Review Notes

Chapter 12
SOLUTIONS homogeneous mixtures - consist of SOLUTE and SOLVENT
ENERGETICS
To make a solution, must BREAK interparticles forces in both solute and solvent
MAKE new interparticle forces.
BROKEN ONES CANNOT BE MUCH STRONGER THAN MADE ONES - otherwise solution
will not form:
Always get increase in entropy; can have both exo- and endothermic.
FORCES
Usual ones (ionic, H-bonding, dipole-dipole, London dispersion) when mixing substances that have
SAME type of forces
When different:
Solute and Solvent Solution Comments
IONIC + H-Bonding or DIPOLE-DIPOLE Ion-dipole Ionic substances + water
IONIC + LONDON DISPERSION Ion-induced dipole Rarely happen
DIPOLE-DIPOLE + London Dipole-induced dipole
SOLUTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM
Unsaturated can add more solute
Saturated maximum amount of solute - usually in contact with undissolved solute
Supersaturated too much solute - v. unstable
Temperature If making solution is endothermic, inc. temp. inc. solubility
If making solution is exothermic, inc. temp. dec. solubility
Pressure affects solubility of gases: Henry's Law:
solubility = constant (kH) x pressure
QUANTIFYING SOLUTIONS
molarity = moles solute / liters of solution
molality = moles solute / kg of solvent
moles fraction of X = moles of X / total moles
mass % of X = [mass of X / total mass] x 100
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Depend upon amount of solute (concentration)
Vapor Pressure DECREASES with increasing concentration - Raoult's Law
vapor press. of solution = vapor press. of solvent x mole fraction of solvent
Boiling Point INCREASES with increasing concentration
Each solvent has constant (Kbp):
CHANGE in boiling point (ΔTbp) = Kbp x molality of solution
(boiling point of solution = boiling point of solvent + change in boiling point)
Freezing Point DECREASES with increasing concentration
Each solvent has constant (Kfp):
CHANGE in freezing point (ΔTfp) = Kfp x molality of solution
(freezing point of solution = freezing point of solvent - change in freezing point)
Molar Mass of Solute from Point change Molar mass = (grams solute x k)
ΔT x kg solvent
ALL OF ABOVE DEPEND UPON NUMBER OF PARTICLES - IONIC SPLIT UP
INCREASING NUMBER OF PARTICLES SO INCREASE EFFECT
Osmotic Pressure - Osmosis is flow of solvent from less concentrated solution to more concentrated
one. Osmotic pressure is pressure that must be applied to stop process.
Π = molarity x R x T (R = 0.082, T = in Kelvin)
Molar Mass of Solute from Osmotic Pressure Molar mass = (grams solute x R x
T) / V x Π

Heat of Solution determines solubility

- If too endothermic, + heat of solution, substance may not dissolve

- Systems tend to fall to a higher entropy and lower enthalpy

- More entropy with gases than solids

Temperature and Gas Solubility

- Gas Solubility decreases with increasing temperature

- As the temperature increases more energy is given to the gas

particles in the solution. This allows the gas particles to overcome

any ‘gas particle – solvent’ interactions and return to the gas phase.
 - You have to INCREASE pressure in order to make gas soluble

Heats of Hydration

- Solvation of ions by water is always exothermic( gas to liquid)

Lattice Energy

- Formation of solid by gaseous ions ( gas to solid)

- Vapor pressure lowering: The vapor pressure of a solution of a

nonvolatile non-electrolyte is always lower than the vapor pressure of

the pure solvent.

Pentene: C5H12

Benzene: C6H6