Aesthetics (1989), Bourdieu: A Critical Reader (1999), and The
Range of
Pragmatism and the Limits ofPhilosophy (2004) and co-edited Aesthetic Experience (2008).
Journal ofAesthetic Education, Vol. 42, No.
?2008
Board of Trustees of the University
3, Fall 2008
of Illinois

Shusterman
critics who
them
explain
an
important
that art has
to a devotional
commercial
wide
recognition
its cultural
image
public.
Despite
art sustains
aspect,
as an essentially sanctified domain of higher spiritual values, beyond the

realm ofmaterial life and praxis. Its adored relics (however profane they
are
to be)
strive
in
enshrined
sacredly
museums
temple-like
that we
du
tifully visit for spiritual edification, just as religious devotees have

churches,
frequented
mosques,
and
synagogues,
other
shrines
of
long
worship.
In advocating a pragmatist aesthetics I have criticized this otherworldly
religion
of art because
it has
of the way
been
shaped
by
more
two
than
ideology aimed at disempowering
turies of modern philosophical
it to an unreal,
world
purposeless
consigning
I have
is the enemy
of
argued,
pragmatism's
cen
art by
of imagination.
Such
religion,
to
art and life,
quest
integrate
a quest exemplified both in the classical Western notion of the art of living
some Asian
and
of objects
absorbs
who
artistic
than
of refining
that creative
is
There
the artist who
however,
why
this
sacralization
remain so powerfully appealing despite thewidespread

mercantile
and
dimensions
art expresses
very
the creation
importantly
creates and
the audience
expression.
reason,
good
art is less
where
traditions,
the process
and
meanings
deep
concerns.
worldly
The
spiritual
should
recognition of art's
reason,
insights
art
of
I believe,
that
is that
religion
and
philosophy once most powerfully provided but that they now no longer
in a convincing
tomost
of today's
secular populations
convey
way
through
out the world.
Iwould
like to reconsider
the art and religion
So, in this essay
a
nexus
to
I wish
from a different
the idea that art provides
angle.
explore
even
one that is free from the latter's
substitute
for religion,
useful,
superior,
and
many
disadvantages
ternative
that could
and
divisiveness
and
instead
that
free our
backward-looking
us toward
greater
lead
be
should
eventually
But a contrary yet equally
vigorously
transcultural
attitudes
understanding,
that
championed
world
from
as an
al
the hostile
have
religions
inspired
and harmony.
peace,
interesting hypothesis
likewise demands
from religion,
that rather than a
or
art
is
another mode
of religion. Or, to
real alternative,
expression
simply
a
art
in
is
the continua
put it
suggestive
provocatively
paraphrase,
simply
even
means.
tion of religion
If this hypothesis
has merit?indeed,
by other
that art cannot
consideration:
be
separated
if there is simply some deeply indissoluble linkbetween art and religion?
then we
cannot
simply
look progressively
past
religion
toward
art. For
our
philosophy of artwill be seen to express themetaphysics and ideologies

generated by a religiousworldview, which thus indirectly (ifnot also direct
ly) shapes
influence
point
more
our
or
aesthetic
deny
real
concretely
even
ifwe are unaware
of this religious
philosophy,
to the
in
To make
this
credence
religion
question.
Iwill
that show how dif
later take up two examples
ferentmetaphysics of religion engender differentphilosophies of aesthetic
experience
and
the relationship
of art to life.

Art and Religion
II
Before
turning
our
focus more
to the
spiritual
narrowly
promise
and
paths
of religion and art, letme brieflydispose of philosophy. Through itsmodern

and
professionalization
largely
consequent
the pursuit
foregone
of
the
desire
to be
scientific,
fuzzy
realm
of wisdom
has
philosophy
and emotion
ally tinged spirituality. Itprefers, at least in itsdominant form, tomaintain

the status of objective, rigorous knowledge explored through a cool attitude
of critical analysis characterized by deadly "dryness" (as IrisMurdoch and
others have so described it).5Though wisdom and spiritual feelings still find
powerful
in
expression
religion,
its intimate
connection
with
the supernatu
ral and with dogmatic theological faith in truthsabout theworld's creation

thathave been decisively discredited by modern science has made religion
an
unconvincing
for most
option
in the West.
intellectuals
the
Moreover,
long and appallingly painful history of religious discrimination, intoler

and even
of vicious
crusades
persecution,
as their source
to embrace
minds
religion
salvation.
ance,
many
This
should
remind
us of a further
problem
warfare
with
it hard
makes
of spiritual
edification
for
and
in an ever more
religion
tightlyknit and explosively globalized world. Religion (whose Latin etymol

ogy, religare,highlights the role of gathering, tying,and binding together)has
long been recognized by sociologists as providing the essential glue of social
unity in traditional societies. But therecan be littledoubt that its fractiousplu
ralities
and
sects have
also
generated
enormous
division
and
disunity,
com
bined with fanatical zealotry and intolerance that threaten to blow theworld
instead
of bringing
it together. The so-called
clash of civilizations
that
apart
is today so orninously
is largely a euphemism
for a clash rooted
trumpeted
in different
that of the Judaeo-Christian
West
and
outlooks,
religious
roughly
that of Islam,
the last of the three great Abrahamic

to emerge
from
religions
the spiritually
East. Even within
the same
fertile Middle
civilization,
religious
as it is
is just as likely to generate
angry dissension
region, and time, religion
to insure harmonious
Iwitnessed
as a
cohesion.
such internal religious wars
in Jerusalem, where
Iwas
student
and
reviled
stoned
fanatical
frequently
by
orthodox Jews.But that isnothing in comparison to today's tragicbloodshed

between Suni and ShiaMuslims in Iraq. Finally, thedistinctlydour and asceti
cally demanding dimensions ofmost religions,with theirstrictand restrictive
severe
often accompanied
by dire threats of
can
for
attract
disobedience,
punishments
hardly
contemporary
that seem much more
to open-minded
inclined
in the
freedom
commandments
piness,
Art,
a more
(even
eternal)
sensibilities
of hap
pursuit
the
of
sensory pleasures.
including
pursuit
seems
in contrast,
to be free of these
thus promising
disadvantages,
fruitful and
the
for
wisdom
of
and spiri
expression
satisfying way
tual meaning,
replete
with
abundant
sensory,
emotional,

and
intellectual
Shusterman
It
pleasures.
the joys of mystery
provides
without
and myth
our
committing
faith to superstitions and thus inducing the bitter aftertaste of shame that
our
is
conscience
scientific
likely
to experience
discredited otherworldly beliefs. As Arnold

our
evolving
intellectually
upon
to swallow
attempts
thereforeargues, art iswhere
race
human
is not
find an ever surer and surer stay. There
is not a creed which
not an accredited
is not shown
to be
which
shaken,
question
dogma
to dissolve.
tradition which
does not threaten
Our
able, not a received
will
religion has materialised itself in the fact, in the supposed fact; ithas
attached its emotion to the fact,and now the fact is failing it.But for
the
poetry
idea
is
. . .
everything
Poetry
to the
its emotion
attaches
idea; the idea is the fact.The strongestpart of our religion to-day is its
unconscious
Not
poetry.6
but philosophers
only poets
subsuming
the role
have
E. Moore,
G.
of religion.
art's
similarly advocated
one
of analytic
philosophy's
founding fathers and the philosophical inspiration of the Bloomsbury aes

thetic circle,wrote in 1902 that "Religion [is]merely a subdivision ofArt"
serves
is also served by Art,"
religion
"its range of good
and emo
perhaps
objects
a broader
convinc
tions is wider."
idea
that art provides
and more
The
in recent times
to
alternative
has
been
reaffirmed
by outspoken
ing
religion
since
while
"every
"Art
valuable
purpose
serves
which
more"
since
secular philosophers like the pragmatist Richard Rorty. In rejecting religion
as
a "conversation
of
the "inspirational
value
Rorty
champions
stopper,"
a
"the
for
of
works
of
literature,"
literature,
great
hope
religion
proclaiming
as the
in which
works
of the secular
imagination
Scripture
principal
replace
source
This
artistic
reli
and hope
for each new generation."
of inspiration
no claim
an "atheist's
itmakes
he
calls
liberal,
Pluralistically
gion
religion."
us individuals
but only to console
to coerce behavior
in the
sphere
public
us with
far greater
and inspir
"in our aloneness"
something
by connecting
our efforts
world
marvelous
of great art?while
us?the
guiding
ing beyond
more
to our
and
both private
toward
loving kindness
perfection
realizing
fellow
humans.
If
religion
Rorty's
thinkers who
aesthetic
of art
seems
an
insist on art's
overly
private
essential
public
one,
it is easy
role of social
to find
unity,
in
as
cluding Rorty's pragmatist hero (and mine), JohnDewey. Describing art
in the direction
of greater
of the community
of the experience
remaking
to suggest
"that if one could
control
and unity," Dewey
is even ready
one need not care who made
Art has
its laws."
the songs of a nation,
long
"a
order
been
celebrated
taste
ual."
for the unifying,

harmonizing
most
diverse
joins the
power
of
its communica
into a spellbound
art
of
that
its pleasures
Friedrich
Schiller's
through
praise
in the individ
in society, because
it fosters harmony
"brings harmony
either
"All other forms of perception
divide man"
stressing
by overly
tive expression,
whole.
Recall
which
audiences

Art and Religion

or rational,
the sensuous
while
aesthetic
perception
combines
harmoniously
to
them. "All other forms of communication divide society" by appealing

while
differences,
it relates
because
same
art's
argument
thousand
to include
construed
(there
is common
that which
two
of communication
mode
"aesthetic
and
dance
. . .Thus
cause
it] joins
an
music
Of
where
friendly
respect
and
national
to
bring
x
And
to men
not
cultural
of creative
exchanges
order
are we
borders
. . .
[be
witnessing
are continu
rather
understanding
of destruction?
we
course,
fractious
to all."
in
crossed
ously being
than weapons
way
what
together
art world
international
the
to music
poetic
is the most
perfect
is common
with
society
made
already
"When music
is
song):
and in
harmonious
equilibrium
and good
enjoys
together beauty
. . . the blood
humour
becomes
performed
... The entire world
ismade
and
tranquil
ness.
Xunzi
in China
earlier
years
also
to all."10
unites
should
divisions,
also
fanaticisms,
realize
and
that
the realm
intolerance.
of art
Besides
is not without
the conflicts
its
between
proponents of elite and popular arts (thatoccasionally, as in theNew York As

tor
riots, have
Square
rivalry
and
bitter
"isms."
Such
even
critique
erupted
between
into real bloodshed),

different
artistic
there
styles?the
is often
violence
contention,
fierce
of
schisms
or cul
however,
rarely generates
physical
a
In fact, one
that it provides
argue
spur to
might
competitive
A more
but
and
sometimes
less
visible,
creativity.
damaging
comprehensive,
iswhen
form of art's oppressive
divisions
the historically
dominant
concept
of art disenfranchises
the many
forms of art that do not seem paradigmatic
From my Japanese
I have
of that concept.
that this iswhat
learned
colleagues
tural harm.
so co
the Western
of art was
period, when
conception
on
culture
that
its
arts
traditional
(such as tea
Japanese
ercively
self-imposed
were
and
the
declassed
from
of
ceremony
calligraphy)
category
art?geijut
or what
tomere
su?and
demoted
is called
cultural practice,
geidoh?literally
in this case a
of culture.
of art
ways
Clearly,
concept
particular
hegemonic
in the
Meiji
happened
has
done
cultural damage,
which
very painful
as
the
artistic
of
just
clearly
damages
to the ravages
tesimal when
compared
wrought
fied. But
There
are many
wonderful
things
about
is now,
bigotry
recti
fortunately, being
are infini
and
enmity
by religion.
Without
religion.
its positive
workings in the past, it is hard to believe thathumankind would have de

veloped
tional
achieved.
the level
richness,
The
of morality,
imaginative
argument
rationality,
love,
community
and
artistic
grandeur,
for art replacing
religion
is that
emo
coherence,
that we
creation
art
have
sustains
the
valuable features of religionwhile minimizing or refiningout thebad. John

Dewey,
ligion,
for instance,
nonetheless
who
makes
falls
short
art as a substitute
of proposing
that
needs a process
religion
the argument
for re
of puri
fication throughwhich its "ethical and ideal content" is separated from its
in a
connection
with
belief
and with
the
unhealthy
"Supernatural
Being"
often unsavory
and outmoded
social practices,
and ritual forms
ideologies,

Shusterman
that are
of worship
accretion
of "the
conditions
of
the various traditional religions emerged. (For he
is no
that "there
recognizes
the "irrelevant"
simply
social culture inwhich"
such
as
in the
religion
Dewey
singular."13)
what
he calls "the
preserve
distinguish
sense. He
in contrast
to
in the concrete
de
traditional
religious,"
religion
or attitude
as an
fines the religious
the
force
of
"having
experience
bringing
a better,
in life" that is "more
and enduring
adjustment
outgoing,
deeper
more
than stoicism
and "more
active"
than mere
submis
ready and glad"
thing
that we
recommends
therefore
and
sion (CF 11-13).Moreover, in affirming that "any activity pursued inbehalf

of an ideal end against obstacles and in spite of threats of personal loss be
cause
of conviction
of its
general
and
is
value
enduring
in
religious
quality"
(CF 19), Dewey notes that the artist (along with other types of committed
inquirers) displays such activity.
Indeed, inmaking his case for the religious as a commitment to the ideals
and purposes of life,Dewey appeals to Santayana's identification of the
religious
tayana,
with
imagination
"are identical
the artistic.
in essence,
and
and poetry,"
"Religion
in the way
differ merely
writes
they
San
are
at
tached topractical affairs.Poetry is called religionwhen it intervenes in life,

and religion,when itmerely supervenes upon life, is seen tobe nothing but
The
poetry."1
that poetic
wants
to draw
is
that Dewey
from this, however,
. . . for . . . the ideals
and
its "moral
function
conclusion
with
imagination,
purposes of life" (CF 13), should not be a mere playful, compartmentalized

supervenience
cial and
public
of art for art's
but
sake
as
life, as well
private
a formative
rather
more
experience,
so
in
making
beautiful
artistically
force
and rewarding. In short,Dewey holds the pragmatist ideal that the highest
art is the art of
living with
of an afterlife.
in this world
of salvation
the goal
rather
than
the
heaven
Ill
far so good, we
words
questioning
So
would
progressives
"hath not
of Shakespeare,
to believe.
like
secular
this rose
But,
a canker?"
in the
Is art re
ally so freeof religion and those contingent societal ideologies and institu
tional practices that turn the ideal religious into objectionable religion?Could
art have
and
emerged
flourished,
and
could
it continue
to survive,
without
the beliefs, practices, and institutions of the cultures that gave birth to it
and
continue
able
those
it could,
values,
beliefs,
to sustain
impure
and how
it, however
art could
and
contingent,
dimensions
societal
practices
of culture
find meaningful
to be
deemed
and
imperfect,
question
to see how
are? It is hard
content
without
contingent,
these
gratuitous,
cultural
and
im
pure. But even if it could exist in this purified ideal state, could art then be
what
Dewey
the world
formative
desires?a
in better ways?
How
for aesthetically
if
its
it,
imaginative
influence
could

reconstructing
were
not
ideals
Art and Religion
solidly connected with thewebs of beliefs, practices, and institutions that

means
for introducing
and
thus are the necessary
posi
society
seems
in
to it? Dewey
here
unpragmatic
strangely
advocating
changes
cultural means?our
institutional
ideal ends while
the concrete
regarding
structure
tive
irrelevant.
practices?as
If art is an emergent
separated
silliness,
superstitions,
sense
and
evils,
prejudices,
cannot
that
of culture
product
concrete
full-blown
it in the
from
of
all?then
be meaningfully
culture?including
one could make
the
following argument for art being essentially inseparable from religion. Art
is indissolubly
to culture.
linked
But
in the broad
construed
culture,
anthro
pological sense, is indissolubly linked to religion. In that important sense

(influentially elaborated by Franz Boas and a host of other anthropologists
is "the system
culture
ethnographers)
and artifacts
that the members
and
of shared
one
and with
world
generation
through
that are
and
another,
use
transmitted
itwould
In that sense,
learning."15
beliefs,
of society
behaviours,
out history "no culture has appeared or developed

and,
religion";
as T. S. Eliot
further
remarks,
customs,
values,
to cope with
from
generation
seem
that
their
to
through
except togetherwith a
"according
to the
point
of view
of the observer, the culturewill appear to be the product of the religion, or

the religion
different
the product
aspects
In more
of the culture."16
of cultural
or
religious
the
societies,
primitive
life are more
intimately
enmeshed
so that they are hard to distinguish, and it is only through the process Max
Weber
as
ceived
ern,
as
describes
the distinct
fields
as
abstractly
secular West,
tumultuous
the issue
modernization"
"rationalizing
of science,
separate
and
politics,
religion,
from each other. But in
cannot
the separation
frictions
between
or stem
of abortion
that what
these
cell
so often
demonstrates.
or that of the
public
research,
simply display) of religiously controversial art.

if art
Now,
is inseparable
from
and
culture,
now
regard
to be con
even in the mod

reality,
the manifold
and
mixings
as
hold,
fields
we
art came
culture
Consider
(or
funding
is inseparable
from
religion, then it seems likely that art is also indissolubly linked to religion
in a
there is an essential
and
intimate
historical
way.
significant
Certainly
as Imentioned
at the outset. We would
like to think that modern
linkage,
in the last two centuries
rationalization
has gradually
severed
the link. But
our
is not so
in such short time, and
history
easily undone
perhaps
religious
than we
formative
beneath
the sur
traditions, more
think, remain vibrantly
face of the secular
our notions
its elevation
(and
terms)
field of aesthetics
of artistic
genius
and
and
autonomous
creation,
from worldly
interests and mere
for interpreting
art's mysteries.
art?for
instance,
in
of art's
of
values,
lofty spiritual
real
and in our models
things,
I cannot
this question
explore
thoroughly in this short article, but letme make a startby considering one
notion
that has
been
rather
influential
in recent
philosophy
of art.
Though
repeatedly deployed by nonreligious philosophers of art in the analytic

Shusterman
tradition, it seems hard to appreciate without taking seriously its religious

and
meaning
Arthur
aura.
I refer to the notion

the most
Danto,
influential
of "transfiguration."
of contemporary
analytic
aestheticians,
has made the concept of transfiguration thekeystone ofhis philosophy of art.

An artworkmay be an object visually identicalwith another quite ordinary
that is not
thing
interpretation
art. Therefore,
Danto
as art
of the object
that art requires

the artist's
must
also be
interpretation
concludes
that
(and
this
rendered possible by the state of art history and theory). Such interpreta
is required
tion
to
calls "mere
(what Danto
transfigure
ordinary
objects
are
an
of art?which
for Danto
of
things
altogether
into works
things")
real
dif
ferent category and ontological status. Even before his famous 1981 book
The Transfigurationof theCommonplace (whose influence has been so signifi
cant
that
the twenty-fifth
of
anniversary
its
was
publication
to
of transfiguration
explain
his
crucial
of the artworld,
concept
cele
recently
brated by the firstonline aesthetics conference), Danto deployed
the idea
concept
that inspired the institutional theories of art thathave also been very influ
ential.17Already inhis 1964 essay on "The Artworld" (where Danto defines
the artworld as "stand[ing] to the realworld . . . [as] theCity ofGod stands
to theEarthly City" [AT 582]), we findhis key notion of transfiguration: that
are
artworks
somehow
transfigured
into a higher,
sacred,
realm
ontological
wholly different from the real things of thisworld fromwhich theymay be

visually or sensorily indiscernible or, as in readymades, with which they
even
may
we
in this
find Danto
identical. Already
be physically
early essay
toWarhol's
artis
icon
miraculous
Brillo Boxes?his
of
inspirational
alluding
terms of the Catholic
tic
of transubstantiation,
mystery
transfiguration?in
a whole
as
world
"of latent artworks
like the bread
waiting,
symbolizing
some dark mystery,
into the
of reality, to be transfigured,
and wine
through
indiscernible flesh and blood of the sacrament" (AT 580-81).

Though Danto describes his philosophy of art as inspired by Hegel, he
distinguishes himself fromHegel in denying "that art has been superseded
by philosophy" (AB 137). Indeed, in some ways he regards art as having
taken
over
not
only
traditional
losophy's
philosophy's
concern with
art but also

of theorizing
about
about
life's deep
questions;
role
wisdom
phi
for
he insists: "Philosophy is simply hopeless in dealing with the large human

issues"
(AB
137).
Danto,
moreover,
certainly
concurs
with
the dominant
modern trend to see art as superseding religion by conveying (inhis words)

"the kind ofmeaning that religionwas capable of providing": the highest
spiritual
truths
"metaphysics
I have
but
he
student
or
and meanings,
including
the
"supernatural
meanings"
theology."18
repeatedly
always
replies
in Israel,
I had
to Danto's
rhetoric,
very Catholic
religious
as a
is a wholly
secular
Though,
person.19
an
was
Italian
that Danto
aristocratic
first assumed
pointed
that he
Catholic transplanted toNew York City, he later toldme he was

a non-observant
of
Jew
from Detroit,
the son
of a Jewish

Freemason.
actually
All
the
Art and Religion
Catholic rhetoric of transfiguration in his theory,he insists,does not reflect

his
personal
religious
but
beliefs
is merely
facon
a manner
de parler,
of
speaking. But does the religious dimension really disappear by calling it

a mere
manner
cannot
be
easily
and
practice,
so.
think
I don't
of speaking?
from manners
separated
fact. Otherwise,
those ways
of
of
First, manners
living:
of speaking
of belief,
real matters
lose
speaking
If
their efficacy.
the religious tenor of transfiguration did not still somehow resonate with
our
with
sensibility,
religious
our
faith, or imagination
experience,
religious
(however displaced and disguised itmay be), then thismanner of speaking

would not be as captivating and influential as ithas proven tobe.
This brings up a second point. Why did a secular Jewish philosopher
choose
successful
this particular
way
and
influential?
of speaking
about
The
I think,
reason,
art, and why

is that the
has
so
it been
religious
other
worldliness of the Christian tradition is deeply embedded in our Western

artistic tradition itselfand in theWestern tradition of philosophy of art. It
even
both of these traditions,
for artists,
shaped
to Christian
who
do not consciously
ascribe
beliefs
philosophers
or even anti-Christian,
not think that we
should
attitudes. We
secular,
therefore
and
has
significantly
and
critics,
of theWestern
theorists
are
artworld
entirely
free of our
culture's
in
religion
our theorizing; and in the globalized contemporary artworld shaped by the

no one
is
free of it.
completely
is a
that
art's
Christian
power
claiming
transfigurative
narrowly
that all our different
to art, it could
idea. If there is
cultures
ascribe
anything
be the
transformative
of its creative
and
power
transfigurative,
expression
West,
perhaps
I am not
to understand
rather, is that ifwe wish
key claim,
we
of transfiguration,
should
insist on recognizing
at least two distinct
and ideologies
of trans
ontologies
underlying
religious
I shall outline
in the rest of this article. First, there is the
which
figuration,
aesthetic
experience.
My
in terms
experience
art's
Christian
familiarly
a transcendental
theology with
dominant,
style of otherworldly
an eternal,
unchanging,
on
elevation?based
disembodied
God
existing apart from theworld he created (thoughmiraculously embodying

himself
in his Son
to save
the human
creatures
is the corresponding
notion
theology
sence
and
(the soul) that can be saved
of that world).
of an
immaterial,
elevated
to God's
Central
eternal
to this
es
human
In
otherworldliness.
such religion of the transcendental gap, spirituality (be it in art or elsewhere)
means
a
an elevated
radically
distance
other world,
from
whether
the ordinary
the artworld
material
tion typically implies a radical shiftofmetaphysical

of mere
tence;
real
entities
to a different,
spatiotemporal
so works
art
must
of
be distinguished
things."
In contrast,
Zen
Buddhist-style
with no
of immanence
religion
side the world
of creation;
no
notions
eternal,
personal,
Here
an ascent
to
transfigura
status, from the realm
spiritually
(in Danto's
of art and
transcendental,
world,
or heaven.
transcendent
terms)
from
religious
God
practice
soul
existing
personal
immaterial

existing
exis
"mere
offer
out
apart
10
Shusterman
its embodied
from
no
and
manifestations;
sacred world
or heav
(an artworld
en) existing beyond theworld of experienced flux.The essential distinction

the sacred
between
and
art and
(or between
the profane
no
nonart)
longer
marks a rigid ontological divide between radically differentworlds of things

but
rather
a difference
the same
of how
of things
world
is
perceived,
expe
an
spirit of presence
inspiring
as
or
or instead
sense
of profound
and an absorbing
sanctity,
significance
of
in such religions
routine banalities.
Transfiguration,
merely
insignificant,
status
elevation
of ontological
does not entail a change
immanence,
through
of perception,
to a higher metaphysical
realm but is rather a transformation
a matter
to an el
and attitude. Not
of vertical
use,
transposition
meaning,
in this
of being
and immediacy
evated
ethereal
realm, it is rather a vividness
and
rienced,
lived?whether
artistically,
with
world, of feeling the fullpower and lifeof itspresence and rhythms,of see
ing its objectswith a wondrous clarityand freshnessof vision. Consider this
description of the path to transfigured insightprovided by theChinese Zen
master Ch'ing Yuan of theTang Dynasty: "Before I had studied Zen for thirty
a more
intimate
are not mountains,

very
as mountains
I saw mountains
years,
knowledge,
and waters
I am
substance
once
and waters
mountains,
to the point
are not waters.
at rest. For
again
as waters.
and waters
I came
where
But
now
at
I arrived
When
I saw
that mountains
I have
that
it is just that I see mountains

as waters."20
once
got
the
again
as
IV
Let me
now
notions
of artistic
two
offer
transfiguration.
lic notion, consider Raphael's

related
episode
up
John?goes
"into
minor
status
divine
as
the Messiah.
in the three
variations)
apart
and
and
Raphael's
miraculous
gospels
by
then approached
Catho
of Mat
and Elijah, whose

In coming
down
in conversation
appearance
from
encounter
the other disciples
three disciples
to cure his
a man
cries out for Jesus's help
tude in which
had not been
sion by an evil spirit, which
Jesus's disciples
Jesus
contrasting
and
Peter,
James,
along
There
themselves."
Jesus is
Jesus?taking
a
mountain
high
their eyes
before
by (the long-dead prophets) Moses

Jesus's
these
classically
which depicts the

famous Transfiguration,21
in which
Luke
transfigured
visually
some
(with
and
thew, Mark,
to illustrate
examples
For the transcendental,
concrete
his
affirms
the mountain,
among
son
able
a multi
from posses
to exorcize.
rendition of this episode includes both elements of the story?the

transfiguration
on
the mountain
below.
and
The
crowd with
the distraught
canvas
verti
is divided
the demonically
boy down
possessed
The mountain
these two storylines.
into two distinct
parts depicting
the
scene understandably
upper
part of the
occupies
top transfigurational
before
crowd
the
while
the lower part portrays
Jesus's
agitated
picture,
cally
descent, with one red-robed figure (apparently a disciple) emphatically

Art and Religion
11
pointing up toward themountain (and thepicture's center), thus pictorially

linkingwith a dramatic diagonal the upper and lower parts of the canvas
and
their narrative
elements.
for my argument,
is that in the upper
significantly,
is not simply
elevated
the figure of Christ
by being
Most
scene,
transfiguration
on the moun
tain top but actually hovers distinctly above it (and the prostrate accom
panying disciples) in airborne levitation, flanked by but obviously higher
the two prophets
than
to talk with
arrive
who
him. His
is
figure, moreover,
framed in a nimbus of bright lightwith just thehint of a golden aura around

his head. The gospel of Matthew indeed asserts thatwhen Jesus "was
"his
transfigured,"
face did
as
shine
the sun,
and
his
raiment
was
as
white
the light." But none of theGospel versions describes Christ's transfigura

tion
as
transcendental
levitation
the mountain.
above
Ra
Nonetheless,
phael's picture clearly depicts this,probably to highlight Christ's heavenly,

essence
otherworldly
spirituality,
real
ordinary
to
and
of true
otherworldliness
movement
transcendent
the world
beyond
of
things.
sensuously
from the visual
include
multaneously
to argue
this painting
Hegel
deploys
to
and capacity
they depart
the essential
suggest
its indispensable
both
for art's
transfigurative
the highest
truths,
spiritual
since no normal
view
could,
convey
truth,
scenes.
the picture's
Yet Hegel
elevation
even when
in truth,
si
"Christ's
writes,
his elevation
above
the earth, and his de
precisely
must
too as a
and
be
this
made
visible
parture
separation
Ifwe go by the
and a
of
narratives,
Gospel
painting
Raphael's
departure."22
in
and
the
"elevation"
from
the
Jesus
transfigured
complete
"separation"
earth
truth but also
it wonder
truth. But
lacks not only visual
scriptural
visible
is
Transfiguration
from
the Disciples,
fully conveys the alleged truthof classical Christian transcendentalism (just

as Hegel's philosophical idealism does) while just as superbly implying its
artistic
art's transfiguration
analogue?that
into some higher
otherworldliness.
the implied
narrative
Moreover,
through
is an "elevation
and
success
of Jesus's
separation"
in curing
by
touch thedemon-possessed boy afterhis disciples had failed to achieve this,

also
the painting
conveys
an artistic
allegory
about
the divine
of artisticgenius. The hand of thegreat artist?someone

very
name
means
in Hebrew
"God
has
healed")?is
transcendence
likeRaphael
analogically
(whose
linked
to
the divine healing hand of Jesus himself, the Son of God. This analogy has
enormous implications forour culture's sharp divide between theheights of
artistic
evil-possessed
leave
that
and
genius
these
their
lowly
frenzy
issues of cultural
this painting
or between
the high arts and the
arts of
But let me
culture.
popular
so
as
to
return
to
aside
claim
Hegel's
audiences,
of the mass
media
politics
is a masterpiece
through
its communication
of the spiri
tual truthof Christianity, even if it lacks, through itsunrealistically divided

canvas,
objective
visual
truth.

12
Shusterman
Arthur
in The Abuse
Danto,
of Beauty,
defends
view
Hegel's
in using
Raphael's Transfiguration(whichDanto finds great but not beautiful) to argue

further
that aesthetic
to artistic
qualities,
is really
including
as obvious
beauty,
as blue,"
are never
essential
percep
"Beauty
simple
the senses,"
Danto
claims, while
"through
grasped
immediately
to
and
and
therefore
discernment
critical
"requires
thought"
greatness.
tual matter
art
visual
"belongs
intelligence" (AB 89,92). He castigates a long traditionof theoristswho think

there is a kind of difficultbeauty in art (or elsewhere) that isnot amere matter
of irnmediate sensation but thatrequires the sortof "hard looking" thatRoger
was
Fry argued
for seeing
necessary
of Post-Impressionist
the beauty
paint
ings thatwere, on firstimpression, deemed hideous by thepublic. Rejecting
the very
of "deferred
idea
hard
that rewards
beauty
looking"
as a confusion
analysis"
(AB 92-93).
of beauty and artistic insight,Danto scoffs at the thought that such looking
could ever give us "the kind of sensuous thrill thatbeauty in the aesthetic
sense
causes
While
in us without
agreeing
or
the benefit
of argument
that beauty
is not
Danto
with
to artistic
essential
always
success, I think theredoes exist beauty that is difficult toperceive but that is
revealed through a kind of disciplined hard looking. Consider an example
that also
illustrates
and
the Zen
pragmatist
notion
of immanent
transfigu
ration I sketched above. My example derives neither from the official art
nor
world
from
the
itself
to me
after
of natural
realm
beauty.
It instead
some
sustained
involves
large
beauty suddenly revealed
surprisingly wondrous
rusty iron barrel whose
efforts
contemplative
during
own
my
ini
tiation into the disciplines of Zen during the year I spent in Japan doing
in somaesthetics.
research
Set on a hill near

the Zen
land Sea,
the coastal
cloister
village
on
of Tadanoumi
where
Shorinkutzu
I lived
and
In
Japan's beautiful
trained was
directed
by Roshi (Master) Inoue Kido. Roshi was liberal enough to takeme on as a

student (when he knew no English and my Japanesewas very limited) and to
kokoro
of one's
that the disposition
recognize
is infinitely
(the heart-and-mind)
more important than having one's legs tightlyand enduringly entwined in

a full lotus. Analogizing that rice plants could not be cutwith a dull blade,
he
me
advised
to get up
from my
cushion
meditation
at the Zen-do
when
ever I felt tired and to go back tomy sleeping hut for a nap to refreshand
thus
sharpen
would
my mind.
grow
through
efforts of willful
the practice
My
endurance.
of Zen,
Roshi
of sustained
powers
enhanced
mental
However,
was
an
concentration,
not
acuity,
in everything
effectively
through
he
strict purist.
he
merely
explained,
stubborn
thought
important
A humane
discipli
to
narian, Roshi did not spare the rod on his studentswhen he thought itwould
his instructive
of the ears because
my
(I only avoided
boxing
se
a
I once was
to formulate
too poor
though
stupid question,
Japanese
inmy bowl.)
three
of
rice
for
leaving
grains
verely
reprimanded
one of the two
and the trainees'
the Zendo
Near
sleeping
paths connecting
instruct
them.
was

13
Art and Religion
quarters, I noticed a small clearing with an especially open and beautiful

view of the sea, dotted with a few small islands of lush, soft,bushy green. In
was
the clearing
of log on whose
a small
primitive
stool,
wooden
board
rudely
from a round
constructed
section
short upright column (still adorned with bark) there rested
rectangular
to sit on
and with
no
nails
or adhesive
other than gravity to fix it to the log. A couple of feet in frontof the stool
stood two old, rusty,cast-iron oil barrels (see Photo 1), the kind I had often
as makeshift
seen used
open-air
stoves
by homeless
inAmerica's
people
poor
inner-cityneighborhoods. Readers more familiarwith artworld usage might

recognize them as thekind of barrels thatChristo and JeanneClaude painted
and massively piled on their sides in two notable installations?Iron Curtain
(Paris, 1962), and TheWall (Germany, 1999).24Sittingon the stool to look at the
sea beneath
the Dojo,
one's
view was
framed
inescapably
by
the two
corrod
ingbrownish barrels. Iwondered why thisugly pair was left in such a lovely
spot,
spoiling
the sublime
natural
seascape
with
an
industrial
eyesore.
One day I got the courage to ask Roshi whether Iwould be permitted to
practice meditation fora shortwhile in that spot overlooking the sea, though
I dared not ask him why thehideous barrels (which the Japanese call "drum
cans") were allowed to pollute the aesthetic and natural purity of thatper
spective.
Permission
was
readily
granted,
since Zen
meditation
can,
in
prin
ciple, be done anywhere, and Roshi felt I had progressed enough to prac
tice outside theZendo. I satmyself down on the stool and, having directed
my gaze above the barrels, I fixedmy contemplation on the beautiful sea
while following Roshi's meditation instructionsof focusing attention on my
breathing and trying to clear my mind of all thoughts.After about twenty
Photo 1. The drum cans of Shorinkutzu-Dojo.

14
Shusterman
minutes of effectivemeditation, I lostmy grip of concentration and decided

to end
the session.
rels, my
toward
my
Turning
glance
and
grew more
penetrating
perception
the closest
I found
transfigured into a vision of breathtaking beauty?just

even more
indeed
sea,
first time,
so.
the
savoring
I felt I was
subtle
of
sumptuousness
suddenly
as beautiful as the
that drum
seeing
really
its
bar
the two
of
this object
coloring,
can
for the
the
shades
of orange, the tintsof blue and green thathighlighted its earthy browns. I
thrilled to the richness of its irregular texture, itstissue of flaking and peel
ing crusts embellishing the hard iron shell?a symphony of soft and firm
surfaces that suggested a delicious feuillete.
Perhaps what seized and delighted me most of all was
of
its
rusty
drum
that made
absolutely
reality
absorbing
Rather
than being
comparison.
transfigured
my
fullness
The
presence.
perceived
robust,
can had
the beautiful
an
immediate,
of the sea pale

transcendent
world
in
vision
into a
of
immaterial spirituality, it transfiguratively radiated the gleam and spiritual

energy with which thewondrous flow and flux of our immanentmaterial
resonates
world
and
I too
Thus,
sparkles.
felt transfigured,
without
feeling
that either the barrels or I had changed ontological categories and levitated
into transcendent
ideality.
that itwas
I realized
Conversely,
more
the idea of
the sea that I had been regarding as beautiful, not the sea itself,which I saw
a veil
through
of
familiar
romantic
conventional
thoughts?its
meanings
and thewonderful personal associations ithad forme, a Tel Aviv beach boy
turned
most
philosopher.
concrete
and
The
in contrast,
barrel,
immediacy,
captivating
was
but
grasped
seeing
as a
of the
beauty
that beauty
required
a sustained period of disciplined contemplation. Though the hard looking

was
initially
not
directed
perception
vision
of
I could,
can,
on
this alone
subsequent
and
the seascape
foregoing
at the barrels
themselves.
contemplation
The phenomenology
different
at the drum
and
of its beauty,
its beauty
by
from what
Fry
was
what
occasions,
for art,
is too
the
recover
this
absorbed
my
directing
I suspect is rather
of such hard looking, which

recommended
enabled
a matter
complex
to
explore in thisbrief essay. Part of the complexity relates to distinctively Zen

paradoxes of perception and being: my hard looking could also be under
stood
as hard
nonlooking
itwas
since
not motivated
by
a hermeneutic
quest
for the truemeaning of the object, just as Zen thinking is often described as
and
the fullness
nonthinking
is also
the question
of whether
of
its enlightenment
immanent
such
as
an
There
emptiness.
be
should
transfigurations
most closely identifiedwith theparticular object in focus (thedrum can), the

or
of the perceiving
subject,
experience
their encounter.
both
of
them
and
shapes
However
Were
those
institutional
we
address
transfigured
artworld,
these
issues,
drum
they
were
the whole
one
cans
just
art?
as
question
Though
obviously
must
be
clearly
part
that
situation
energized
faced
not
of an
forthwith:
part
of
the
installation
work of deliberate design aimed at providing experiences that could be

Art and Religion

as
described
and
thought-provoking,
meaningful,
15
evocative.
aesthetically
And thedeliberative design of this installation suggests that itwas obviously

(a condition
"about
something"
for art). But what,
many
of meaning
cans were
the drum
exactly,
answers:
the powers
possible
and
generally
deemed
about
is a question
necessary
that has
the sur
of meditation,
possibilities
prising uses of industrial detritus, the contrast yet continuity of nature and
artifact, the question of beauty (difficultand hidden versus easy and con
even
ventional),
I eventually
the meaning
in it?the
found
immanent
trans
figurationof ordinary objects that could make them artwithout taking them
out
an
have
objects
into a compartmentalized,
and
of the real world
whose
entirely
different
nent
whose
transfiguration,
meaning
life rather than suggest
their essential
Zen
with
converges
But what,
of enriched
and
artworld
imma
Such
is to fuse art and
presence
contrast
is where
discontinuity,
like Raphael's
we
must
meanings,
religious
status.
aesthetics.
then, becomes of works
its
recognize
pragmatist
transcendent
metaphysical
insist
Transfiguration?To
a transcen
on
exclusively
dent metaphysics of art that separates art from real things and life? I do not
see how
is any more
this
for understanding
necessary
this work
than
zeal
ously insisting that the Transfiguration episode with Jesus really happened
and
that its theological
are
underpinnings
true, thus exclud
metaphysically
ing conflicting religious or scientific doctrines. I think I can appreciate to
some
extent
the
transcendent
religious
sharing the relevantmetaphysical
true believer
could
have
such
of
meanings
works
without
and theological faith.But I suspect that
greater
of
appreciation
the painting
through
such faith. I prefer to sacrifice that extra dividend of appreciation in order

an
to maintain
and Christian
and
or
to explain
worldliness
that
ontology
theology,
is free of such
otherworldliness
supernatural
to such other
that does not appeal
an aesthetics
justify art's
power.
transfigurative
V
Must
we
their
choice
choose
between
irrevocably
respective
religious
ideologies
is that these
do not
options
tations
of art's
transfigurative
these
two
forms of transfiguration
reason
for resisting
and
of art?26 One
seem
experience.
to exhaust
I have
the forms
not
or
considered
this
interpre
here
the
meaning of aesthetic transfiguration for the Confucian religious tradition,

whose
made
emphasis
on
aesthetic
proved
immensely
of Confucius),
whose
ritual
so attractive
it, for millennia,

more
attractive
more
and
art over
and
influential
than
Christian
for East
the religion
doctrine
creeds
supernatural
of Mozi
of universal
Asian
have
It
minds.
rival
(an early
came with
love
thebelief in a supreme supernatural deity (and lesser spirits and ghosts) but
also with
acter).
Part
a bleak
anti-aesthetic
of the genius
asceticism
of the ancient
(that
Confucians
is
dourly
was
Protestant
to accept
in char
the grow
ing forceof the theological skepticism of their timeby essentially eschewing

16
Shusterman
religious
supernatural
and
metaphysics
their
confining
to the rescue
focus
and revitalization of the positive ideals and values embedded in tradition

al religious ritual and art. By expressing these ideals and values through
more
intellectually
convincing
that were
interpretations
on
focused
the aes
thetic and ethical cultivation of both individual and society,Confucianism

thus offer an elaborately
our own
Indeed,
contemporary
could
and
the supernatural
ostentation,
may
for secular
appealing
I confess
minds.
or Zen
than Daoist
rather
complexity
the most
Confucianism
at least
century,
moment,
its pervasively
and
richness,
make
of f/zzs-worldly
life.
redemption
in
its growing
with
skepticism
turn
to
aesthetic
that tends
emphasize
harmonious
religion
to be
simplicity,
for the
touched
twenty-first
its attractions,
by
as I am touched by Zen and pragmatist meliorism.

But rather than trying to pick a winner here, Iwant to close by briefly
another
raising
since my
option
survey
of art's
has
traditions
religious
been
so sketchy and limited, neglecting the rich artistic traditions of other reli
gious
cultures
such
and America.
gious
as Islam,
Might
we
of art and
ontology
Judaism,
not
adopt
perhaps
and
the indigenous
of Africa
religions
a more
to the reli
pluralistic
approach
let the context of the artwork
and
its cul
tural tradition determine forus which approach is best for appreciating its
transhgurative
and
meaning
spiritual
truth? Can
we
be pluralist
syncretists
in our "religions" of art, even ifwe lack such flexibility in our traditional
theologies,metaphysics, and religiously shaped ethics?
A pragmatist
were
indeed
cultures,
possible,
even
from a culture's
If it
like to admit
this possibility.
would
pluralism
a wonderful
between
be
could
bridge
really
ones. But if aesthetics
cannot be ultimately
separated
aesthetic
warring
aesthetics
underlying
religious
attitudes,
then
itmay
not
be
feasible
to realize thispossibility in our imperfectworld untilwe also work not only

our cultures
at
to transform
and religious
but beyond
aesthetics
This
in the direction
of deeper, more
understanding.
open-minded
a
evil and fla
not mean
of evident
tolerance
spineless,
anything-goes
through
titudes
does
grant falsehood. Nor should this involve the quest to abolish all real differ
ence
and
appreciate
the role of disharmony

the
agreeable
and
harmonies
dissent,
without
which
we
could
never
of art.
NOTES
as a
lecture for the 17th In
This essay was originally written and delivered
plenary
and de
held inAnkara, Turkey, on July 9-13,2007,
of Aesthetics,
ternational Congress
Iwish to thank Jale Erzen and
voted to the theme of "Aesthetics Bridging Cultures."
for inviting me, and I also thank the Congress
Committee
the Congress
participants
for their helpful suggestions.
1.
"The Decay
of Lying,"
Oscar Wilde,
Barnes and Noble,
1994), 973.
in Complete Works
ofOscar Wilde

(New York:
Art and Religion

2.
3.
4.
5.
17
1947), 2:321.
Poetique du Symbolisme (Paris: Nizet,
Stephan Mallarme, Message
in The Portable Matthew
"The Study of Poetry,"
Matthew
Arnold, ed.
Arnold,
L. Trilling
1949), 300.
(New York: Viking,
I elaborate
aims in considerable
detail in Pragmatist Aesthetics:
these pragmatist
1992; 2nd ed., New York: Row
Living Beauty, Rethinking Art (Oxford: Blackwell,
man and Littlefield, 2000); Practicing
Philosophy: Pragmatism and thePhilosophical
1997); Performing Live (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Life (New York: Routledge,
Press, 2000); and Surface and Depth (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 2002).
See IrisMurdoch,
(1961), reprinted in Existentialists and Mys
"Against Dryness"
tics (London: Chatto and Windus,
1997). Richard Rorty confirms this description
desire to be "dryly scientific" in his "The Inspiration
of analytic philosophy's
in Achieving Our Country (Cambridge,
al Value of Great Works
of Literature,"
MA: Harvard
Press, 1998), 129. Arthur Danto
University
similarly describes
(in the dominant
contemporary
philosophy
analytic school he represents and
see his The
"cool" and remote from issues of wisdom;
favors) as professionally
Abuse
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
of Beauty (Chicago: Open Court, 2003), xix; cf. 20-21, 137 (hereafter cited
in the text as AB).
parenthetically
"The Study of Poetry," 299.
Arnold,
an
and Religion,"
G. E. Moore,
"Art, Morals,
paper of 1902 cited in
unpublished
Tom Regan's
entitled Bloomsbury's Prophet (Phila
biographical
study of Moore,
Press, 1986).
delphia: Temple University
in Philosophy and Social Hope
Richard Rorty, "Religion as Conversation
Stopper,"
(New York: Penguin,
1999), 118-24; Achieving Our Country, 125,132,136.
Southern
Illinois University
Press,
John Dewey, Art as Experience (Carbondale:
Southern
1986), 87, 338; Freedom and Culture, in Later Works, vol. 13 (Carbondale:
Illinois University
Press, 1991), 70.
trans. E. M. Wilkin
J.C. F. von Schiller, Letters on theAesthetic Education ofMan,
son and L. A.
Press, 1983), 215.
(Oxford: Oxford University
Willoughby
on Music,"
in Xunzi
trans., "Discourse
John Knoblock,
(Stanford: Stanford Uni
versity Press, 1980), 3:84.

See Aoki Takao, "Futatsu no Gei no Michi
and Gei
[Two Species of Art]: Geidoh
jutsu," Nihon no Bigaku [Aesthetics of Japan] 27 (1998): 114-27.
Southern
Illinois University
Press,
John Dewey, A Common Faith (Carbondale:
in the text as CF).
1986), 3, 6-8 (hereafter cited parenthetically
come
remarks
from his Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (New
Santayana's
York: Scribner, 1927). Dewey
cites them inA Common Faith (13).
D. G. Bates and F. Plog, Cultural Anthropology (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1990), 7.
T. S. Eliot, Notes on theDefinition ofCulture(London:
Faber, 1965), 15.
Arthur Danto,
"The Artworld,"
Journal of Philosophy 61 (1964): 571-84 (hereafter
in the text as AT); and The
cited parenthetically
Transfiguration of theCommonplace
Press, 1981) (hereafter cited parentheti
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University
as TC).
cally in the text
Arthur Danto, After the End of Art (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press,
1997), 188; and The Madonna
of theFuture (New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux,
2000), 338.
See, forexample, our discussion at the Tate Britain, available at http://www.tate.org.uk/
onlineevents
/webcasts /Arthur_danto
/.
It is interesting that Danto
in both "The Art
this quotation
himself deploys
world"
and The Transfiguration of theCommonplace.
on the Internet,
available
Images of this work are widely
including at http://
upload. wildmedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Transfiguration_Raphael.jpg.
G. W F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art by G. W. F. Hegel, trans. T. M. Knox
Press, 1998), 860.
(Oxford: Clarendon
Or see
for a color image.
http://www.fau.edu/hurnanitiesdiair/images/barrels.jpg
are available
These
online,
site, at http://
images
through the artists' Web
and http://c?iristojeanneclaude.net/gaso.shtml.
christojeanneclaude.net/fe.shtml

18
25.
26.
Shusterman
I should
beauties
because
works'
that some artworld artists are similarly appreciative

mention
of the
of rust, deploying
COR-TEN
steel in their sculptures and installations
of its tendency to become
rust-clad and thus potentially
enhance
their
aesthetic effect through rust's subtle tones and textures. One
striking
is Richard Serra's marvelous

example
Torqued Ellipses.
A similar contrast might be discerned between different aesthetic interpretations
of the notion of aura in different cultures that are shaped by different religious
a secular Jew
for example,
in European
Walter Benjamin,
metaphysics.
steeped
culture (albeit much more engaged
than Danto with his Jewish heritage), defines
the aura in terms of "distance,"
and permanence."
These
features
"uniqueness
elevated sphere that
are, of course, connected with the idea of a transcendentally
is thus distant from ordinary reality and permanent because
impervious
(through
its divinity) to change. Moreover,
connection with the distantly elevated divinity
as
as in the
aura
of monotheism
the
notion
of
artistic
well
makes
(in
authenticity
case of true
a matter also of
even in the
divinity)
uniqueness,
unity
mysterious
or the
of the divine trinity of the Christian godhead
plural instances of authentic
prints or sculptures that come from the same block or cast. See Walter Benjamin,
"The Work of Art in the Age ofMechanical
in Illuminations (New
Reproduction,"
York: Schocken,
1968), 222-23. In contrast, the aura of Zen aesthetic experiences
and the proximity of the everyday and the common;
impermanence
highlights
hence, reproducibility here does not have to destroy the aura.


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Art and Religion

Author(s): Richard Shusterman

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Art and Religion

and philosophy will be replaced by poetry."3

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that art has

as an essentially sanctified domain of higher spiritual values, beyond the

tifully visit for spiritual edification, just as religious devotees have

In advocating a pragmatist aesthetics I have criticized this otherworldly

ideology aimed at disempowering

turies of modern philosophical

the artist who

remain so powerfully appealing despite thewidespread

But a contrary yet equally

if there is simply some deeply indissoluble linkbetween art and religion?

philosophy of artwill be seen to express themetaphysics and ideologies

ferentmetaphysics of religion engender differentphilosophies of aesthetic

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Art and Religion

of religion and art, letme brieflydispose of philosophy. Through itsmodern

ally tinged spirituality. Itprefers, at least in itsdominant form, tomaintain

ral and with dogmatic theological faith in truthsabout theworld's creation

long and appallingly painful history of religious discrimination, intoler

tightlyknit and explosively globalized world. Religion (whose Latin etymol

the last of the three great Abrahamic

orthodox Jews.But that isnothing in comparison to today's tragicbloodshed

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the joys of mystery

discredited otherworldly beliefs. As Arnold

thereforeargues, art iswhere

founding fathers and the philosophical inspiration of the Bloomsbury aes

secular philosophers like the pragmatist Richard Rorty. In rejecting religion

for the unifying,

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Art and Religion

them. "All other forms of communication divide society" by appealing

proponents of elite and popular arts (thatoccasionally, as in theNew York As

into real bloodshed),

workings in the past, it is hard to believe thathumankind would have de

valuable features of religionwhile minimizing or refiningout thebad. John

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the various traditional religions emerged. (For he

social culture inwhich"

sion (CF 11-13).Moreover, in affirming that "any activity pursued inbehalf

tached topractical affairs.Poetry is called religionwhen it intervenes in life,

purposes of life" (CF 13), should not be a mere playful, compartmentalized

of art for art's

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Art and Religion

solidly connected with thewebs of beliefs, practices, and institutions that

pological sense, is indissolubly linked to religion. In that important sense

out history "no culture has appeared or developed

of the observer, the culturewill appear to be the product of the religion, or

life are more

simply display) of religiously controversial art.

even in the mod

repeatedly deployed by nonreligious philosophers of art in the analytic

This content downloaded on Thu, 21 Feb 2013 18:59:28 PM

tradition, it seems hard to appreciate without taking seriously its religious

I refer to the notion

has made the concept of transfiguration thekeystone ofhis philosophy of art.

that art requires

brated by the firstonline aesthetics conference), Danto deployed