National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO POST-FRAME BUILDINGS

1.1 General or masonry foundation. Figure 1.1 illustrates the

1.1.1 Main Characteristics. Post-frame build-
ings are structurally efficient buildings composed
of main members such as posts and trusses and
secondary components such as purlins, girts,
bracing and sheathing Snow and wind loads are
transferred from the sheathing to the secondary
members. Loads are transferred to the ground
through the posts that typically are embedded in
the ground or surface-mounted to a concrete
structural components of a post-frame building.
1.1.2 Use. Post-frame construction is well-
suited for many commercial, industrial, agricul-
tural and residential applications. Post-frame
offers unique advantages in terms of design and
construction flexibility and structural efficiency.
For these reasons, post-frame construction has
experienced rapid growth, particularly in non-
agricultural applications.

Roof cladding
Ridge cap

Purlin

Truss
Wall cladding

Doorway
Pressure
preservative
treated post
Pressure preservative treated splash board

Concrete footing
Wall
girt

Figure 1.1. Simplified diagram of a post-frame building. Some components such as per-
manent roof truss bracing and interior finishes are not shown.

1-1
 National Frame Builders Association
1.2 Evolution
1.2.1 The concept of pole-type structures is not
new. Archeological evidence exists in abun-
dance that pole buildings have been used for
human housing for thousands of years. In Amer-
ica, pole buildings began appearing on farms in
the 19th century (Norum, 1967).
1.2.2 Pole-type construction resurfaced in 1930
when Mr. H. Howard Doane introduced the
"modern pole barn" as an economical alternative
to conventional barns (Knight, 1989). Mr. Doane
was the founder of Doane's Agricultural Service,
a firm specializing in managing farms for absen-
tee owners. These early pole barns were con-
structed with red cedar poles that were naturally
resistant to decay, trusses spaced 2 ft on-
center, 1-inch nominal purlins and galvanized
steel sheathing.
In the 1940s, pole barn construction was refined
by using creosote preservative-treated sawn
posts, wider truss and purlin spacings, and im-
proved steel sheathing. Mr. Bernon G. Perkins,
an employee of Doane's, is credited for many of
the refinements to Doane's original pole barn. In
1949, Mr. Perkins applied for the first patent on
the pole building concept through Doane's Agri-
cultural Service, and the patent was issued in
1953. Rather than protecting their patent, they
publicized the concept and encouraged its use
throughout the world. In 1995, the post-frame
building concept was recognized as an Historic
Agricultural Engineering Landmark by the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
1.2.3 In the past two decades, post-frame con-
struction has been further enhanced by the de-
velopments of metal-plate connected wood
trusses, nail- and glue-laminated posts, high-
strength steel sheathing, fasteners and dia-
phragm design methods. Composites such as
laminated posts and structural composite lumber
offer advantages of superior strength and stiff-
ness, dimensional stability, and they can be ob-
tained in a variety of sizes and pressure pre-
servative treatments. Developments in metal-
plate connected wood truss technology allow
clear spans of over 80 feet. Design procedures
were introduced in the early 1980s to more ac-
curately account for the effect of diaphragm ac-
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
tion on post and foundation design (Knight,
1990). New roof panel constructions using high-
strength steel and customized screw fasteners
have dramatically improved diaphragm stiffness
and strength.
1.3 Advantages
1.3.1 Reliability. Outstanding structural per-
formance of post-frame buildings under adverse
conditions such as hurricanes is well-
documented. Professor Gurfinkel, in his wood
engineering textbook, cites superior perform-
ance of post-frame buildings over conventional
construction during hurricane Camille in 1969
(Gurfinkel, 1981). Harmon et. al (1992) reported
that post-frame buildings constructed according
to engineered plans generally withstood hurri-
cane Hugo (wind gusts measured at 109 mph).
Since post-frame buildings are relatively light
weight, seismic forces do not control the design
unless significant additional dead loads are ap-
plied to the structure (Faherty and Williamson,
1989; Taylor, 1996).
1.3.2 Economy. Significant savings can be ob-
tained with post-frame construction in terms of
materials, labor, construction time, equipment
and building maintenance. For example, post-
frame buildings require less extensive founda-
tions than other building types because the wall
sections between the posts are non-load bear-
ing. Embedded post foundations commonly
used in post-frame require less concrete, heavy
equipment, labor, and construction time than
conventional perimeter foundations. Additionally,
embedded post foundations are better-suited for
wintertime construction.
1.3.3 Versatility. Post-frame construction facili-
tates design flexibility. Posts can be embedded
into the ground or surface-mounted to a con-
crete foundation. Steel sheathing can be re-
placed with wood siding, brick veneer, and con-
ventional roofing materials, to satisfy the ap-
pearance and service requirements of the cus-
tomer. One-hour fire-rated wall and roof/ceiling
constructions have been developed for wood
framed assemblies. Exposed glued-laminated
and solid-sawn timbers can be substituted for
trusses made from dimension lumber to achieve
desired architectural effects.
 National Frame Builders Association
1.4 Industry Profile
1.4.1 Post-frame construction has experienced
tremendous growth since World War II. This
growth was fueled by the abundant supplies of
steel and pressure preservative-treated wood,
together with the need for low-cost structures. In
the 1950s and 1960s, the pole barn industry
was characterized by large numbers of inde-
pendent builders (Knight, 1989). During this
time, pole builders were expanding from their
traditional agricultural base into other construc-
tion markets. This expansion into code-enforced
construction required rigorous documentation of
engineering designs and more involvement in
the building code arena.
1.4.2 NFBA. Approximately 20 builders met in
1969 to discuss challenges facing the post-
frame building industry. The group voted in favor
of forming the National Frame Builders Associa-
tion (NFBA). The NFBA became incorporated in
1971 and the first national headquarters was
established in Chicago, Illinois. Today, the Na-
tional Frame Builders Association is headquar-
tered in Lawrence, Kansas and includes over
300 contractors and suppliers, with regional
branches throughout the U.S. In addition, a Ca-
nadian Division of NFBA was created in 1984.
1.4.3 The post-frame industry has become one
of the fastest growing segments of the total con-
struction industry. Based on light-gauge steel
sales, post-frame industry revenues are esti-
mated to be from 2 to 2.5 billion dollars in 1990.
1.5 Terminology
AF&PA: American Forest & Paper Association
(formerly National Forest Products Association).
AITC: American Institute of Timber Construc-
tion.
ALSC: American Lumber Standard Committee.
ANSI: American National Standards Institute
APA: The Engineered Wood Association (for-
merly the American Plywood Association)
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
ASAE: The Society for engineering in agricul-
tural, food, and biological systems (formerly
American Society of Agricultural Engineers).
Anchor Bolts: Bolts used to anchor structural
members to a foundation. Commonly used in
post-frame construction to anchor posts to the
concrete foundation.
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers.
AWC: American Wood Council. The wood prod-
ucts division of the American Forest & Paper
Association (AF&PA).
AWPB: American Wood Preservers Bureau.
Bay: The area between adjacent primary frames
in a building. In a post-frame building, a bay is
the area between adjacent post-frames.
Bearing Height: Vertical distance between a
pre-defined baseline (generally the grade line)
and the bearing point of a component.
Bearing Point: The point at which a component
is supported.
Board: Wood member less than two (2) nominal
inches in thickness and one (1) or more nominal
inches in width.
Board-Foot (BF): A measure of lumber volume
based on nominal dimensions. To calculate the
number of board-feet in a piece of lumber, multi-
ply nominal width in inches by nominal thickness
in inches times length in feet and divide by 12.
BOCA: Building Officials & Code Administrators
International, Inc. The organization responsible
for maintaining and publishing the National
Building Code.
Bottom Chord: An inclined or horizontal mem-
ber that establishes the bottom of a truss.
Bottom Plank: See Splashboard.
Butt Joint: The interface at which the ends of
two members meet in a square cut joint.
 National Frame Builders Association
Camber: A predetermined curvature designed
into a structural member to offset the anticipated
deflection when loads are applied.
Check: Separation of the wood that usually ex-
tends across the annual growth rings (i.e., a split
perpendicular-to-growth rings). Commonly re-
sults from stresses that build up in wood during
seasoning.
Cladding: The exterior and interior coverings
fastened to the wood framing.
Clear Height: Vertical distance between the
finished floor and the lowest part of a truss, raf-
ter, or girder.
Collars: Components that increase the bearing
area of portions of the post foundation, and thus
increase lateral and vertical resistance.
Components and Cladding: Elements of the
building envelope that do not qualify as part of
the main wind-force resisting system. In post-
frame buildings, this generally includes individ-
ual purlins and girts, and cladding.
Diaphragm: A structural assembly comprised of
structural sheathing (e.g., plywood, metal clad-
ding) that is fastened to wood or metal framing
in such a manner the entire assembly is capable
of transferring in-plane shear forces.
Diaphragm Action: The transfer of load by a
diaphragm.
Diaphragm Design: Design of roof and ceiling
diaphragm(s), wall diaphragms (shearwalls),
primary and secondary framing members, com-
ponent connections, and foundation anchorages
for the purpose of transferring lateral (e.g., wind)
loads to the foundation structure.
Dimension Lumber: Wood members from two
(2) nominal inches to but not including five (5)
nominal inches in thickness, and 2 or more
nominal inches in width.
Eave: The part of a roof that projects over the
sidewalls. In the absence of an overhang, the
eave is the line along the sidewall formed by the
intersection of the wall and roof planes.
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Fascia: Flat surface (or covering) located at the
outer end of a roof overhang or cantilever end.
Flashing: Sheet metal or plastic components
used at major breaks and/or openings in walls
and roofs to insure weather-tightness in a struc-
ture.
Footing: Support base for a post or foundation
wall that distributes load over a greater soil area.
Frame Spacing: Horizontal distance between
post-frames (see post-frame and post-frame
building). In the absence of posts, the frame
spacing is generally equated to the distance be-
tween adjacent trusses (or rafters). Frame spac-
ing may vary within a building.
Gable: Triangular portion of the endwall of a
building directly under the sloping roof and
above the eave line.
Gable Roof: Roof with one slope on each side.
Each slope is of equal pitch.
Gambrel Roof: Roof with two slopes on each
side. The pitch of the lower slope is greater
than that of the upper slope.
Girder: A large, generally horizontal, beam.
Commonly used in post-frame buildings to sup-
port trusses whose bearing points do not coin-
cide with a post.
Girt: A secondary framing member that is at-
tached (generally at a right angle) to posts. Girts
laterally support posts and transfer load be-
tween wall cladding and posts.
Glued-Laminated Timber: Any member com-
prising an assembly of laminations of lumber in
which the grain of all laminations is approxi-
mately parallel longitudinally, in which the lami-
nations are bonded with adhesives.
Grade Girt: See Splashboard.
Grade Line (grade level): The line of intersec-
tion between the building exterior and the top of
the soil, gravel, and/or pavement in contact with
the building exterior. For post-frame building
 National Frame Builders Association
design, the grade line is generally assumed to
be no lower than the lower edge of the splash-
board.
Header: A structural framing member that sup-
ports the ends of structural framing members
that have been cut short by a floor, wall, ceiling,
or roof opening.
Hip Roof: Roof which rises by inclined planes
from all four sides of a building.
IBC: International Building Code.
ICBO: International Conference of Building Offi-
cials. The organization responsible for maintain-
ing and publishing the Uniform Building Code.
Knee Brace: Inclined structural framing member
connected on one end to a post/column and on
the other end to a truss/rafter.
Laminated Assembly: A structural member
comprised of dimension lumber fastened to-
gether with mechanical fasteners and/or adhe-
sive. Horizontally- and vertically-laminated as-
semblies are primarily designed to resist bend-
ing loads applied perpendicular and parallel to
the wide face of the lumber, respectively.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) A structural
composite lumber assembly manufactured by
gluing together wood veneer sheets. Each ve-
neer is orientated with its wood fibers parallel to
the length of the member. Individual veneer
thickness does not exceed 0.25 inches.
Loads: Forces or other actions that arise on
structural systems from the weight of all perma-
nent construction, occupants and their posses-
sions, environmental effects, differential settle-
ment, and restrained dimensional changes.
Dead Loads: Gravity loads due to the
weight of permanent structural and non-
structural components of the building, such
as wood framing, cladding, and fixed service
equipment.
Live Loads: Loads superimposed by the
construction, use and occupancy of the
building, not including wind, snow, seismic
or dead loads.
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Seismic Load: Lateral load acting in the
horizontal direction on a structure due to the
action of earthquakes.
Snow Load: A load imposed on a structure
due to accumulated snow.
Wind Loads: Loads caused by the wind
blowing from any direction.
Lumber Grade: The classification of lumber in
regard to strength and utility in accordance with
the grading rules of an approved (ALSC accred-
ited) lumber grading agency.
LVL: see Laminated Veneer Lumber.
Main Wind-Force Resisting System: An as-
semblage of structural elements assigned to
provide support and stability for the overall
structure. Main wind-force resisting systems in
post-frame buildings include the individual post-
frames, diaphragms and shearwall
Manufactured Component. A component that
is assembled in a manufacturing facility. The
wood trusses and laminated columns used in
post-frame buildings are generally manufactured
components.
MBMA: Metal Building Manufacturers Associa-
tion.
NDS®: National Design Specification® for
Wood Construction. Published by AF&PA.
Mechanically Laminated Assembly: A lami-
nated assembly in which wood laminations have
been joined together with nails, bolts and/or
other mechanical fasteners.
Metal Cladding: Metal exterior and interior cov-
erings, usually cold-formed aluminum or steel
sheet, fastened to the structural framing.
NFBA: National Frame Builders Association.
NFPA: National Fire Protection Association
Nominal size: The named size of a member,
usually different than actual size (as with lum-
ber).
 National Frame Builders Association
Orientated Strand Board (OSB): Structural
wood panels manufactured from reconstituted,
mechanically oriented wood strands bonded
with resins under heat and pressure.
Orientated Strand Lumber (OSL): Structural
composite lumber (SCL) manufactured from
mechanically oriented wood strands bonded
with resins under heat and pressure. Also
known as laminated strand lumber (LSL)
OSB: See Orientated Strand Board.
Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL): Structural com-
posite lumber (SCL) manufactured by cutting
1/8-1/10 inch thick wood veneers into narrow
wood strands, and then gluing and pressing the
strands together. Individual strands are up to 8
feet in length. Prior to pressing, strands are ori-
ented so that they are parallel to the length of
the member.
Pennyweight: A measure of nail length, abbre-
viated by the letter d.
Plywood: A built-up panel of laminated wood
veneers. The grain orientation of adjacent ve-
neers are typically 90 degrees to each other.
Pole: A round, unsawn, naturally tapered post.
Post: A rectangular member generally uniform
in cross section along its length. Post may be
sawn or laminated dimension lumber. Com-
monly used in post-frame construction to trans-
fer loads from main roof beams, trusses or raf-
ters to the foundation.
Post Embedment Depth: Vertical distance be-
tween the bottom of a post and the lower edge
of the splashboard.
Post Foundation: The embedded portion of a
structural post and any footing and/or attached
collar.
Post Foundation Depth: Vertical distance be-
tween the bottom of a post foundation and the
lower edge of the splashboard.
Post-Frame: A structural building frame consist-
ing of a wood roof truss or rafters connected to
vertical timber columns or sidewall posts.
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Post-Frame Building: A building system whose
primary framing system is principally comprised
of post-frames.
Post Height: The length of the non-embedded
portion of a post.
Pressure Preservative Treated (PPT) Wood:
Wood pressure-impregnated with an approved
preservative chemical under approved treatment
and quality control procedures.
Primary Framing: The main structural framing
members in a building. The primary framing
members in a post-frame building include the
columns, trusses/rafters, and any girders that
transfer load between trusses/rafters and col-
umns.
PSL: See Parallel Strand Lumber.
Purlin: A secondary framing member that is
attached (generally at a right angle) to rafters/
trusses. Purlins laterally support rafters and
trusses and transfer load between exterior clad-
ding and rafters/trusses.
Rafter: A sloping roof framing member.
Rake: The part of a roof that projects over the
endwalls. In the absence of an overhang, the
rake is the line along the endwall formed by the
intersection of the wall and roof planes.
Ridge: Highest point on the roof of a building
which describes a horizontal line running the
length of the building.
Ring Shank Nail: See threaded nail.
Roof Overhang: Roof extension beyond the
endwall/sidewall of a building.
Roof Slope: The angle that a roof surface
makes with the horizontal. Usually expressed in
units of vertical rise to 12 units of horizontal run.
SBC: Standard Building Code (see SBCCI).
SBCCI: Southern Building Code Congress In-
ternational, Inc. The organization responsible for
maintaining and publishing the Standard Build-
ing Code.
 National Frame Builders Association
Secondary Framing: Structural framing mem-
bers that are used to (1) transfer load between
exterior cladding and primary framing members,
and/or (2) laterally brace primary framing mem-
bers. The secondary framing members in a
post-frame building include the girts, purlins and
any structural wood bracing.
Self-Drilling Screw: A screw fastener that com-
bines the functions of drilling and tapping
(thread forming). Generally used when one or
more of the components to be fastened is metal
with a thickness greater than 0.03 inches
Self-Piercing Screw: A self-tapping (thread
forming) screw fastener that does not require a
pre-drilled hole. Differs from a self-drilling screw
in that no material is removed during screw in-
stallation. Used to connect light-gage metal,
wood, gypsum wallboard and other "soft" mate-
rials.
SFPA: Southern Forest Products Association
Shake: Separation of annual growth rings in
wood (splitting parallel-to-growth rings). Usually
considered to have occurred in the standing tree
or during felling.
Shearwall: A vertical diaphragm in a structural
framing system. A shearwall is any endwall,
sidewall, or intermediate wall capable of trans-
ferring in-plane shear forces.
Siphon Break: A small groove to arrest the cap-
illary action of two adjacent surfaces.
Soffit: The underside covering of roof over-
hangs.
Soil Pressure: Load per unit area that the foun-
dation of a structure exerts on the soil.
Span: Horizontal distance between two points.
Clear Span: Clear distance between adja-
cent supports of a horizontal or inclined
member. Horizontal distance between the
facing surfaces of adjacent supports.
Effective Span: Horizontal distance from
center-of-required-bearing-width to center-
of-required-bearing-width, or the "clear
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
span" for rafters and joists in conventional
construction.
Out-To-Out Span: Horizontal distance be-
tween the outer faces of supports. Com-
monly used in specifying metal-plate-
connected wood trusses.
Overall Span: Total horizontal length of an
installed horizontal or inclined member.
SPIB: Southern Pine Inspection Bureau.
Skirtboard: See Splashboard.
Splashboard: A preservative treated member
located at grade that functions as the bottom
girt. Also referred to as a skirtboard, splash
plank, bottom plank, and grade girt.
Splash Plank: See Splashboard.
Stitch (or Seam) Fasteners: Fasteners used to
connect two adjacent pieces of metal cladding,
and thereby adding shear continuity between
sheets.
Structural Composite Lumber (SCL): Recon-
stituted wood products comprised of several
laminations or wood strands held together with
an adhesive, with fibers primarily oriented along
the length of the member. Examples include
LVL and PSL.
Threaded Nail: A type of nail with either annual
or helical threads in the shank. Threaded nails
generally are made from hardened steel and
have smaller diameters than common nails of
similar length.
Timber: Wood members five or more nominal
inches in the least dimension.
Top Chord: An inclined or horizontal member
that establishes the top of a truss.
TPI: Truss Plate Institute.
Truss: An engineered structural component,
assembled from wood members, metal connec-
tor plates and/or other mechanical fasteners,
designed to carry its own weight and superim-
posed design loads. The truss members form a
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

semi-rigid structural framework and are assem- Harmon, J.D., G.R. Grandle and C.L. Barth.
bled such that the members form triangles. 1992. Effects of hurricane Hugo on agricultural
structures. Applied Engineering in Agriculture
UBC: Uniform Building Code (see ICBO). 8(1):93-96.

Wane: Bark, or lack of wood from any cause, on Knight, J.T. 1989. A brief look back. Frame
the edge or corner of a piece. Building Professional 1(1):38-43.

Warp: Any variation from a true plane surface. Knight, J.T. 1990. Diaphragm design - technol-
Warp includes bow, crook, cup, and twist, or any ogy driven by necessity. Frame Building Profes-
combination thereof. sional 1(5):16,44-46.

Bow: Deviation, in a direction perpendicular Norum, W.A. 1967. Pole buildings go modern.
to the wide face, from a straight line drawn Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.
between the ends of a piece of lumber. 93, No.ST2, Proc. Paper 5169, April, pp.47-56.

Crook: Deviation, in a direction perpendicu- Taylor, S.E. 1996. Earthquake considerations in

lar to the narrow edge, from a straight line post-frame building design. Frame Building
drawn between the ends of a piece of lum- News 8(3):42-49.
ber.

Cup: Deviation, in the wide face of a piece

of lumber, from a straight line drawn from
edge to edge of the piece.

Twist: A curl or spiral of a piece of lumber

along its length. Measured by laying lumber
on a flat surface such that three corners
contact the surface. The amount of twist is
equal to the distance between the flat sur-
face and the corner not contacting the sur-
face.

WCLIB: West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau

Web: Structural member that joins the top and

bottom chords of a truss. Web members form
the triangular patterns typical of most trusses.

WTCA: Wood Truss Council of America.

WWPA: Western Wood Products Association.

1.6 References

Faherty, K.F. and T.G. Williamson. 1989. Wood

Engineering and Construction Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York,
NY.

Gurfinkel, G. 1981. Wood Engineering (2nd Ed.).

Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque,
Iowa.

1-8
 National Frame Builders Association
Chapter 2: BUILDING CODES, DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
AND ZONING REGULATIONS
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Definition. A building code is a legal
document that helps ensure public health and
welfare by establishing minimum standards for
design, construction, quality of materials, use
and occupancy, location and maintenance of all
buildings and structures.
2.1.2 Model Versus Active Codes. A model
code is a code that is written for general use
(i.e., a code that is not written for use by a spe-
cific state, county, town, village, company or
individual). An active code is a model or spe-
cially written code that has been adopted and is
enforced by a regulatory agency such as a state
or local government. It follows that in a given
jurisdiction, acceptance of a model building code
is voluntary until the model code becomes part
of the active code in the jurisdiction.
2.1.3 Active Code Variations. The content and
administration of active building codes varies not
only between states, but frequently between
municipalities within a state. Some states have
established a hierarchy structure of state, county
and township/village/city building codes. In this
situation, more localized governing areas can
modify the state (or county) codes, provided the
changes result in more strict provisions.
Despite local differences in content and admini-
stration, most active building codes share the
common trait of regulating components of con-
struction based on building occupancy and use.
2.2 Major Model Building Codes
2.2.1 Current Codes. There are currently three
primary model building codes in the United
States. These are the Uniform Building Code
(UBC) published by the International Congress
of Building Officials, the National Building Code
published by the Building Officials and Code
Administrators International (BOCA) and the
Standard Building Code published by the
Southern Building Code Congress International
2-1
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
(SBCCI). These model building codes are com-
monly referred to as the UBC, BOCA and the
Southern Building Code, respectively.
2.2.2 Adoption. Most states have adopted (and
enforce) all or a major portion of one of the three
model building codes. As shown in figure 2.1,
western states have adopted the UBC, north-
eastern states the BOCA code, and states in the
southwest the Southern Building Code.
2.2.3 Development. Model building codes are
consensus documents continually studied and
annually revised by building officials, industry
representatives and other interested parties.
2.2.4 International Building Code. On De-
cember 9, 1994, the three model building code
agencies (BOCA, ICBO and SBCCI) created the
International Code Council (ICC). The ICC was
established in response to technical disparities
among the three major model codes. Since its
founding, the ICC has worked to create a single
model building code for the U.S. This code,
which is entitled the International Building Code
is now complete and will replace the three
model codes over the next couple years. With all
states adopting the same model code, it will be
less difficult for building designers to work in
different regions of the country.
2.3 Building Classification
2.3.1 General. Building codes give criteria for
classifying buildings based on: (1) use or occu-
pancy, and (2) type of construction.
2.3.2 Occupancy Classifications. Occupancy
classifications include assembly, business, edu-
cational, factory and industrial, high-hazard, in-
stitutional, mercantile, residential and storage.
Occupancy classifications have requirements on
the number of occupants and building separa-
tion, height and area. Other limits exist, for ex-
ample on lighting, ventilation, sanitation, fire
 National Frame Builders Association
Uniform Building Code (ICBO)
Standard Building
Figure 2.1. Approximate areas of model building code influence. Wisconsin and New
York building codes are developed by their respective state code agencies and are not
necessarily influenced by current model codes.
protection and exiting, depending on the specific
classification and building code.
2.3.2 Types of Construction. Classification by
type of construction is primarily based on the fire
resistance ratings of the walls, partitions, struc-
tural elements, floors, ceilings, roofs and exits.
Specific requirements vary somewhat between
model building codes.
There are two primary source documents for
determining the fire resistance of assemblies:
the Fire Resistance Design Manual, published
by the Gypsum Association, and the Fire Resis-
tance Directory, published by Underwriters
Laboratories, Inc.
The fire resistance of wood framed assemblies
can generally be increased by using fire retar-
dant treated (FRT) wood or larger wood mem-
bers. Codes allow FRT wood to be used in cer-
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
National Building
Code (BOCA)
Code (SBCCI)
tain areas of noncombustible construction. The
superior fire resistance of large timber members
is recognized by the codes with the inclusion of
a "heavy timber" classification. To qualify for
heavy timber construction, nominal dimensions
of timber columns must be at least 6- by 8-
inches and primary beams shall have nominal
width and depth of at least 6- by 10-inches.
2.3.2.1 NFBA Sponsored Fire Test. In
January of 1990, the National Frame Build-
ers Association had Warnick Hersey Inter-
national, Inc., conduct a one-hour fire en-
durance test on the exterior wall shown in
figure 2.2. The wall met all requirements for
a one-hour rating as prescribed in ASTM E-
119-88. The wall sustained an applied load
of 10,400 lbf per column throughout the test.
Copies of the fire test report can be obtained
from NFBA.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Attach metal cladding 12 in. o.c. with 1.5 in.

hex head screws with neoprene washers Metal cladding 29 gage

Section A-A
B

Gold Bond 5/8 in. Fireshield G Type X,

Unexposed nominal 2- attached with 1-7/8 in. cement coated nails
by 4-inch nailers 24 (0.0195 in. shank, 1/4 head, 7 in. o.c.)
in. o.c.

Nominal 2- by 4-inch
nailers, 24 in. o.c.
Fire side nailers, A A
nominal 2- by 4-inches
10 ft
24 in. o.c. FIRE SIDE 4-1/16- by 5-1/4-inch
glue-laminated column

Nominal 2- by 2-inch
3- by 24- by 48-inch blocking between nailers
mineral wool, attach with (nailed to nominal 2- by
3 in. square cap nails (3 6-inch edge blocks)
per 48 in. width)
Nail-laminated column fabricated from 3 nominal
2- by 6-inch No. 2 KD19 SP members
Nominal 2- by 4-inch blocking attached to column

B
Section B-B
1 ft 8 ft 1 ft

Figure 2.2. Construction details for exterior wall that obtained a one-hour fire endurance
rating during a January 1990 test conducted for the National Frame Builders Association
by Warnock Hersey International, Inc. Details of the test are available from NFBA upon
request.

2.4 Specifications and Standards
2.4.1 General. Design of buildings is covered in
the model building codes either by direct provi-
sions or by reference to approved engineering
specifications and standards. Engineering speci-
fications and standards provide criteria and data
needed for load calculation, design, testing and
material selection. They are based on the best
available information and engineering judgment.
2.4.2 Wood Design Specifications. The tech
nical literature for wood design and construction
is somewhat fragmented. New design specifica-
tions and standards are continually under devel-
opment, and existing documents are periodically
revised. Keeping abreast of this literature re-
quires a determined effort on the part of the de-
sign professional. To assist in this effort, Table
2.1 gives a partial list of engineering design
specifications, standards and other technical
references specifically related to post-frame
construction. The reader is encouraged to main-
tain communication with the organizations isted
in Table 2.1 concerning new and revised publi-
cations.

2-3
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Of the documents listed in Table 2.1, the primary
engineering design specification cited by the
model building codes for wood construction is
the National Design Specification® for Wood
Construction (NDS®), published by the American
Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA). The NDS
was first issued in 1944 and in 1992 it became a
consensus standard through the American Na-
tional Standards Institute (ANSI).
2.5 Zoning Regulations
2.5.1 General. Zoning laws are established to-
control construction activities and regulate land
use, in terms of types of occupancy, building
height, and density of population and activity.
Zoning laws may also dictate building appear-
ance and location on property, parking signs,
drainage, handicap accessibility, flood control
and landscaping. Typically land is zoned for
residential, commercial, industrial or agricultural
uses.
2.5.2 Development and Enforcement. Zoning
laws are developed by municipalities. They (and
building codes) are principally enforced by the
granting of building permits and inspection of
construction work in progress. Certificates of
occupancy are issued when completed buildings
satisfy all regulations.

Table 2.1. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and construction
Organization & Address Publications

Allowable stress design (ASD) manual for engineered wood

construction
National design specification® (NDS®) for wood construction
AF&PA
NDS commentary
American Forest & Paper Association
Design values for wood construction (NDS supplement)
1111 19th Street, N.W., Suite 800
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) manual for engi-
Washington, D.C. 20036
neered wood construction
http://www.awc.org/
Wood frame construction manual (WFCM) for one-and two-
family dwellings
Span tables for joists and rafters

AITC
American Inst. of Timber Construction
Timber construction manual
7012 S. Revere Parkway, Suite 140
Englewood, CO 80112

ANSI
American National Standards Institute ANSI/AF&PA National design specification for wood construc-
11 West 42nd Street tion (see AF&PA)
New York, NY 10036 ANSI Standard A190 structural glued laminated
http://www.ansi.org/

2-4
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 2.1. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and construction
Organization & Address Publications

APA
APA design/construction guide; residential and commercial
The Engineered Wood Association
Plywood design specification (PDS)
P.O. Box 11700
Diaphragms and shear walls
7011 South 19th Street
Performance standard for APA EWS I-joists
Tacoma, WA 98411
Panel handbook & grade glossary
http://www.apawood.org/

ASAE EP288 Agricultural building snow and wind loads

ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design of metal-clad, wood-frame
ASAE rectangular buildings
2950 Niles Road ASAE EP486 Post and pole foundation design
St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659 ASAE EP558 Load tests for metal-clad, wood-frame dia-
http://asae.org/ phragms
ANSI/ASAE EP559 Design requirements and bending proper-
ties for mechanically laminated columns

ASCE ASCE Standard 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and

American Society of Civil Engineers Other Structures
1801 Alexander Bell Drive Standard for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) for engi-
Reston, Virginia 20191-4400 neered wood construction
http://www.asce.org/ Guide to the use of the wind load provisions of ASCE 7-95

Standard C2 lumber, timbers, bridge ties and mine ties - pre-

servative treatment by pressure processes
Standard C15 wood for commercial-residential construction -
AWPA preservative treatment by pressure processes
American Wood Preservers Assoc. Standard C16 wood used on farms - preservative treatment by
P.O. Box 5690 pressure processes
Granbury, TX 76049 Standard C23 round poles and posts used in building construc-
tion - preservative treatment by pressure processes
Standard M4 standard for the care of preservative-treated wood
products

AWPI
American Wood Preservers Institute
Answers to often-asked questions about treated wood
2750 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 550
Management of used treated wood products booklet
Fairfax, Virginia 22031-4312
http://www.awpi.org/

Gypsum Association
810 First St., NE, #510 Fire resistance design manual GA-600
Washington DC, 20002 Design data - gypsum board GA-530
http://www.gypsum.org/

2-5
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 2.1. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and construction
Organization & Address Publications

ICC
International Code Council
http://www.intlcode.org/
International building code
International energy conservation code
BOCA International, Inc.
International zoning code
4051 West Flossmoor Road
International property maintenance code commentary
Country Club Hills, IL 50478-5794
International property maintenance code
http://www.bocai.org/
International fuel gas code
International mechanical code commentary
ICBO
International mechanical code
5360 Workman Mill Road
International mechanical code supplement
Whittier, CA 90601-2298
International private sewage disposal code
http://www.icbo.org/
International one and two family dwelling code
International plumbing code commentary
SBCCI, Inc.
International plumbing code
900 Montclair Road
Birmingham, AL 35213-1206
http://www.sbcci.org/

MBMA
Metal Building Manufacturers Assoc.
Low rise building systems manual
1300 Sumner Ave
Metal building systems
Cleveland, OH 44115-2851
http://www.mbma.com/

NFBA
National Frame Builders Association
4840 W. 15th St., Suite 1000 Post wall assembly fire test
Lawrence, KS 66049-3876
http://www.postframe.org/

NFPA NFPA 1: Fire prevention code

National Fire Protection Association NFPA 13: Installation of sprinkler
1 Batterymarch Park NFPA 70: National electrical code
Quincy, MA 02269-9101 NFPA 72: National fire alarm code
http://www.nfpa.org/ NFPA 101: Life safety code

SPIB
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau Grading rules
4709 Scenic Highway Standard for mechanically graded lumber
Pensacola, Fl. 32504-9094 Kiln drying southern pine
http://www.SPIB.org/

2-6
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 2.1. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and construction
Organization & Address Publications

Southern pine use guide

SFPA & Southern Pine Council
Southern pine joists & rafters: construction guide
Southern Forest Products Association
Southern pine joists & rafters: maximum spans
P. O. Box 641700
Post-frame construction guide
Kenner, LA 70064-1700
Southern pine headers and beams
http://www.southernpine.com/
Pressure-treated southern pine
http://www.SFPA.org/
Permanent wood foundations: design & construction guide

ANSI/TPI 1-1995 National design standard for metal plate con-

nected wood truss construction
HIB-91 Summary sheet: handling, installing & bracing metal
TPI plate connected wood trusses
Truss Plate Institute HIB-98 Post frame summary sheet: recommendations for han-
583 D'Onofrio Drive, Suite 200 dling, installing & temporary bracing metal plate connected
Madison, WI 53719 wood trusses used in post-frame construction
HET-80 Handling & erecting wood trusses: commentary and
recommendations
DSB-89 Recommended design specifications for temporary
bracing of metal plate connected wood trusses

UL
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
333 Pfingsten Road Fire resistance directory
Northbrook, IL 60062-2096
http://www.ul.com/

WTCA
Metal plate connected wood truss handbook
Wood Truss Council of America
Commentary for permanent bracing of metal plate connected
One WTCA Center
wood trusses
6425 Normandy Lane
Standard responsibilities in the design process involving metal
Madison, WI 53711
plate connected wood trusses
http://www.woodtruss.com/

WWPA
Western Wood Products Association
522 SW Fifth Ave., Suite 500
Portland, Oregon 97204-2122
http://www.wwpa.org/
Western woods use book
Western lumber span tables
Western lumber grading rules

2-7
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

2-8
 National Frame Builders Association
Chapter 3: STRUCTURAL LOAD AND DEFLECTION CRITERIA
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Load Variations. Most structural loads
exhibit some degree of random behavior. For
example, weather-related loads such as snow,
wind and rain fluctuate over time and locations.
Extensive research has been conducted to
characterize this load variation, and to refine
procedures for determining design loads within
the context of the intended building occupancy
and use.
3.1.2 Codes. Calculation procedures for mini-
mum design loads are given in the model build-
ing codes. Buildings shall be designed to safely
carry all loads specified by the governing build-
ing code. In the absence of a code, minimum
design loads shall be calculated according to
recommended engineering practice for the re-
gion and application under consideration.
It is impractical to describe detailed load calcula-
tion procedures in this chapter because of dif-
ferences between building codes and frequent
revisions of these codes. Instead, general con-
cepts and key references related to structural
loads and deflection criteria are presented, with
an emphasis on issues that apply to post-frame
buildings.
3.2 Technical References on
Structural Load Determination
3.2.1 ANSI/ASCE 7 Standard. The National
Bureau of Standards published a report titled
Minimum Live Load Allowable for Use in Design
of Buildings in 1924. The report was expanded
and published as ASA Standard A58.1-1945.
This standard has undergone several revisions
to become the current ASCE Standard
ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Build-
ings and Other Structures. At the time this de-
sign manual was written, the most recent revi-
sion of ASCE 7 was 1999 (ASCE, 1999); how-
ever, the edition most commonly used is ASCE
7-93. The ASCE 7 standard is periodically re-
vised and balloted through the ANSI consensus
3-1
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
approval process, and then must be adopted by
the model building codes. Design professionals
should check the governing building code for the
latest adopted edition. For clarity of presenta-
tion, this manual uses and will refer to ASCE 7-
93.
ASCE 7-93 is the primary technical source used
by the model codes concerning dead, live,
snow, wind, rain and seismic loads. Basically,
the model codes attempt to distill the rigorous
ASCE 7-93 procedures into a simpler, easy-to-
use format. Many specific load calculation pro-
cedures differ between the model codes; how-
ever, most of the basic concepts mimic ASCE 7-
93. Background information on the wind load
provisions in ASCE 7-88 (which are essentially
the same as in ASCE 7-93) are given by Mehta
et al. (1991).
3.2.2 Low Rise Building Systems Manual.
The Low Rise Building Systems Manual, pub-
lished by the Metal Building Manufacturers As-
sociation (1986), is recognized by model build-
ing codes as an excellent technical resource
document for calculating structural loads on low-
rise buildings (e.g. post-frame buildings). This
document will be referred to as MBMA-86
throughout this manual. Because wind and
crane loads frequently control the design of low-
rise metal buildings, the coverage of these loads
within MBMA-86 is especially thorough. Another
attractive feature of MBMA-86 is the extensive
collection of example load calculations.
3.2.3 ASAE EP288.5 Standard. Agricultural
buildings generally fall into a separate class
from other types of buildings due to the lower
risks involved. The American Society of Agricul-
tural Engineers publishes a snow and wind load
standard, EP288.5, intended for agricultural
buildings (ASAE, 1999). The major differences
between agricultural and other types of buildings
are that lower values are used for importance
and roof snow conversion factors (due to rela-
tively lower risk factors for property and non-
public use). If the local governing building code
applies to agricultural buildings, then the design
load criteria in the code must be followed.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 3.1. Approximate Weights of Construction Materials (from Hoyle and Woeste, 1989)
Weight Weight
Material Material
(lb/ft2) (lb/ft2)

Ceilings Roofs (continued)

Acoustical fiber tile 1.0 Plywood (per inch thickness) 3.0
Gypsum board (see Walls) Roll roofing 1.0
Mechanical duct allowance 4.0 Shingles
Suspended steel channel system 2.0 Asphalt 2.0
Wood purlins (see Wood, Seasoned) Clay tile 9.0-14.0
Light gauge steel (see Roofs) Book tile, 2-in. 12.0
Book tile, 3-in 20.0
Floors Ludowici 10.0
Hardwood, 1-in. nominal 4.0 Roman 12.0
Plywood (see Roofs) Slate, ¼ in. 10.0
Linoleum, 1/4-in. 1.0 Wood 3.0
Vinyl tile, 1/8-in. 1.4
Walls
Roofs Wood paneling, 1-in. 2.5
Corrugated Aluminum Glass, plate, 1/4-in. 3.3
14 gauge 1.1 Gypsum board (per 1/8-in. thick- 0.55
16 gauge 0.9 Masonry, per 4-in. thickness
18 gauge 0.7 Brick 38.0
20 gauge 0.6 Concrete block 20.0
Built-Up Cinder concrete block 20.0
3-ply 1.5 Stone 55.0
3-ply with gravel 5.5 Porcelain-enameled steel 3.0
5-ply 2.5 Stucco, 7/8-in. 10.0
5-ply with gravel 6.5 Windows, glass, frame, and sash 8.0
Corrugated Galvanized steel
16 gauge 2.9 Wood, Seasoned Density
18 gauge 2.4 lb/ft3
20 gauge 1.8 Cedar 32.0
22 gauge 1.5 Douglas-fir 34.0
24 gauge 1.3 Hemlock 31.0
26 gauge 1.0 Maple, red 37.0
29 gauge 0.8 Oak 45.0
Insulation, per inch thickness Poplar, yellow 29.0
Rigid fiberboard, wood base 1.5 Pine, lodgepole 29.0
Rigid fiberboard, mineral base 2.1 Pine, ponderosa 28.0
Expanded polystyrene 0.2 Pine, Southern 35.0
Fiberglass, rigid 1.5 Pine, white 27.0
Fiberglass, batt 0.1 Redwood 28.0
Lumber (see Wood, Seasoned) Spruce 29.0

3-2
 National Frame Builders Association
3.3 Minimum Design Loads
Sections 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8 give general
load requirements, sources of load data and
references for making detailed load calculations.
Detailed calculation procedures are not provided
due to differences between the model codes
and the frequency of code revisions.
3.4 Dead Loads
3.4.1 Definition. Dead loads are the gravity
loads due to the combined weights of all perma-
nent structural and nonstructural components of
the building, such as sheathing, trusses, purlins,
girts and fixed service equipment. These loads
are constant in magnitude and location through-
out the life of the building.
3.4.2 Code Application. Minimum design dead
loads shall be determined according to the gov-
erning building code. In the absence of a build-
ing code, dead load data can be found in ASCE
7-93, or actual weights of materials and equip-
ment can be used.
3.4.3 Special Considerations. Design dead
loads that exceed the weights of construction
materials and permanent fixtures are permitted,
except for when checking building stability under
wind loading. Using inflated design dead loads
may lead to conservative designs for gravity
load conditions; however, it would not be a con-
servative assumption for designing anchorage to
counteract uplift, overturning and sliding due to
wind loads. In the cases of wind uplift and over-
turning, the dead load used in design must not
exceed the actual dead load of the construction.
3.4.4 Weights of Construction Materials. Ta-
ble 3.1 lists approximate weights of materials.
commonly used in post-frame construction.
3.5 Live Loads
3.5.1 Definition. Live loads are defined as the
loads superimposed by the construction, main-
tenance, use and occupancy of the building, and
therefore do not include wind, snow, seismic or
dead loads.
3-3
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Technical Note
Horizontal Uniform Dead Load Calculation
Many structural analysis programs (e.g. Purdue
Plane Structures Analyzer) require that the dead
load associated with a sloping surface be repre-
sented as a uniform load, wDL, acting on a hori-
zontal plane as shown in figure 3.1. For a given
horizontal distance, bH, a sloping roof surface
contains more material and is heavier than a flat
one. Thus, wDL increases as roof slope in-
creases.
Load wDL is obtained by multiplying the unit
weight of the roof assembly, wR, by the slope
length, bS, and dividing the resulting product by
the horizontal length, bH. Numerically, this is
equivalent to dividing wR by the cosine of the
roof slope.
Example: For a roof at a 4:12 slope, with materi-
als weighing 4 lbm for each square foot of roof
surface area, the equivalent load, wDL, to apply
to the horizontal plane would be:
wDL = (4 lbm/ft2)/(cos 18.4°) = 4.21 lbm/ft2
wDL
bH
Roof assembly
with weight wR
per unit area
Rafter or truss θ
top chord
bS
Figure 3.1. Roof dead load represented by an
equivalent uniform load acting on a horizontal
plane.
3.5.2 Code Application. Design live loads shall
be determined so as to provide for the service
requirements of the building, but should never
be lower than the minimum live load specified in
 National Frame Builders Association
the governing building code. In the absence of a
governing building code, the minimum live loads
found in ASCE 7-93 are recommended. The
minimum roof live load recommended for agri-
cultural buildings in ASAE Standard EP288.5 is
12 psf. Some agricultural buildings do not nec-
essarily pose a "low risk", and the ASAE higher
minimum live load reflects the possibility of high-
value agricultural constructions now common in
the United States
3.5.3 Reductions. In some cases, reductions
are allowed for uniform loads to account for the
low likelihood of the loads simultaneously occur-
ring over the entire tributary area.
3.6 Snow Loads
3.6.1 Code Application. Minimum design snow
loads shall be determined by the provisions of
the governing building code. The presentation of
snow loads varies among the model codes, but
they all follow the basic concepts presented in
ASCE 7-93. In the absence of a building code,
procedures given in ASCE 7-93 are recom-
mended. For low-risk agricultural buildings,
snow load calculation procedures given in ASAE
EP288.5 are permitted.
3.6.2 Ground Snow Load Maps. ASCE 7-93
presents ground snow load maps that corre-
spond to a mean recurrence interval of 50 years.
These maps do not give snow load values for
areas that are subject to extreme variations in
snowfall, such as western mountain regions. In
some regions, the best and only reliable source
for ground snow loads is local climatic records.
3.6.3 Roof Snow Loads. Roof snow loads are
influenced by a number of factors besides
ground snow load. These factors include roof
slope, temperature and coefficient of friction of
the roof surface, and wind exposure. Snow
loads are also adjusted by an importance factor
to account for risk to property and people. The
basic form of the snow load calculation found in
ASCE 7-93 is:
pf = R Ce Ct I Cs Pg (3-1)
where:
3-4
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
pf = roof snow load in psf,
R = roof snow factor that relates roof
load to ground snowpack,
Ce = snow exposure factor,
Ct = roof temperature factor,
I = importance factor,
Cs = roof slope factor, and
Pg = ground snow load in psf (50-yr
mean recurrence).
The roof snow factor, R, varies from 0.6 for
Alaska to 0.7 for the contiguous United States.
The snow exposure factor in the model codes
accounts for the combined effects of R and Ce
given in Equation 3-1. The thermal factor de-
fined in ASCE 7-93 varies from 1.0 for heated
structures to 1.2 for unheated structures. The
thermal factor is not included in the model build-
ing codes. The importance factors range from
0.8 to 1.2 depending on the specific building
code. Roof slope factors vary linearly from 0 to 1
as roof slope increases from 15 to 70 degrees.
3.6.5 Special Considerations. Several factors,
such as multiple gables, roof discontinuities, and
drifting can cause snow to accumulate unevenly
on roofs. These factors must be considered in
the design. Specific recommendations and cal-
culation procedures are given in the model
codes and ASCE 7-93.
3.7 Wind Loads
3.7.1 Controlling Factors. Wind loads are in-
fluenced by wind speed, building orientation and
geometry, building openings and exposure.
Wind loading on structures is a complex phe-
nomenon and is being actively researched.
3.7.2 Code Application. Minimum design wind
loads shall be determined by the provisions of
the governing building code. In the absence of a
building code, procedures given in ASCE 7-93
or MBMA-86 are recommended. For low-risk
agricultural buildings, wind load calculation pro-
cedures given in ASAE EP288.5 are permitted.
3.7.3 Design Wind Speed. ASCE 7-93 gives a
map showing basic wind speeds throughout the
United States that correspond to a mean recur-
rence interval of 50 years. Local weather rec-
 National Frame Builders Association
ords should be used in regions that have un-
usual wind events. Detailed procedures and il-
lustrations for calculating wind loads on low-rise
buildings are given in MBMA-86.
Technical Note
Wind Speed
Wind speeds are derived from data which reflect
both magnitude and duration. Wind speeds can
be reported as peak gusts, or can be averaged
over some time interval. The time interval may
be fixed, as with mean hourly speeds, or vari-
able, as with “fastest-mile” wind speeds. Fast-
est-mile wind speeds are used in ANSI/ASCE 7-
93 to calculate design loads, and are defined on
the basis of the period of time that one mile of
wind takes to pass an anemometer at a stan-
dard elevation of 10 meters. The U.S. National
Weather Service no longer collects fastest-mile
wind speed data; instead, they record 3-second
gust speeds. The 1995 and later revisions of
ASCE-7 base wind loads on 3-second gust wind
speeds.
3.7.4 Effective Wind Velocity Pressure. The
first step in determining wind loads is to calcu-
late the effective wind velocity pressure. The
most severe exposure factors that will apply dur-
ing the service life of the structure should be
used. Wind velocity pressure is a function of the
wind speed, exposure and importance. The
equation for calculating wind velocity pressure,
qz , is given by:
qz = 0.00256 Kz (I V)2 (3-2)
where:
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coeffi-
cient,
I = importance factor, and
V = basic wind speed in mph (50-year
mean recurrence interval).
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient is a
function of height above ground and exposure
category. Exposure categories account for the
effects of ground surface irregularities caused
by natural topography, vegetation, location and
building construction features. ASCE 7-93 lists
four wind exposure categories, whereas the
3-5
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
model codes publish fewer exposure categories.
Importance factors vary from 0.95 for agricul-
tural buildings (25-year recurrence interval) to
1.07 for buildings that represent a high hazard to
property and people in the event of failure (100-
year recurrence interval). Wind pressure is re-
lated to the square of its speed, therefore the
terms V and I are squared in equation 3-2. The
model building codes simplify the calculation in
equation 3-2 by publishing tables of effective
wind velocity pressures, Pb, for a base wind
speed and various heights.
3.7.5 Pressure Coefficients. Wind loads are
calculated for each part of the building by multi-
plying the effective wind pressure by a pressure
coefficient. The pressure coefficient, which may
be different for each planar portion of the build-
ing, accounts for building orientation, geometry
and load sharing. It also accounts for localized
pressures at eaves, overhangs, corners, etc.
Wind pressures, qi, for the ith building surface
are calculated by:
qi = Cpi qz (3-3)
where:
Cpi = ith pressure coefficient, and
qz = wind velocity pressure.
The wind velocity pressure is based on the wall
height for the windward wall and on the mean
roof height for the leeward wall and roof. Wind
pressures act normal to the building surfaces.
Inward pressures are denoted with positive
signs, while outward pressures (suction) are
denoted with negative signs.
Technical Note
Components of Wind Load
Many structural analysis programs require uni-
form loads to be entered in terms of their hori-
zontal and vertical components. Wind loads act
normal to building surfaces, so an adjustment is
needed for sloping members such as roof
trusses. The roof wind load, w, shown in figure
3.2a is equivalent to the horizontal and vertical
components shown in figure 3.2b. The relation-
ship depicted in figure 3.2 can be proven as fol-
lows:
 National Frame Builders Association
1. Convert the uniform wind load, w, to its re-
sultant vector force.
R = w (span)/(cos θ)
2. Multiply resultant force, R, by cos θ to obtain
its vertical component.
Fy = R (cos θ) = w (span)
3. Divide the vertical component, Fy, by the
span to obtain the horizontally projected up-
lift pressure, whoriz.
whoriz = Fy /(span) = w (span)/(span) = w
The vertically projected uniform load can be
proven similarly. A common mistake is to multi-
ply the normal pressure by sine and cosine of
the roof slope to obtain the two components.
w wind load coefficients for open, closed and par-
θ be breached during high winds. For example, if
(a)
w supports are designed to resist design wind
w contribute to sidesway loads on a building.
θ
(b)
Figure 3.2. Illustration of wind load acting nor-
mal to inclined surface and equivalent horizontal
and vertical load components. A common mis-
take is to multiply the normal load by sin(θ) and
cos(θ) for the vertical and horizontal compo-
nents, respectively.
3.7.6 Main Frames. Different pressure coeffi-
cients are used to calculate wind loads on main
frames as compared to components and clad-
ding. Main frames include primary structural sys-
tems such as rigid and braced frames, braced
trusses, posts, poles and girders. Since
3-6
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
these members have relatively large tributary
areas, localized wind effects tend to be aver-
aged out over the tributary areas. Pressure coef-
ficients for main members reflect this averaging
effect.
3.7.7 Components and Cladding. Wind pres-
sures are higher on small areas due to localized
gust effects. This observation has been verified
by wind tunnel studies (MBMA, 1986), as well as
site inspections of wind-induced building failures
(Harmon, et al., 1992). For this reason, compo-
nents and cladding have higher pressure coeffi-
cients than main frames. Components and clad-
ding include members such as purlins, girts, cur-
tain walls, sheathing, roofing and siding.
3.7.8 Openings. Wind loads are significantly
affected by openings in the structure. ASCE 7-
93 and the model building codes specify internal
wind pressure coefficients (or adjustments to
external pressure coefficients) for structures with
different amounts and types of openings. Each
model code has slightly different definitions and
tially open buildings. In general, "openings" refer
to permanent or other openings that are likely to
window glazings are likely to be broken during a
windstorm, the windows are considered open-
ings. However, if doors and windows and their
loads, they need not be considered openings. It
should be noted that internal wind pressures act
against all interior surfaces and therefore do not
3.8 Seismic Loads
3.8.1 Cause. Earthquakes produce lateral
forces on buildings through the sudden move-
ment of the building’s foundation. Building re-
sponse to seismic loading is a complex phe-
nomenon and there is considerable controversy
as to how to translate knowledge gained through
research into practical design codes and stan-
dards.
3.8.2 Code Application. Seismic loads shall be
determined by the provisions of the governing
building code. In the absence of a building code,
procedures given in ASCE 7-93 are recom-
mended. Sweeping changes were made in the
 National Frame Builders Association
1993 revision of ASCE 7 with respect to seismic
loads. The seismic provisions in ASCE 7-93
were based on work by the Building Seismic
Safety Council under sponsorship of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency.
3.8.3 Lateral Force. Basic concept of seismic
load determination for low-rise buildings is to
calculate an equivalent lateral force at the
ground line as follows:
V = Cs W (3-4)
where:
V = total lateral force, or shear, at the
building base
W = total dead load, plus other applica-
ble loads specified in the code or
ASCE 7-93. For most single-story
post-frame buildings, the only other
minimum applicable load is a por-
tion (20% minimum) of the flat roof
snow load. If the flat roof snow load
is less than 30 psf, the applicable
load to be included in W is permitted
to be taken as zero.
Cs = seismic design coefficient
= 1.2 Av S/(T2/3 R)
Av = coefficient representing effective
peak velocity-related acceleration
S = coefficient for the soil profile charac-
teristics
R = response modification factor
T = fundamental period of the building
3.8.4 Seismic loads rarely control post-frame
building design because of the relatively low
building dead weight as compared with other
types of construction (Taylor, 1996; Faherty and
Williamson, 1989). For post-frame buildings,
lateral loads from wind usually are much greater
than those from seismic forces.
3.9 Load Combinations for
Allowable Stress Design
3.9.1 Code Application. Every building ele-
ment shall be designed to resist the most critical
load combinations specified in the governing
building code.
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
3.9.2 Load Combinations. Except when appli-
cable codes provide otherwise, the following
load combinations shall be considered (as a
minimum) and the combination which results in
the most conservative design for each building
element shall be used. Note that different load
combinations may control the design of different
components of the structure.
Case 1: Dead + Floor Live + Roof Live (or
Snow)
Case 2: Dead + Floor Live + Wind (or Seismic)
Case 3: Dead + Floor Live + Wind + ½ Snow
Case 4: Dead + Floor Live + ½ Wind + Snow
Case 5: Dead + Floor Live + Snow + Seismic
3.9.3 Floor Live Loads. Most post-frame build-
ings are single story and therefore would not
have floor live loads acting on the post-frames.
When a concrete floor is used in a single story
building, consideration must be given to antici-
pated live and equipment loading.
3.9.4 Reductions. Reductions in some of the
load terms in Cases 1 through 5 are permitted,
depending on governing building code or refer-
ence document. With some exceptions, the
model building codes permit allowable stresses
used in allowable stress design to be increased
one-third when considering wind or seismic
forces either acting alone or when combined
with vertical loads. The allowable stress in-
crease for wind loading can be traced back to
the New York City Building Code of 1904 (Elli-
fritt, 1977), and appears to be based on judg-
ment rather than engineering theory. It should
be noted that ASCE 7-93 does not include the
one-third increase factor, but instead specifies
load combination factors that are intended to
account for the low probability of maximum live,
seismic, snow and wind loads occurring simul-
taneously. The commentary of ASCE 7-93 im-
plies the stress increase for wind and seismic
found in codes is not appropriate if the com-
bined load effects are also reduced by the load
combination factors published in ASCE 7-93.
Finally, the National Design Specification (NDS)
for Wood Construction (NF&PA, 199) addresses
the issue of load combination versus load dura-
tion factors by stating, “The load duration fac-
tors, CD, in Table 2.3.2 and Appendix B are in-
dependent of load combination factors, and both
shall be permitted to be used in design calcula-
tions.”
 National Frame Builders Association
3.10 Load Duration Factors for Wood
It is well documented that wood has the property
of being able to carry substantially greater loads
for short durations than for long durations of
loading. This property is accounted for in design
through the application of load duration factors
to all allowable design values except modulus of
elasticity and compression perpendicular to
grain. Additional restrictions and details on load
duration adjustments can be found in Chapter 2
and Appendix B of the NDS (AF&PA, 1997).
3.10.1 Snow Load. The cumulative duration of
maximum snow load over the life of a structure
is generally assumed to be two months. It
should be emphasized that the two-month pe-
riod does not necessarily mean that the design
snow load from any one event would last two
months. Rather, it means that the total time that
the roof supports the full design snow load over
the life of the structure is two months. If the cu-
mulative full design load is two months, an al-
lowable stress increase of 15 percent is allowed
(AF&PA, 1997). However, in some situations,
such as unheated or heavily insulated buildings
in cold climates, longer snow load durations may
occur and the stress increase may not be justi-
fied.
3.10.2 Wind Load. The cumulative duration of
maximum wind (and seismic) loads over the life
of a structure is generally assumed to be 10
minutes (AF&PA, 1997), if design wind loads are
based on ASCE 7-93, and the corresponding
load duration factor is 1.6. Other load duration
adjustments may be appropriate when design
wind loads are based on earlier versions of
ASCE 7-93 or other standards (with different
wind gust duration assumptions).
3.11 Deflection
3.11.1 Code Application. Post-frame building
components must meet deflection limits speci-
fied in the governing building code.
3.11.2 Exception to Code Requirements.
Girts supporting corrugated metal siding are
typically not subjected to deflection limitations
unless their deflection compromises the integrity
of an interior wall finish. Because of the inherent
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
flexibility of corrugated metal siding, girt deflec-
tions present no serviceability problems, and
consequently, girt size is generally only stress
dependent.
3.11.3 Time Dependent Deflection. In certain
situations, it may be necessary to limit deflection
under long term loading. Published modulus of
elasticity, E, values for wood are intended for the
calculation of immediate deflection under load.
Under sustained loading, wood members exhibit
additional time-dependent deformation (i.e.
creep). It is customary practice to increase cal-
culated deflection from long-term loading by a
factor of 1.5 for glued-laminated timber and sea-
soned lumber, or 2 for unseasoned lumber (see
Appendix F, AF&PA, 1997). Thus, total deflec-
tion is equal to the immediate deflection due to
long-term loading times the creep deflection fac-
tor, plus the deflection due to the short-term or
normal component of load. For applications
where deflection is critical, the published value
of E (which represents the average) may be re-
duced as deemed appropriate by the designer.
The size of the reduction depends on the coeffi-
cient of variation of E. Typical values of E vari-
ability are available for different wood products
(see Appendix F, AF&PA, 1997).
3.11.4 Shear Deflection. Shear deflection is
usually negligible in the design of steel beams;
however, shear deflection can be significant in
wood beams. Approximately 3.4 percent of the
total beam deflection is due to shear for wood
beams of usual span-to-depth proportions (i.e.
15:1 to 25:1). For this reason, the published
value of E in the Supplement to the National De-
sign Specification is 3.4 percent less than the
true flexural value (AF&PA, 1993). This correc-
tion compensates for the omission of the shear
term in handbook beam deflection equations.
For span-to-depth ratios over 25, the predicted
deflection using the published E value will ex-
ceed the actual deflection. Similarly, for span-to-
depth ratios less than 15, predicted deflections
will be significantly less than actual. This could
lead to unconservative designs (with respect to
serviceability) for post-frame members such as
door headers. Practical information on the ef-
fects of shear deformation on beam design is
given in Appendix D of Hoyle and Woeste
(1989) for rectangular wood beams and Triche
(1990) for wood I-beams.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

3.12 References

American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA).

1997. ANSI/AF&PA NDS-1997 - National Design
Specification for Wood Construction. AF&PA,
Washington, D.C.

American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA).

1993. Commentary to the National Design
Specification for Wood Construction. AF&PA,
Washington, D.C.

ASAE. 1999. ASAE EP288.5: Agricultural build-

ing snow and wind loads. ASAE Standards
1999, 46th edition, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).

1993. Minimum design loads for buildings and
other structures. ANSI/ASCE 7-93, ASCE, New
York, NY.

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).

1999. Minimum design loads for buildings and
other structures. ANSI/ASCE 7-99, ASCE, New
York, NY.

Ellifritt, D.S. 1977. The mysterious 1/3 stress

increase. American Institute of Steel Construc-
tion Engineering Journal (4):138-140.

Faherty, K.F. and T.G. Williamson. 1989. Wood

Engineering and Construction Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Hoyle, R.J. and F.E. Woeste. 1989. Wood

Technology in the Design of Structures. Ames,
IA: Iowa State University Press.

Mehta, K.C., R.D. Marshall and D.C. Perry.

1991. Guide to the Use of the Wind Load Provi-
sions of ASCE 7-88 (formerly ANSI A58.1).
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
NY.

Metal Building Manufacturers Association

(MBMA). 1986. Low rise building systems man-
ual. MBMA, Cleveland, OH.

Taylor, S.E. 1996. Earthquake considerations in

post-frame building design. Frame Building
News 8(3):42-49.

3-9
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

3-10
 National Frame Builders Association
Chapter 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OVERVIEW
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 General. The aim of this chapter is to give
a broad overview of post-frame building design,
and then highlight unique aspects of post-frame
that require special design considerations. Post-
frame is a special case of light-frame wood con-
struction. Light-frame construction is accepted
by all model building codes, and the design pro-
cedures are well documented. The design rules
that apply to light-frame wood construction also
apply to post-frame. However, there are some
aspects of post-frame that are not as familiar to
building designers, such as diaphragm design,
interaction between post-frames and dia-
phragms, and post foundation design. Hence,
Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 focus on these topics in
more detail.
4.1.2 Primary Framing. Primary framing is the
main structural framing in a building. In a post-
frame building, this includes the columns,
trusses (or rafters), and any girders that transfer
load between trusses and columns. Each truss
and the post(s) to which it is attached form an
individual "post-frame". Post-frames collect and
transfer load from roof purlins and wall girts to
the foundation. In the context of wind loading in
standards and building codes, post-frames are
an integral part of the main wind-force resisting
system. Specific sections dedicated to primary
framing include: Section 4.2 Posts, Section 4.3
Trusses, Section 4.4 Girders, and Section 4.5
Knee braces.
4.1.3 Secondary Framing. Secondary framing
includes any framing member used to (1) trans-
fer load between cladding and primary framing
members, and/or (2) laterally brace primary
framing members. The secondary framing
members in a post-frame building include the
girts, purlins and any structural wood bracing
such as permanent truss bracing. Specific sec-
tions dedicated to secondary framing include:
Section 4.6 Roof Purlins, Section 4.7 Wall Girts,
and Section 4.8 Large Doors.
4.1.4 Diaphragms and Shearwalls. When
cladding is fastened to the wood frame of a
post-frame building, large shearwalls and roof
4-1
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
and ceiling diaphragms are formed that can add
considerable rigidity to the building. In many
post-frame buildings, diaphragms and shear-
walls are carefully designed and become an in-
tegral part of the main wind-force resisting sys-
tem. Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms are covered
in Section 4.9 and Shearwalls in Section 4.10.
4.1.5 Limitations. The structural design of
buildings involves making many judgments,
such as determining design loads, structural
analogs and analyses, and selecting materials
that can safely resist the calculated forces. New
research or testing could justify a change of de-
sign procedure for the industry or for an individ-
ual designer. The considerations presented here
are not exhaustive, since many issues in a spe-
cific building design will require unique treat-
ment.
4.2 Posts
4.2.1 General. The function of the wood post is
to carry axial and bending loads to the founda-
tion. Posts are embedded in the ground or at-
tached to either a conventional masonry or con-
crete wall or a concrete slab on grade. Posts
can be solid sawn, mechanically laminated,
glued-laminated or wood composite. Any portion
of a post that is embedded or exposed to
weather must be pressure-treated with pre-
servative chemicals to resist decay and insect
damage.
4.2.2 Controlling Load Combinations. The
load combination that usually controls post de-
sign is dead plus wind plus one-half snow; how-
ever, local codes may stipulate different load
combinations. It is possible for any one of the
combinations to be critical; therefore, they all
should be considered for a specific building de-
sign. For example, maximum gravity load will
govern truss-to-post bearing and post founda-
tion bearing; whereas wind minus dead load will
govern the truss-to-post connection (for uplift).
4.2.3 Force Calculations. The diaphragm
analysis method presented in Chapter 5 is the
most accurate method to determine design
 National Frame Builders Association
moments, and axial and shear forces in posts.
Historically, some designers calculated the
maximum post moment for embedded posts by
using the simple structural analog of a propped
cantilever (i.e. fixed reaction at the post bottom
and pin reaction at the top). The implicit as-
sumption of this analog is that the roof dia-
phragm and shearwalls are infinitely stiff. This
model may be adequate for buildings with ex-
tremely stiff roof diaphragms and for conserva-
tively estimating shear forces in the roof dia-
phragm; however, it may underestimate the
maximum post moment for many post-frame
buildings. The analysis procedures described in
Chapter 5 are more reliable since they account
for the flexible behavior of the roof diaphragm.
If posts are embedded, generally two bending
moments must be calculated - one at the
groundline and the other above ground. Ground-
line bending moment and shear values are used
in embedded post foundation design calcula-
tions. For surface-attached posts, the bottom
reaction can be modeled as a pin, and generally
only one bending moment is calculated.
4.2.4 Combined Stress Analysis. Forces in-
volved in post design subject the posts to com-
bined stress (bending and axial) and must be
checked for adequacy using the appropriate in-
teraction equation from the NDS (AF&PA, 1997).
In theory, every post length increment must sat-
isfy the interaction equation, but in practice, a
minimum of two locations are checked: the point
of maximum interaction near the ground level
(column stability factor, Cp, equal to 1.0) and the
upper section of the posts where the maximum
moment occurs in conjunction with column ac-
tion (Cp<1.0).
4.2.5 Shear Stress. The shear stress due to
lateral loading (wind or seismic) rarely controls
post design, but should always be checked as a
matter of good practice. Other loads such as
bulk loads from stored materials may influence
final post design.
4.2.6 Deflection. A post deflection limit is not
normally specified for post-frame buildings, but
interior finishes may require it. Refer to the de-
flection criteria in Chapter 3.
4-2
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
4.2.7 Connections. Truss-to-post connection
must be designed for bearing as well as uplift.
Connection design procedures are given in the
NDS (AF&PA, 1997). This connection should be
modeled as a pin unless moment-carrying ca-
pacity can be justified. Direct end grain bearing
is desirable and is often achieved by notching
the post to receive the truss. When designing
the truss-to-post connection for uplift, it is impor-
tant to accurately estimate the weights of con-
struction materials if any counteracting credit is
to be taken.
For surface-attached posts, the bottom connec-
tion needs to be checked for maximum shear
and uplift forces. For embedded posts attached
to collars or footings, the connections must be
properly designed to withstand gravity and uplift
loads, and corrosion-resistant fasteners must be
used.
4.2.8 Construction Alternatives. The posts in
post-frame buildings can be solid sawn, me-
chanically-laminated, glued-laminated or wood
composite. Allowable design stresses are pub-
lished in the NDS or are available from the
manufacturers. Treated wood is used for the
embedded part of the post, but no treatment is
required on the parts that are not in contact with
the ground and are protected by the building
envelope.
4.2.9 Foundation. Post-frame building founda-
tions include posts embedded in the ground or
surface-attached on a concrete foundation. Em-
bedded posts shall be designed to resist sides-
way and overturning forces due to wind or seis-
mic loads, as well as wind uplift, and gravity
loads. Post foundation design is an important
aspect of post-frame building design that is not
well known in the structural engineering design
community, and therefore Chapter 8 is dedi-
cated to this subject. If a concrete slab is used, it
only needs to be designed for interior loads
since exterior building loads are transferred di-
rectly to the ground through the posts.
Another option is to attach the posts to a con-
crete foundation. In this case, the concrete must
be designed to carry the exterior building loads
as well as interior. Connections must be de-
signed to attach the posts to the concrete.
 National Frame Builders Association
4.2.10 Pressure Preservative Treatment
(PPT). Treated foundation systems have been
accepted by the model codes and have a history
of successful performance in residential wood
construction. The most common pressure pre-
servative treatment used in post-frame construc-
tion is chromated copper arsenate (CCA). CCA
can increase the potential for metal-fastener
corrosion, and may require hot-dipped galva-
nized or stainless steel fasteners. The minimum
waterborne treatment retention for structural
posts used in post-frame buildings is 0.6 lb/ft3
(pcf) as defined in AWPA Standard C15 (AWPA,
1995a).
Technical Note
Wood Preservative Treatments
When the moisture content of wood exceeds
20% on a dry weight basis in the presence of
oxygen, it is vulnerable to attack by insects and
decaying fungi. Although some species of wood
(and the heartwood of other species) are natu-
rally resistant to these types of attack, most
structural woods used in North America are not.
These structural wood species must be chemi-
cally treated to protect them from decay and
maintain their strength throughout the structural
design life.
The chemicals used for preservative treatment
of the wood are typically injected into the wood
using pressure processes. Wood that has been
chemically treated in this manner is accepted by
all major building codes. The type of preserva-
tive treatment and the required amount of reten-
tion by the wood depends on the end use of the
wood component. It is assumed that the de-
signer is already familiar with the use of pre-
servative treated wood for above-ground appli-
cations (such as wood decks); this section will
concentrate specifically on preservative treat-
ments and retention levels appropriate for use in
post foundations.
Preservative chemicals abate wood decay by
altering the wood as a potential food source for
insects and fungi. The preservatives typically
used in North America are waterborne arsenic-
based, pentachlorophenol (penta) and creosote.
Waterborne arsenic-based preservatives include
chromated copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal
4-3
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
copper arsenate (ACA), and ammoniacal copper
zinc arsenate. CCA is available in three formula-
tions: CCA-A, CCA-B, and CCA-C. CCA-C is the
most popular of the three formulations due to its
increased resistance to leaching.
Penta is an oil-borne preservative, and creosote
is a coal-tar based preservative that is its own
carrier. While penta and creosote offer superior
resistance in high salt environments, waterborne
preservatives are typically more popular since
the final product has a clean surface, is pain-
table, and is relatively odorless. Waterborne pre-
servatives do provide a strong potential for cor-
rosion of metal connectors and fasteners; follow
the manufacturers recommendations for the use
of stainless or hot-dipped galvanized fasteners.
While the major building codes endorse the use
of preservative-treated wood for foundation ap-
plications, it is imperative that the preservative
retention guidelines be followed. The American
Wood Preservers Association has published
standards for the preservative treatment of wood
for various applications (AWPA, 1991). Care
must be taken that the appropriate standard is
considered when specifying treatment for post
foundation systems. For example, most water-
borne preservative-treated lumber sold has a
preservative retention level of 0.4 pcf (pounds of
preservative per cubic foot of wood), which is
the retention level specified by AWPA Standard
C2 for lumber in contact with the ground. This
differs, however, from the AWPA Standard C15
governing the treatment of structural posts used
in foundations; the required preservative reten-
tion for waterborne preservatives under this
standard is 0.6 pcf. The AWPA C15 required
retention level for post foundations using penta
as a preservative is 0.6 pcf, while the required
retention level for creosote is 12.0 pcf.
The rate at which treatments are absorbed into
wood, and the depth of penetration of the treat-
ment, varies from wood species to wood spe-
cies. Whereas Southern Pine species take
treatment quite well, most other species must be
incised to comply with AWPA retention require-
ments. Incising can adversely affect lumber
strength properties. Consult AF&PA for specifi-
cations regarding the use of incised wood in
structural applications.
 National Frame Builders Association
Quality assurance is critical to the performance
of treated wood. The treating industry has de-
veloped a quality control and treatment quality
marking program accredited by the American
Lumber Standards Committee. Any treated
members specified for use in a post foundation
should be stamped by an approved agency
(e.g., AWPA, Southern Pine Inspection Bureau
(SPIB), etc.) to assure that the members have
been treated in accordance with AWPA Stan-
dard C15 and to the appropriate retention level.
Treated wood suppliers provide Material Safety
Data Sheets (MSDS) or Consumer Information
Sheets with the product. These sheets contain
special instructions about the care, handling and
disposal of treated wood. Federal law dictates
that these sheets must be provided to all em-
ployees exposed to the materials.
Saw cuts or drilled holes made after treatment
may expose untreated wood. This problem is
especially critical if the newly exposed wood is
in the splash zone or in contact with the ground.
When using nail-laminated posts, the cut end of
the treated lumber should be placed upward,
above the ground level; otherwise, brush-
applied, soaked, or dipped field treatments are
recommended. AWPA Standard M4 outlines
procedures for field treatment; some chemicals
require a certified pesticide applicators license
to apply. The chemical suppliers should be con-
sulted for application restrictions.
4.3 Trusses
4.3.1 General. Together with posts, wood
trusses are primary structural elements of post-
frame buildings. Two excellent sources of tech-
nical information on trusses are the Truss Plate
Institute (TPI) and the Wood Truss Council of
America (WTCA). Trusses must be properly de-
signed, handled and installed. These responsi-
bilities are shared by the building owner, con-
tractor and designer, and the truss designer and
manufacturer. The importance of a clear under-
standing of responsibilities among these parties
cannot be overstated, and is covered in WTCA
1-1995 Standard Responsibilities in the Design
Process Involving Metal Plate Connected Wood
Trusses and ANSI/TPI-1-1995 National Design
4-4
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Standard for Metal Plate Connected Wood
Truss Construction.
4.3.2 Design Loads. The controlling load com-
bination for truss design often is snow plus dead
load. The unbalanced snow load case should be
checked per the applicable building code, or for
agricultural buildings, engineering practice
ASAE EP288.5 (ASAE, 1999a) should be con-
sulted. However, all other applicable load com-
binations must be checked. For example, a wind
load combination may cause stress reversal in
some truss elements as discussed later in this
chapter.
Truss loads are normally represented by listing
the top-chord live and dead, and bottom-chord
live and dead loads, respectively. Truss design
loads are typically expressed in units of pounds
per square foot (psf). An example of truss load-
ing would be 20-4-0-1 (psf is implied). Both live
and dead loads apply to the vertically projected
tributary areas of the top and bottom chords.
Often, a bottom-chord live load is not required,
so the preceding nomenclature would be short-
ened to 20-4-1 psf.
4.3.3 Design. This design manual does not
present specifics of roof truss design. Metal-
plate-connected wood trusses in the United
States are designed according to the provisions
of ANSI/TPI 1-1995. Other designs are based
on proprietary test information, along with de-
sign criteria from the NDS (AF&PA, 1997).
Model building codes recognize either of these
approaches.
ANSI-TPI 1-1995 mentions two types of struc-
tural analyses. The “simplified method” is a type
of pin joint analysis that has been calibrated to
account for partial joint fixity. This method uses
tables of factors to determine chord moments
and member buckling lengths. The simplified
method has been the predominate method for a
number of years; however, it will eventually be
phased out by TPI. The other type of analysis
which is sometimes referenced as the “exact
method”, is a stiffness matrix method of analy-
sis. Plane frame structures analyzers are be-
coming more commonly used and provide for
more sophisticated and accurate analyses. Re-
gardless of analysis methods, structural model-
ing assumptions are important and can dramati-
cally influence the design (Brakeman, 1994).
 National Frame Builders Association
For example, partial fixity at truss plate joints as
well as eccentricity at heel joints, can be mod-
eled a variety of ways. The heel joint usually
gets the most attention since heel joint modeling
decisions can greatly influence truss design.
The size, and in some cases the orientation, of
truss plates is dependent on proprietary design
values. These values are available from the
manufacturers or from research reports pre-
pared by the model code agencies, Such as
ICBO, SBCCI and BOCA.
Trusses can be obtained pre-engineered from
the manufacturer. It is important to consider
wind loading on trusses as stress reversals can
occur and overstress some members. This de-
sign is complicated by the fact that wind loads
are influenced by building geometry, so this in-
formation must be communicated to the truss
designer. Any structural bracing (e.g. knee
braces) or redundant supports must be included
in the truss design.
4.3.4. Truss-to-Post Connection. The connec-
tion between the truss and post is critical. De-
signers must consider both gravity forces and
uplift forces. With some truss-to-post connection
designs, it might be necessary to examine the
impact of the connection on the forces induced
in the truss chords, heel joints, and post. Obser-
vations from several building investigations re-
vealed that the individual trusses and posts
were designed properly, but the connection be-
tween the two units was not. Many different
methods and hardware have been used to de-
sign the connection, such as bolts, nails, truss
anchors, and combinations of the same. Unless
otherwise governed by a specific code, the de-
sign of this connection should meet NDS
(AF&PA, 1997) requirements.
4.3.5 Stress Reversal. The trusses used in
post-frame buildings are typically long span and,
consequently, have long webs. When the truss
becomes part of a post-frame building, it is pos-
sible, under certain loading conditions, for a ten-
sion web in the truss design to become a com-
pression web.
Stress reversal can also occur in truss chords
due to a wind uplift loading combined with dead
4-5
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
load. This load case may not frequently control
the size of the truss chord lumber, but it makes
compression in the bottom chord possible. This
situation is one reason that lateral bracing of the
bottom chord is required (TPI, 1989; 1991a;
1991b).
4.3.6 Temporary Bracing. Temporary bracing
is required to ensure stability of trusses during
their installation and until permanent bracing for
trusses and the building are in place. This area
is the most difficult to manage in the field.
According to WTCA 1-1995 and ANSI/TPI 1-
1995, determination and installation of tempo-
rary bracing is the responsibility of the building
contractor. Truss Plate Institute (TPI) publication
HIB-98 is a “summary sheet” that contains “rec-
ommendations for handling, installing and tem-
porary bracing metal plate connected wood
trusses used in post-frame construction.” An-
other TPI summary sheet (i.e., HIB-91) contains
similar recommendation for trusses with on cen-
ter spacings two feet or less and spans less
than 60 feet. Both HIB-98 and HIB-91 are for-
matted as accident-prevention brochures for use
by builders, building contractors, licensed con-
tractors, erectors, and erection contractors.
4.3.7 Permanent Bracing. Permanent truss
bracing is critical to the performance of the roof
system. Roof trusses are designed with the as-
sumption that their elements are held sufficiently
in-plane (ANSI/TPI, 1995). The primary function
of permanent roof-truss bracing is to hold all
trusses of the roof in the intended vertical plane.
HIB-98, provides guidance for the placement of
temporary truss bracing, which, if left in place,
may function as part of the permanent bracing
system. Building designers are responsible for
designing permanent bracing. For trusses
spaced 4 ft or less, DSB-89 (TPI, 1989) provides
a calculation method for temporary and perma-
nent bracing designs. For trusses spaced
greater than 4 ft (1.22 m) on-center, similar prin-
ciples can be used, but designers must consider
that the longer lengths involved may cause the
bracing members to buckle. A commentary cov-
ering permanent bracing of metal plate con-
nected wood trusses is available from WTCA
(1999).
 National Frame Builders Association
4.4 Girders
4.4.1 General. Girders are heavy beams used
to span large openings (e.g., doors) and to sup-
port trusses located between posts. For exam-
ple, when roof truss spacing is less than the
post spacing, girders (sometimes called head-
ers) are needed to carry the intermediate
trusses. This is a common occurrence over
large door openings. These beams are consid-
ered main wind-force resisting members. Verti-
cally nail-laminated lumber, structural composite
lumber, glued-laminated beams and steel I-
beams are all commonly used as girders. There
is an abundant supply of structural-composite
lumber products from manufacturers who pub-
lish their own allowable stresses. Often, the
critical load combination is dead plus snow load,
although all applicable load combinations must
be checked.
4.4.2 Design Criteria. Girders are designed as
bending members. Any one of the four criteria
used for the design of bending members can
control design (i.e. bending, shear, compression
perpendicular to grain, and deflection). Shear
can often control girder design. Also note that
formulae found in most handbooks account for
bending but not shear deflection. Designers
should consider the impact of shear deflection
on the total deflection of a girder. Hoyle and
Woeste (1989) provide formulae for calculating
shear deflection of wood beams.
4.4.3 Vertically Laminated Lumber. The de-
sign of girders for a post-frame building is rou-
tine structural design except when a girder is
fabricated by vertically laminating three or more
pieces of dimension lumber. In this case, the
allowable bending stress can be increased using
the repetitive member factors published in
ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASAE, 1999b). These val-
ues are given in table 7.3.
4.4.4 Connections. Girder attachment to posts
and individual roof trusses is a fundamental part
of girder design. When designing girder-to-post
connections, both uplift and gravity must be
considered. When designing truss-to-girder
connections, special consideration must be
given to situations in which trusses are hung off
the side of the girder. In such cases truss-to-
girder connections should be designed to pre-
vent rotation between the trusses and girder, or
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
the girder must be sized to handle additional
stresses due to torsion.
4.5 Knee Braces
4.5.1 General. Knee braces are intended to
supplement the resistance of post frames under
lateral loads, and can influence the unsupported
length of columns. They have been used less
and less in recent years.
4.5.2 Effectiveness. Knee brace effectiveness
is highly dependent on the stiffness of its con-
nections to the post and truss. If the connections
at the ends of the brace are flexible or not very
stiff due to the use of a few nails, the roof dia-
phragm carries the bulk of the load, and the
brace is ineffective (Gebremedhin and Woeste,
1986). If the brace connections are made very
stiff (by installing many nails or bolts) the brace
could effectively resist the wind loading but
could overload the truss.
4.5.3 Analysis. Knee braces induce primary
bending moments in truss chords if attached
between panel points. Knee braces induce sec-
ondary bending moments when attached directly
to panel points. If knee braces are to be used in
a post-frame design, load sharing among the
truss, post, knee brace, connections, and dia-
phragm (when applicable) must be included in
the structural analysis.
4.6 Roof Purlins
4.6.1 General. Roof purlins are typically 2- by 4-
inch or 2- by 6-inch lumber, and are key struc-
tural elements of the roof assembly. They resist
gravity loads, wind loads, roof diaphragm chord
forces, and provide lateral bracing to truss top
chords (or rafters). To fulfill the chord-bracing
role, the purlins must be supported against lat-
eral movement by attachment to sheathing or
metal cladding that provides the needed roof
diaphragm strength. Not all roof cladding mate-
rials provide diaphragm strength and/or purlin
lateral support; one example is standing seam
roofing, which is fastened with clips that allow
adjacent sheets to slide.
4.6.2 Classification. Purlins in post-frame
buildings fall into the category of “component
 National Frame Builders Association
and cladding,” which is recognized by all three
model building codes. Components and clad-
ding collect the loads and distribute them to the
primary structural elements, identified as the
main wind-force resisting system. Wind loads
are much greater at eaves, ridges, edges, cor-
ners and other discontinuities. Purlin spacing
and fasteners are critical in these areas. If these
areas fail under extreme wind loading, the build-
ing envelope will be breached, and internal wind
pressures will change dramatically.
4.6.3 Orientation. Purlins are installed on-edge
or flat. When they are used on-edge, they may
be either placed on top of the truss or recessed
between the trusses. Purlins placed on-edge are
frequently overlapped and fastened together at
the overlap. When used flat, purlins are installed
on top of the trusses.
4.6.4 Truss Chord Bracing. Purlin spacing is a
factor in truss design since purlins provide lat-
eral support to the truss top chord. In some
cases, the slenderness ratio for weak-axis truss
chord buckling between purlins can be greater
than that for strong-axis buckling. Therefore,
when specifying trusses, the building designer
should inform the truss-design engineer of the
planned purlin spacing.
4.6.5 Design Loads. Purlin design often is con-
trolled by the dead plus snow load combination,
or dead plus wind load (especially in the edge
zones of the roof). Dead loads used for design
may exceed actual weights for gravity load cal-
culations; however, inflated dead loads cannot
be used to offset wind uplift or wind overturn
moments. In these cases, offsetting loads can-
not exceed actual weights of materials.
4.6.6 Design Criteria. Purlins members should
be checked for bending strength, shear capac-
ity, and deflection. If the roof assembly is func-
tioning as a structural diaphragm, purlins will
also be subjected to axial forces. Purlins shall
be designed to carry bending about both axes.
Weak axis bending may be omitted if it can be
demonstrated by test or analysis that the roof
sheathing provides support. The connections
between the purlins and rafters should be de-
signed for both gravity loads and wind uplift
forces. Purlin hangers are often used when pur-
4-7
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
lins are recessed, and their capacity should be
verified for the various loading cases. In general,
the provisions of the NDS (AF&PA, 1997) apply
for the connections and stress analysis.
4.7 Wall Girts
4.7.1 General. Girts are used to collect wind-
induced wall loads and distribute them to the
post frames. For end walls, the wind loads are
distributed to structural end-wall posts.
4.7.2 Classification. Girts belong to the “com-
ponent and cladding” category for determining
the design wind load.
4.7.3 Orientation. Girts are either installed flat
on post faces or recessed between the posts.
Girts recessed between posts are almost always
orientated with the narrow edge facing the clad-
ding, and in this position, are frequently used to
support both interior and exterior clad-
ding/sheathing.
4.7.4 Post Bracing. Girts provide lateral sup-
port to side-wall columns. With girts securely
installed, the slenderness ratio of the post weak
axis is greatly reduced. Therefore, posts can
usually be designed to carry the axial loads us-
ing the slenderness ratio of the strong axis.
4.7.5 Design Loads. Girts are normally de-
signed to resist only wind load. Wind loads are
much greater at corners and other discontinui-
ties. Girt spacing and fasteners are critical in
these areas. If these areas fail, the building en-
velope will be breached, and internal wind pres-
sures will change dramatically.
The dead load of the girt and attached steel is
normally negligible for girt design. Cladding is
attached to the girts by nails or screws, and the
stiffness of these connections does not allow the
girts to undergo significant bending stress or
deflection from the action of the small dead
loads present. However, the wall dead load
should be included in total dead load calcula-
tions for the post foundation.
Girts must be design to resist forces induced by
stored materials, especially granular materials
such as fertilizer or seeds/grain. Care should be
 National Frame Builders Association
taken to assure that the capacity of wall panels,
fasteners and girts are not exceeded by these
forces.
4.7.6 Design Criteria. Girts are designed as
bending members for which the usual bending-
member design criteria apply. The critical con-
nections between the girts and the post should
be checked for both wind pressure and suction.
The top wall girt may be constructed to carry
chord forces from the roof diaphragm and, if so,
must be checked for the appropriate axial loads.
The NDS (AF&PA, 1997) provisions apply for
the connections and stress analysis.
4.8 Large Doors
4.8.1 General. Large doors are common in
post-frame buildings. Door components must be
designed to withstand design wind loads, and
are treated as “components and cladding” for
such calculations.
4.8.2 Open Doors. It is not uncommon for
building owners to leave large doors open, even
during periods of high wind. If an owner antici-
pates that this will occur, the building must be
designed accordingly. Note that a large opening
on one side of the structure is generally associ-
ated with increased internal wind pressure coef-
ficients, and thus can significantly increase roof
uplift forces.
4.9 Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms
4.9.1 General. Roof and ceiling diaphragms are
used to resist lateral (sidesway) forces applied
to the building by wind, earthquake and stored
material. Under lateral load, roof and ceiling dia-
phragms act as large stiff plates. These plates
support and distribute loads to wall posts. Con-
ceptually, diaphragm design is easy to under-
stand, but the application of the procedure re-
quires analysis tools and data.
Diaphragms made from plywood are well docu-
mented, as well as those made entirely from
steel. Less information is available about wood-
framed, metal-clad diaphragms which are preva-
lent in the post-frame building industry. This is a
major factor in post-frame building design and is
covered in more depth in Chapter 5.
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Post-Frame Building Design Manual
4.9.2 Design Properties. Diaphragm perform-
ance depends on factors such as the steel, steel
sheet-to-sheet fasteners, steel-to-wood fasten-
ers, and the wood frame. There is no standard
steel panel construction, so diaphragm strength
and stiffness depend on the specific construc-
tion used. Strength and stiffness data on labora-
tory test panels are generally required to derive
design values. Most post-frame buildings have
much greater spans than laboratory test panels;
therefore, test data must be extrapolated to
prac-tical building sizes as explained in Chapter
6.
4.10 Shearwalls
4.10.1 General. A large portion of the shear
forces induced in roof and ceiling diaphragms is
transferred to the building foundation by shear-
walls. In many post-frame buildings, the only
walls available to transfer this shear are exterior
walls (i.e., endwalls and sidewalls). Where pre-
sent, interior partition walls can be designed to
transfer additional shear.
4.10.2 Endwalls. Endwalls in post-frame build-
ings resist wind loads perpendicular to the build-
ing end wall and simultaneously help transmit
roof shears (due to parallel-to-end wall wind
components) to the ground. In the diaphragm
design procedure described in Chapter 5,
maximum roof shears occur at the endwalls.
The roof shear is transferred into the top truss
chord or rafter of the endwall, through the end-
wall to the ground level, and finally to the ground
by posts or to posts connected to a concrete
slab. In addition to shear forces, the end wall is
subject to overturning forces. Wirt et al. (1992)
have published procedures for analyzing and
designing end-wall foundations.
4.10.3 Wall Openings. Allowances must be
made for openings in shearwalls. One common
practice in post-frame construction is to place
large doorways in the building endwalls. Proce-
dures for accounting for the opening and ways
to reinforce the remaining wall are given in
Chapter 5.
4.10.4 Partitioning. Partitioning of the building
into structural segments is one method to re-
duce maximum roof shears and endwall shears.
For example, if it is not practical to reinforce an
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

endwall that has a large door installed, the alter-
native is to install a structural partition in the
center of the building. The structural partition
must meet the shear requirements delivered by
the roof diaphragm. Buttresses, inside or outside
the walls, can be used to reduce the effective
length of the building with respect to maximum
roof and end-wall shears.
4.11 References
metal plate connected wood trusses. DSB-89.
TPI, Madison, WI.
Truss Plate Institute (TPI). 1998. HIB-98 sum-
mary sheet. TPI, Madison, WI.
Truss Plate Institute (TPI). 1995. ANSI/TPI 1-
1995 National design standard for metal plate
connected wood truss construction. TPI, Madi-
son, WI.

Wirt, D.L., F.E. Woeste, D.E. Kline and T.E.

ASAE. 1999a. ASAE EP 288.5: Agricultural
building snow and wind loads. ASAE Standards,
46th edition. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
ASAE. 1999b. ANSI/ASAE EP 559: Design re-
quirements and bending properties for mechani-
cally-laminated posts. ASAE Standards, 46th
edition. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA).
1997. National design specification for wood
construction. AF&PA, Washington, D.C.
American Wood-Preservers' Assc. (AWPA).
1995a. Wood for commercial-residential con-
struction. Preservative treatment by pressure
process, C-15. In Book of Standards. AWPA,
Stevensville, MD.
McLain. 1992. Design procedures for post-frame
end walls. Applied Engineering in Agriculture
8(1):97-105.
Wood Truss Council of America (WTCA). 1995.
Standard responsibilities in the design process
involving metal plate connected wood trusses.
WTCA 1-1995. WTCA, Madison, WI.
Wood Truss Council of America (WTCA). 1999.
Commentary for permanent bracing of metal
plate connected wood trusses. WTCA, Madison,
WI.

American Wood-Preservers’ Assc. (AWPA).

1995b. Lumber, timbers, bridge ties, and mine
ties, pressure treatment, C2-90. In Book of
Standards. AWPA, Stevensville, MD.

American Wood-Preservers' Assc. (AWPA).

1995c. Care of pressure treated wood products,
M4-90. In Book of Standards. AWPA, Stevens-
ville, MD.

Brakeman, D.B. 1994. Which truss design

method is the correct one? Peaks 16(1):1-3.

Gebremedhin, K.G., and F.E. Woeste. 1986.

Diaphragm design with knee brace slip for post-
frame buildings. Transactions of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers 23(2):538-542.

Hoyle, R.J. and F.E. Woeste. 1989. Wood tech-

nology in the design of structures. Fifth edition.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.

Truss Plate Institute (TPI). 1989. Recommended

design specifications for temporary bracing of

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National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Chapter 5: DIAPHRAGM DESIGN

5.1 Introduction post-frame relative to that of other post-frames

and shearwalls. If a diaphragm is constructed in
such a way that it is quite stiff in shear, dia-
5.1.1 2-D Frame Analysis. Prior to the 1980’s,
phragm action will be enhanced and the dia-
the common method of analysis for post-frame
phragm will transfer load from post-frames with
structures in agricultural, commercial and light
low racking stiffness to shearwalls and post-
industrial applications was to consider the struc-
frames with high racking stiffness. However, if
ture as a system of independently-acting, two-
the shear stiffness of the diaphragm is relatively
dimensional (2-D) post-frames. Although a 2-D
low, load transfer will be minimal and the behav-
frame analysis method works well for designing
ior of the structure will be much more in accor-
frames under vertical loadings; it is often too
dance with the assumption of independently act-
conservative for designing buildings against
ing post-frames.
sidesway. In addition, many 2-D frames offer
little or no resistance to loads acting normal to
the frames (e.g., wind acting normal to the end-
walls). Eave displacement

5.1.2 Diaphragm Action. A considerable por-

tion of the horizontal load applied to many post-
frame structures is actually resisted by roof and
ceiling diaphragms and shearwalls. As previ-
ously stated (section 4.9), roof and ceiling dia-
phragms are large plates that are formed when
cladding is attached to roof and ceiling framing,
respectively. These large plates help redistribute
load throughout the structure. This redistribution
of load by the diaphragms is called diaphragm
action. A shearwall is any wall – interior or exte-
rior – with a measurable amount of racking re-
sistance. Most of the load to which a diaphragm
is subjected, is transferred to the foundation by
shearwalls orientated parallel to the direction of
applied load. Figure 5.1 illustrates a situation in
which wind load directed at a sidewall, is trans-
ferred via the roof diaphragm to the endwalls
and one interior wall. Under this loading, the two
endwalls and the one interior wall function as
shearwalls. When the same wind load is di-
rected toward the endwall, the sidewalls function
as shearwalls in transferring the load from the
roof diaphragm to the foundation system.
5.1.3 Post-Frame Contributions. Whenever
load is applied normal to the sidewall of a struc-
ture, any post-frame with measurable racking
resistance functions like the interior shearwall in
figure 5.1. The amount of load that an individual
post-frame will transfer to the foundation is de-
pendent on (1) the in-plane shear stiffness of the
diaphragm, and (2) the racking stiffness of the
Wind load
Intermediate
shearwall
Roof diaphragm
End shearwall
Deformed structure
Undeformed structure
Figure 5.1. Example of diaphragm action in
which the roof diaphragm transfers load to three
shearwalls – one interior and two exterior walls.
5.1.4 Endwall Loadings. Virtually all post-
frame buildings are longer than they are wide. It
follows, that diaphragms in such buildings, when
viewed from the endwall, appear as narrow,
deep plates. For endwall loadings, these narrow,
deep diaphragms are generally assumed to
have an infinite shear stiffness, which means
that every structural element attached to the
diaphragm, shifts the same amount when the
diaphragm shifts without rotating. For example,
under an endwall loading, the roof diaphragm
would ensure equal displacement of the top of
endwall posts and the top of each sidewall.

5-1
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

5.1.5 Diaphragm Design. When diaphragm

action is accounted for in overall building design,
the design process is referred to as diaphragm
design. Diaphragm design is a relatively straight
forward process when a diaphragm is (1) as-
sumed to have infinite shear stiffness, and/or (2)
only attached to two shearwalls/post-frames (as
is generally the case with endwall loadings).
When neither of these conditions applies (gen-
erally true with loads normal to the sidewall)
diaphragm design is more complex.
(a)
5.1.6 ASAE EP484.2. The current diaphragm
design procedure is outlined in ANSI/ASAE
EP484.2: Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, Diaphragm "a"
Wood-Frame Rectangular Buildings (ASAE, Diaphragm "b"
1999a). This procedure, which is outlined in the
following sections, can be broken into five steps:
Step 1. Construct a finite element model of
Diaphragm "c"
the building by breaking the structure
into frame, shearwall, and diaphragm
elements (Section 5.2)
Step 2. Assign stiffness values to frames and (b)
shearwall elements (Section 5.3) and
diaphragm elements (Section 5.4).
Step 3. Calculate structural loads (i.e., eave 1 2 3 4 5
loads) for the model (Section 5.5).
Step 4. Determine the distribution of load to
individual elements (Section 5.6). 1a 2a 3a 4a
Step 5. Check to make sure that loads do not
exceed allowable values (Section 5.7).
1b 2b 3b 4b
5.2 Structural Model

5.2.1 General. The model developed in this (c)

section is only applicable for determining the
distribution of loads that are applied parallel to
individual post-frames (a.k.a., primary frames). 1 2 3 4 5
As previously stated, an individual post-frame
consists of an individual truss and any attached
posts.
1c 2c 3c 4c
5.2.2 Diaphragm Sectioning. The process of
modeling a post-frame building for diaphragm
design begins with the dividing of individual roof
and ceiling diaphragms into sections, herein re-
ferred to as diaphragm sections. Diaphragm
(d)
sectioning is a straight-forward process with in-
terior post-frames, interior shearwalls, ridge
lines and any other abrupt changes in roof and Figure 5.2. (a) Perspective view of a four-bay
ceiling slopes servings as lines of demarcation post-frame building with (b) roof and ceiling dia-
between diaphragm sections. phragms. Sectioning of (c) roof diaphragms, and
(d) ceiling diaphragm.

5-2
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Figures 5.2a shows a post-frame building with sent locations at the eave of each
three interior post-frames. Drawing a line along frame/shearwall.
each interior frame and the ridge results in the
eight (8) roof diaphragm sections shown in fig- Horizontal components of applied building loads
ure 5.2c, and the four ceiling diaphragm sec- are typically uniformly distributed along the
tions shown in figure 5.2d. length of the building as shown in figure 5.3a.
For modeling purposes, this uniform load is con-
To avoid confusion when assigning properties to verted into a set of equivalent concentrated
diaphragm sections, it is helpful to identify each loads that are applied at the nodes as shown in
diaphragm section with a two-digit identifier. The figure 5.3b. Because of the location of their ap-
first digit identifies the bay associated with the plication, these forces are referred to as eave
section. Bays are generally numbered from left- loads.
to-right, as shown in figures 5.2c and 5.2d. The
second digit identifies the specific roof or ceiling
slope. In figure 5.2, letters have been used to
identify these slopes, with letters “a” and “b” rep-
resenting different roof slopes, and letter “c” 1 2 3 4 5
used to identify ceiling sections.

5.2.3 Discretization. The process of breaking a

structure into elements for analysis is referred to 1 2 3 4
as discretization. For diaphragm design, a struc-
ture is broken into frame elements and dia-
phragm elements. Each post-frame is consid-
ered a separate frame element, as is each
shearwall orientated in the same direction as the
post-frames. The example building shown in
figure 5.2 would be modeled with five (5) frame
elements. These frame elements have been (a)
identified in figures 5.2c and 5.2d with the encir-
cled numbers (as with individual bays, number-
ing is generally from left-to-right). Each dia-
phragm element models the diaphragm sections k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
within a single bay. For example, diaphragm
sections 1a, 1b, and 1c in figure 5.2 would be
represented with a single diaphragm element. It
follows that the number of diaphragm elements
is equal to the number of building bays, which in
turn, is one less than the number of frame ele- Ch1 Ch2 Ch3 Ch4
ments. Discretization of a four-bay building is
shown in figure 5.3a. r1 r2 r3 r4 r5

5.2.4 Spring Model. To determine the distribu- (b)

tion of horizontally applied loads to individual
diaphragm and frame elements requires only a
single stiffness property for each element. For
this reason, diaphragm and frame elements are Figure 5.3. (a) Top view of a four-bay building
generally represented with simple springs. As showing individual elements and applied hori-
shown in figure 5.3b, frame elements are repre- zontal loads. Encircled numbers identify frame
sented with springs of stiffness, k, and dia- elements, other numbers identify diaphragm
phragm elements are represented as springs elements. (b) Corresponding spring model.
with stiffness Ch. The element (or spring) con-
nection points (a.k.a. nodes) are taken to repre-

5-3
 National Frame Builders Association
5.3 Frame Stiffness, k
5.3.1 Definition. To be compatible with a model
in which nodes represent points along the eave
line (figure 5.3b), frame element stiffness, k,
must equal the force required for a unit dis-
placement of the frame at the eave (figure 5.4).
In equation form:
k = P/∆ (5-1)
where:
k = frame stiffness, lbf/in (N/mm)
P = load applied at eave, lbf (N)
∆ = lateral displacement at eave result-
ing from applied load P, in (mm)
∆
P ∆
k=P/∆
Figure 5.4. Definition of frame stiffness, k.
5.3.2 Calculation. Frame stiffness is generally
obtained with a plane-frame structural analysis
program, e.g., PPSA (Purdue Research Foun-
dation, 1993), METCLAD (Gebremedhin,
1987b), and SOLVER (Gebremedhin, 1987a).
For post-frames in which (1) all posts are as-
sumed to be pin-connected to the truss (or raf-
ters), and (2) there are no special members
(e.g., knee braces) connecting posts to the
truss, frame stiffness can be calculated as:
n
k = Σ kp,i (5-2)
i=1
where:
kp,i = stiffness of post i, lbf/in (N/mm)
n = number of posts in the post-frame
5-4
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Post stiffness, kp, is graphically defined in figure
5.5. For a post with a constant flexural rigidity (E
x I) that is assumed to be fixed at the base, post
stiffness is given as:
kp = 3 E I / Hp3 (5-3)
where:
kp = stiffness of post that is fixed at the
base and pinned at the top, lbf/in
(N/mm)
E = modulus of elasticity of post, lbf/in2
(N/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of post, in4 (mm4)
Hp = post height from fixed base to truss
connection post (see figure 5.5), in
(mm)
P
Post -to-truss
connection
Hp point
kp = P / ∆
Figure 5.5. Definition of post stiffness, kp.
5.3.3 Shearwalls. End shearwalls and interme-
diate shearwalls, like post-frames, are modeled
as frame elements (see Section 5.2.3). Conse-
quently, their stiffness, like that for post-frames,
is defined as the ratio of a horizontal force, P,
applied at the eave of the wall, to the resulting
horizontal eave displacement, ∆.
The stiffness of shearwalls can be obtained us-
ing validated structural models, or from tests of
functionally equivalent assemblies. ASAE
EP558 (1999b) gives laboratory test procedures
that can be used to determine the stiffness of
functionally equivalent walls. This topic is also
discussed in Section 6.5.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Technical Note below grade. Meador (1997) developed similar

equations, but unlike Bohnhoff, Meador as-
Embedded Post Analogs
sumed that soil stiffness was not a function of
post width. Meador also investigated the as-
When a post is embedded in the soil, calculated
sumption of infinite post stiffness below grade,
post stiffness (and consequently calculated
and established limits for applicability of the
frame stiffness) is highly dependent on how the
equations he developed. McGuire (1998) used
embedded portion is modeled. Traditionally, en-
the work of both Bohnhoff and Meador to pro-
gineers have ignored soil properties and have
pose an analog where soil is modeled as a se-
modeled embedded posts using the analogs
ries of linear springs whose stiffness increases
shown in figures 5.6a and 5.6b. An inherent de-
linearly below grade (figure 5.6c). McGuire veri-
ficiency of these analogs is that the pin supports
fied Bohnhoff’s results and also showed that for
used to fix the post below grade do not allow the
the case of non-constrained posts, analogs like
post to naturally displace. For this reason, post
those shown in figure 5.6a may incorrectly pre-
stiffness values predicted using the analogs
dict the sense of base moment (see Chapter 8).
should be applied with caution. It should also be
noted that the analogs in figures 5.6a and 5.6b
Current impediments to the wide spread adop-
produce a reduced post stiffness when depth of
tion of analogs that account for soil stiffness in-
embedment, d, is increased. In reality, anytime a
clude: (1) complexity of equations, and (2) unre-
post is embedded deeper into the ground, the
alistically low post stiffness values obtained us-
stiffness associated with the post increases.
ing published soil stiffness data.
To accurately model post movement below
It is important for the post-frame designer to re-
grade requires accounting for soil stiffness.
alize that fixing the post at grade (figure 5.5)
Bohnhoff (1992) developed equations for pre-
generally produces conservative values for post
dicting post stiffness assuming soil stiffness in-
base moments, especially for the non-
creased linearly with depth below grade and
constrained post case. Conversely, forces calcu-
inversely with post width. Bohnhoff also as-
lated in the diaphragm using this model might be
sumed that the post had infinite flexural stiffness
non-conservative.

Hp Hp Hp

Ground
surface
Floor slab
0.34 d Springs
0.7 d
d d d used to
model soil
stiffness
0.1 d

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.6. Structural analog traditionally used for (a) non-constrained and (b) constrained
posts. (c) A more realistic non-constrained post analog that accounts for soil stiffness.

5-5
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

5.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch Ch = total horizontal shear stiffness of

5.4.1 Definition. As shown in figure 5.7, the
stiffness of a diaphragm element is the horizon-
tal load required to cause a unit shift (in a direc-
tion parallel to the trusses/rafters) of the
roof/ceiling assembly over a frame spacing
(a.k.a. bay width), s. This stiffness is commonly
referred to as the total horizontal shear stiffness,
Ch, of the diaphragm.
1 2 3 4
s1 s2 s3
(a)
diaphragm element, lbf/in (N/mm)
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of dia-
phragm section i (from Section
6.4.4), lbf/in (N/mm)
n = number of diaphragm sections
comprising the diaphragm element
5.5 Eave Loads, R
5.5.1 Definition. For diaphragm design, build-
ing loads are replaced by an equivalent set of
horizontally acting, concentrated (i.e., point)
loads. These loads are located at the eave of
each frame element (i.e., post-frame and end
shearwall, and intermediate shearwall) and
therefore are referred to as eave loads. Eave
loads and applied building loads are equivalent
s4 when they horizontally displace the eave an
equal amount.
Roof Gravity Loads

P P
s x qwr s x qlr

∆ R
i
C h,i = P / ∆
s xq ww

Ceiling Gravity Loads

s xqlw
si

Figure 5.8. Typical structural analog for obtain-

(b)
ing eave load, R.

Figure 5.7. (a) Top view of a four-bay building.

(b) Definition of diaphragm stiffness, Ch, for a
single diaphragm element.
5.4.2 Calculation. The total horizontal shear
stiffness of a diaphragm element is simply equal
to the sum of the horizontal shear stiffness val-
ues of the diaphragm sections that comprise the
element. In equation form:
n stiffness (see figure 5.4). The value of R is very
Ch = Σ ch,i
i=1
5.5.2 Calculation by Plane-Frame Structural
Analysis. A horizontal restraint (vertical roller)
is placed at the eave line as shown in figure 5.8
and the structural analog is analyzed with all
external loads in place. The horizontal reaction
at the vertical roller support is numerically equal
to the eave load, R. The vertical roller should
always be placed at the same location that hori-
zontal load P was placed when determine frame
(5-4) dependent on the magnitude of forces with

where:

5-6
 National Frame Builders Association
horizontal components (i.e., wind and stored
materials).
5.5.3 Calculation Using Frame-Base Fixity
Factors. When: (1) posts are assumed to be
pin-connected to trusses/rafters, (2) the only
applied loads with horizontal components are
due to wind, and (3) wind pressure is uniformly
distributed on each wall and roof surface, then
eave load, R, can be estimated as:
R = s (hwr qwr – hlr qlr +
hww fw qww – hlw fl qlw) (5-5)
where:
R = eave load, lbf (N)
s = frame spacing for interior post-
frames and shearwalls, ft (m)
= one-half the frame spacing for end-
walls, ft (m)
hwr = windward roof height, ft (m)
hlr = leeward roof height, ft (m)
hww = windward wall height, ft (m)
hlw = leeward wall height, ft (m)
qwr = design windward roof pressure,
lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlr = design leeward roof pressure, lbf/ft2
(N/m2)
qww = design windward wall pressure,
lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlw = design leeward wall pressure lbf/ft2
(N/m2)
fw = frame-base fixity factor, windward
post
fl = frame-base fixity factor, leeward
post
Inward acting wind pressures have positive
signs, outward acting pressures are negative
(figure 5.8). In buildings with variable frame
spacings, set s equal to the average of the
frame spacings on each side of the eave load.
Frame-base fixity factors, fw and fl, determine
how much of the total wall load is transferred to
the eave, and how much is transferred directly
to the ground. The greater the resistance to ro-
tation at the base of a wall, the more load will be
attracted directly to the base of the wall. For
substantial fixity against rotation at the ground-
line, set the frame-base fixity factor(s) equal to
3/8. For all other cases, set the frame-base
fixity factor(s) equal to 1/2.
5-7
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
For symmetrical base restraint and frame ge-
ometry, equation 5-5 reduces to:
R = s [hr (qwr – qlr) + hw f (qww – qlw)] (5-6)
where:
hr = roof height, ft (m)
hw = wall height, ft (m)
f = frame-base fixity factor for both lee-
ward and windward posts
5.6 Load Distribution
5.6.1 General. The distribution of horizontal
loads to frames, shearwalls, and various dia-
phragm sections can be determined after stiff-
ness values have been assigned to each frame
and diaphragm element, and eave loads have
been established.
5.6.2 Analysis Tools. Any finite element or
plane-frame structural analysis program can be
used to analyze the structural model shown in
figure 5.3b. However, to expedite this process,
computer program DAFI was developed
(Bohnhoff, 1992). Once eave loads and frame
and diaphragm element stiffness values are in-
put, DAFI calculates eave displacements, frame
element loads and diaphragm element shear
forces. DAFI can be downloaded at no cost from
the NFBA web site (http://www.postframe.org/).
An iterative method for hand-calculating load
distribution was developed by Anderson and
others (1989). This method, which is referred to
as the force distribution method, is procedurally
identical to the classical method of moment dis-
tribution.
5.6.3 mS and mD Tables. Forces in the most
highly loaded diaphragm and frame elements,
can be calculated using tables 5.1 and 5.2 when
all five of the following conditions exist: (1) all
diaphragm elements have the same stiffness Ch,
(2) all interior frame elements have the same
stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame elements
(i.e., the two elements representing the end-
walls) have the same stiffness, ke, (4) eave load,
R, is the same at each interior frame, and (5) the
eave load for each exterior frame is equal to
one-half that for an interior frame. These five
requirements are generally met in buildings with
a fixed bay spacing, endwalls that are virtually
identical in construction, and interior frames that
 National Frame Builders Association
don’t vary in overall design. When tables 5.1 and
5.2 are applicable, the analysis tools discussed
in Section 5.6.2 are generally not needed.
Input parameters required for tables 5.1 and 5.2
include: number of frame elements (i.e., the
number of interior frames + 2); ratio of dia-
phragm element to interior frame element stiff-
ness, Ch / k; and ratio of exterior to interior frame
element stiffness, ke / k.
The most highly loaded diaphragm element (in
any building that meets the preceding five condi-
tions) is the element located adjacent to the
endwalls. The maximum shear force in this dia-
phragm element, Vh, is equal to the appropriate
shear modifier value, mS, from table 5.1, multi-
plied by the eave load, R, for an interior frame.
In equation form:
Vh = R mS (5-7)
where:
Vh = maximum diaphragm element shear
force, lbf (N)
mS = shear force modifier from Table 5.1
R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
The value obtained from equation 5-7 is simply
equal to one-half of the total horizontal eave
load that is not carried by the interior frames.
The most highly loaded interior frame element
(in any building that meets the preceding five
conditions) is the element located closest to the
building midlength. Because of diaphragm ac-
tion, the total horizontal load that this critical
frame must resist is reduced from that which it
would have to resist without diaphragm action.
The magnitude of this reduction is referred to
the horizontal restraining force because in real-
ity, it is a restraining force applied to the frame
by the roof (and/or ceiling) diaphragms. Numeri-
cally, the horizontal restraining force, Q, is equal
to the product of the eave load R, and the ap-
propriate sidesway restraining force factor, mD
from table 5.2. In equation form:
Q = R mD (5-8)
where:
5-8
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Q = sidesway restraining force, lbf (N)
mD = sidesway restraining force factor
from Table 5.2
R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
5.6.4 In-Plane Shear Force in a Diaphragm
Section, Vp. The analysis tools discussed in
Section 5.6.2 (and equation 5-7) output dia-
phragm element forces. In most cases, each
element is comprised of two or more diaphragm
sections. The in-plane shear force in each of
these diaphragm sections is calculated as:
Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch) Vh / (cos θ i) (5-9)
where:
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm
section i, lbf (N)
Vh = horizontal shear force in the dia-
phragm element, lbf (N)
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of dia-
phragm section i, lbf/in. (N/mm)
θi = slope of diaphragm section i
5.6.5 Forces Applied to Frames by Individual
Diaphragms. The horizontal movement of most
building frames is resisted by roof/ceiling dia-
phragms. The total horizontal resisting force ap-
plied to an individual frame by the roof/ceiling
diaphragms was previously defined as the side-
sway restraining force, Q. To accurately model a
frame with the resisting forces applied by the
roof and ceiling diaphragms, requires that the
sidesway restraining force, Q, first be divided up
between the individual diaphragms (e.g., dia-
phragms a, b, and c in figure 5.2b). This is ac-
complished using the following equation:
Qi = Q (ch,i / Ch) (5-10)
where:
Qi = sidesway resisting force due to dia-
phragm i, lbf (N)
Q = total sidesway resisting force acting
on the frame, lbf (N)
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width
s of the roof/ceiling assembly, lbf/in.
(N/mm)
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of dia-
phragm i with width s, lbf/in. (N/mm)
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 5.1. Shear Force Modifier (mS)

Number of frames (endwalls are counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

5 5 0.88 1.14 1.33 1.45 1.53 1.59 1.62 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68
5 10 0.89 1.19 1.42 1.59 1.72 1.82 1.89 1.94 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.05 2.06
5 20 0.90 1.22 1.48 1.68 1.85 1.98 2.08 2.16 2.23 2.29 2.33 2.36 2.39 2.41
5 50 0.91 1.24 1.51 1.74 1.93 2.10 2.23 2.35 2.45 2.53 2.60 2.67 2.72 2.77
5 100 0.91 1.24 1.53 1.76 1.97 2.14 2.29 2.42 2.53 2.63 2.72 2.80 2.87 2.93
5 200 0.91 1.25 1.53 1.77 1.98 2.16 2.32 2.46 2.58 2.69 2.79 2.87 2.95 3.02
5 500 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.78 1.99 2.18 2.34 2.48 2.61 2.73 2.83 2.92 3.01 3.08
5 1000 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.78 2.00 2.18 2.35 2.49 2.62 2.74 2.84 2.94 3.02 3.10
5 10000 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.79 2.00 2.19 2.35 2.50 2.63 2.75 2.86 2.95 3.04 3.12

10 5 0.91 1.23 1.46 1.62 1.73 1.81 1.86 1.89 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.93 1.94 1.94
10 10 0.93 1.29 1.58 1.81 1.99 2.13 2.23 2.31 2.36 2.40 2.44 2.46 2.48 2.49
10 20 0.94 1.33 1.66 1.94 2.17 2.36 2.52 2.66 2.76 2.85 2.92 2.98 3.03 3.06
10 50 0.95 1.35 1.70 2.02 2.30 2.55 2.76 2.96 3.12 3.27 3.40 3.51 3.61 3.70
10 100 0.95 1.36 1.72 2.05 2.35 2.62 2.86 3.08 3.27 3.45 3.61 3.76 3.89 4.01
10 200 0.95 1.36 1.73 2.07 2.37 2.65 2.91 3.14 3.36 3.56 3.74 3.90 4.06 4.20
10 500 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.39 2.68 2.94 3.19 3.41 3.62 3.82 4.00 4.17 4.32
10 1000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.68 2.95 3.20 3.43 3.64 3.84 4.03 4.20 4.37
10 10000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.69 2.96 3.21 3.45 3.66 3.87 4.06 4.24 4.41

20 5 0.93 1.28 1.54 1.73 1.85 1.94 2.00 2.03 2.06 2.07 2.09 2.09 2.10 2.10
20 10 0.95 1.35 1.68 1.95 2.16 2.33 2.45 2.55 2.62 2.67 2.71 2.74 2.76 2.78
20 20 0.96 1.39 1.76 2.09 2.38 2.62 2.83 3.00 3.14 3.25 3.35 3.43 3.49 3.54
20 50 0.97 1.41 1.82 2.20 2.54 2.85 3.14 3.39 3.62 3.83 4.01 4.17 4.32 4.44
20 100 0.97 1.42 1.84 2.23 2.60 2.95 3.26 3.56 3.83 4.09 4.32 4.54 4.74 4.92
20 200 0.97 1.42 1.85 2.25 2.63 2.99 3.33 3.65 3.95 4.24 4.50 4.75 4.99 5.21
20 500 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.65 3.02 3.38 3.71 4.03 4.33 4.62 4.90 5.16 5.41
20 1000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.66 3.03 3.39 3.73 4.06 4.37 4.66 4.95 5.22 5.48
20 10000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.67 3.04 3.40 3.75 4.08 4.40 4.70 5.00 5.28 5.55

50 5 0.95 1.31 1.59 1.79 1.93 2.03 2.09 2.14 2.16 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.20 2.21
50 10 0.97 1.38 1.74 2.04 2.28 2.46 2.61 2.72 2.80 2.86 2.91 2.94 2.97 2.99
50 20 0.98 1.43 1.83 2.20 2.52 2.80 3.04 3.25 3.41 3.55 3.67 3.77 3.84 3.91
50 50 0.99 1.45 1.90 2.32 2.71 3.08 3.42 3.73 4.01 4.26 4.50 4.70 4.89 5.06
50 100 0.99 1.46 1.92 2.36 2.78 3.18 3.57 3.93 4.27 4.60 4.90 5.18 5.45 5.69
50 200 0.99 1.47 1.93 2.38 2.82 3.24 3.65 4.04 4.42 4.79 5.14 5.47 5.79 6.09
50 500 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.84 3.28 3.70 4.12 4.52 4.91 5.29 5.66 6.02 6.37
50 1000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.85 3.29 3.72 4.14 4.55 4.96 5.35 5.73 6.11 6.47
50 10000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.86 3.30 3.74 4.16 4.58 5.00 5.40 5.80 6.19 6.57

100 5 0.95 1.32 1.61 1.82 1.96 2.06 2.13 2.17 2.20 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.24 2.25
100 10 0.97 1.40 1.76 2.07 2.32 2.51 2.67 2.78 2.87 2.93 2.98 3.02 3.05 3.06
100 20 0.98 1.44 1.86 2.24 2.58 2.87 3.12 3.34 3.52 3.67 3.79 3.89 3.98 4.05
100 50 0.99 1.47 1.92 2.36 2.77 3.16 3.52 3.85 4.16 4.43 4.69 4.91 5.12 5.30
100 100 0.99 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.85 3.27 3.68 4.07 4.44 4.79 5.13 5.44 5.73 6.01
100 200 0.99 1.48 1.96 2.43 2.89 3.33 3.77 4.19 4.61 5.00 5.39 5.76 6.12 6.46
100 500 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.44 2.91 3.37 3.83 4.27 4.71 5.14 5.56 5.98 6.38 6.78
100 1000 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.45 2.92 3.39 3.85 4.30 4.75 5.19 5.62 6.05 6.48 6.89
100 10000 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.93 3.40 3.86 4.32 4.78 5.23 5.68 6.12 6.56 7.00

1000 5 0.95 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.20 2.23 2.25 2.27 2.27 2.28 2.28
1000 10 0.98 1.41 1.78 2.10 2.36 2.56 2.72 2.84 2.93 3.00 3.05 3.09 3.12 3.14
1000 20 0.99 1.45 1.88 2.28 2.63 2.93 3.20 3.43 3.62 3.78 3.91 4.02 4.11 4.18
1000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.83 3.24 3.62 3.97 4.30 4.60 4.87 5.12 5.34 5.54
1000 100 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.91 3.36 3.79 4.21 4.61 4.99 5.35 5.69 6.02 6.32
1000 200 1.00 1.49 1.99 2.47 2.95 3.42 3.89 4.34 4.78 5.22 5.64 6.05 6.44 6.83
1000 500 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.49 2.98 3.46 3.95 4.42 4.90 5.37 5.83 6.29 6.74 7.18
1000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.48 3.97 4.45 4.94 5.42 5.90 6.37 6.85 7.31
1000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.48 4.97 5.47 5.96 6.45 6.94 7.43

10000 5 0.96 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.21 2.24 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.28 2.29
10000 10 0.98 1.41 1.79 2.10 2.36 2.57 2.72 2.85 2.94 3.01 3.06 3.10 3.12 3.14
10000 20 0.99 1.45 1.89 2.28 2.63 2.94 3.21 3.43 3.63 3.79 3.92 4.03 4.12 4.19
10000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.84 3.25 3.63 3.98 4.31 4.61 4.89 5.14 5.36 5.57
10000 100 1.00 1.49 1.98 2.45 2.92 3.37 3.80 4.22 4.62 5.01 5.37 5.72 6.05 6.35
10000 200 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.48 2.96 3.43 3.90 4.35 4.80 5.24 5.66 6.08 6.48 6.87
10000 500 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.47 3.96 4.44 4.92 5.39 5.86 6.32 6.78 7.23
10000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.47 4.96 5.44 5.93 6.41 6.88 7.36
10000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 4.99 5.49 5.99 6.49 6.98 7.48

5-9
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 5.1. Shear Force Modifier (mS), cont.

Number of frames (endwalls are counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

5 5 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69
5 10 2.06 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08
5 20 2.43 2.44 2.46 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.48 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.50 2.50
5 50 2.81 2.84 2.87 2.89 2.92 2.94 2.95 2.97 2.98 2.99 3.00 3.01 3.01 3.02
5 100 2.98 3.03 3.07 3.11 3.14 3.18 3.20 3.23 3.25 3.27 3.29 3.30 3.32 3.33
5 200 3.09 3.14 3.19 3.24 3.28 3.32 3.36 3.39 3.42 3.45 3.48 3.50 3.52 3.54
5 500 3.15 3.22 3.28 3.33 3.38 3.43 3.47 3.51 3.55 3.58 3.61 3.64 3.67 3.70
5 1000 3.18 3.24 3.30 3.36 3.41 3.46 3.51 3.55 3.59 3.63 3.66 3.70 3.73 3.75
5 10000 3.20 3.27 3.33 3.39 3.45 3.50 3.54 3.59 3.63 3.67 3.71 3.74 3.78 3.81

10 5 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94
10 10 2.50 2.50 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52
10 20 3.09 3.12 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.21 3.21
10 50 3.77 3.84 3.89 3.94 3.99 4.02 4.06 4.09 4.11 4.13 4.15 4.17 4.18 4.19
10 100 4.12 4.21 4.30 4.38 4.45 4.52 4.58 4.63 4.68 4.72 4.76 4.80 4.83 4.86
10 200 4.33 4.45 4.56 4.66 4.76 4.84 4.92 5.00 5.07 5.13 5.19 5.25 5.30 5.35
10 500 4.47 4.61 4.74 4.86 4.97 5.08 5.18 5.27 5.36 5.44 5.52 5.60 5.67 5.73
10 1000 4.52 4.66 4.80 4.93 5.05 5.16 5.27 5.37 5.47 5.56 5.65 5.73 5.81 5.88
10 10000 4.57 4.72 4.86 4.99 5.12 5.24 5.36 5.47 5.57 5.67 5.76 5.86 5.94 6.03

20 5 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
20 10 2.79 2.80 2.80 2.81 2.81 2.81 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82
20 20 3.58 3.62 3.64 3.66 3.68 3.69 3.71 3.71 3.72 3.73 3.73 3.74 3.74 3.74
20 50 4.56 4.65 4.74 4.82 4.88 4.94 4.99 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5.16 5.18 5.20
20 100 5.08 5.24 5.38 5.51 5.62 5.73 5.83 5.91 5.99 6.07 6.13 6.20 6.25 6.30
20 200 5.42 5.61 5.80 5.97 6.13 6.28 6.42 6.55 6.67 6.79 6.90 7.00 7.09 7.18
20 500 5.65 5.88 6.09 6.30 6.50 6.69 6.87 7.04 7.20 7.36 7.51 7.65 7.78 7.91
20 1000 5.73 5.97 6.20 6.42 6.64 6.84 7.03 7.22 7.40 7.58 7.74 7.90 8.06 8.21
20 10000 5.81 6.06 6.30 6.54 6.77 6.98 7.20 7.40 7.60 7.79 7.97 8.15 8.33 8.50

50 5 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21
50 10 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.02 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04
50 20 3.96 4.00 4.03 4.06 4.08 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.14 4.15 4.15 4.16
50 50 5.20 5.33 5.45 5.55 5.64 5.72 5.79 5.85 5.90 5.95 5.99 6.03 6.06 6.08
50 100 5.92 6.13 6.33 6.51 6.67 6.83 6.97 7.10 7.21 7.32 7.42 7.51 7.59 7.67
50 200 6.39 6.66 6.93 7.18 7.41 7.64 7.85 8.05 8.24 8.42 8.59 8.75 8.90 9.04
50 500 6.71 7.04 7.36 7.67 7.97 8.26 8.54 8.81 9.07 9.32 9.57 9.80 10.03 10.25
50 1000 6.83 7.18 7.52 7.85 8.18 8.50 8.80 9.10 9.40 9.68 9.96 10.23 10.50 10.75
50 10000 6.94 7.31 7.68 8.03 8.38 8.72 9.06 9.39 9.72 10.04 10.35 10.66 10.97 11.27

100 5 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25
100 10 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.10 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12
100 20 4.10 4.14 4.18 4.21 4.23 4.25 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.30 4.31 4.31 4.31
100 50 5.46 5.61 5.74 5.85 5.95 6.04 6.12 6.19 6.24 6.30 6.34 6.38 6.42 6.45
100 100 6.26 6.50 6.72 6.93 7.12 7.29 7.45 7.60 7.74 7.86 7.98 8.08 8.18 8.27
100 200 6.79 7.10 7.41 7.69 7.97 8.23 8.48 8.72 8.94 9.15 9.35 9.54 9.72 9.89
100 500 7.16 7.54 7.91 8.27 8.62 8.96 9.29 9.62 9.93 10.24 10.53 10.82 11.10 11.37
100 1000 7.30 7.70 8.10 8.49 8.87 9.24 9.61 9.97 10.33 10.67 11.01 11.35 11.68 12.00
100 10000 7.43 7.85 8.28 8.69 9.11 9.51 9.92 10.32 10.72 11.11 11.50 11.88 12.27 12.64

1000 5 2.28 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
1000 10 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.18 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19
1000 20 4.24 4.29 4.32 4.36 4.38 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.47
1000 50 5.72 5.88 6.02 6.15 6.26 6.36 6.44 6.52 6.59 6.65 6.70 6.74 6.78 6.81
1000 100 6.61 6.87 7.12 7.35 7.57 7.77 7.95 8.12 8.28 8.43 8.56 8.68 8.79 8.89
1000 200 7.20 7.56 7.90 8.23 8.55 8.85 9.14 9.41 9.68 9.93 10.17 10.39 10.61 10.81
1000 500 7.62 8.05 8.48 8.89 9.30 9.70 10.10 10.48 10.86 11.22 11.58 11.93 12.27 12.61
1000 1000 7.78 8.24 8.69 9.15 9.59 10.04 10.47 10.91 11.33 11.75 12.17 12.58 12.99 13.39
1000 10000 7.92 8.41 8.90 9.39 9.87 10.36 10.84 11.33 11.81 12.29 12.77 13.25 13.73 14.20

10000 5 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
10000 10 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20
10000 20 4.25 4.30 4.34 4.37 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.48 4.48
10000 50 5.75 5.91 6.05 6.18 6.29 6.39 6.48 6.56 6.62 6.68 6.73 6.78 6.82 6.85
10000 100 6.64 6.91 7.17 7.40 7.62 7.82 8.01 8.18 8.34 8.49 8.62 8.74 8.86 8.96
10000 200 7.24 7.60 7.95 8.29 8.61 8.92 9.21 9.49 9.76 10.01 10.26 10.49 10.71 10.91
10000 500 7.67 8.11 8.54 8.96 9.38 9.78 10.18 10.57 10.96 11.33 11.70 12.06 12.41 12.75
10000 1000 7.83 8.30 8.76 9.22 9.67 10.12 10.57 11.01 11.44 11.88 12.30 12.72 13.14 13.55
10000 10000 7.98 8.47 8.97 9.46 9.96 10.45 10.94 11.44 11.93 12.42 12.91 13.40 13.89 14.38

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National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 5.2. Sidesway Restraining Force Modifier (mD)

Number of frames (endwalls counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

5 5 0.75 0.64 0.52 0.43 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05
5 10 0.78 0.69 0.59 0.52 0.44 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11
5 20 0.80 0.72 0.64 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19
5 50 0.81 0.74 0.67 0.62 0.56 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
5 100 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32
5 200 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.35
5 500 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36
5 1000 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37
5 10000 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37

10 5 0.83 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06
10 10 0.86 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.54 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.14
10 20 0.88 0.83 0.76 0.70 0.64 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.25
10 50 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.39
10 100 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.46
10 200 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.51
10 500 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54
10 1000 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55
10 10000 0.91 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.56

20 5 0.87 0.78 0.65 0.56 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.25 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07
20 10 0.91 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.60 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16
20 20 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.66 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30
20 50 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48
20 100 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.58
20 200 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
20 500 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69
20 1000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.71
20 10000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72

50 5 0.89 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.48 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07
50 10 0.93 0.88 0.80 0.73 0.65 0.58 0.50 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18
50 20 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.77 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.34
50 50 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.59 0.56
50 100 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.69
50 200 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77
50 500 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83
50 1000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85
50 10000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87

100 5 0.90 0.82 0.69 0.60 0.48 0.41 0.32 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
100 10 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.66 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
100 20 0.97 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.39 0.35
100 50 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.59
100 100 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.73
100 200 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.82
100 500 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88
100 1000 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91
100 10000 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93

1000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
1000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.67 0.60 0.52 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
1000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.36
1000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
1000 100 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.79 0.77
1000 200 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87
1000 500 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94
1000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97
1000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99

10000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
10000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
10000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.37
10000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
10000 100 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.77
10000 200 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.87
10000 500 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95
10000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

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Table 5.2. Sidesway Restraining Force Modifier (mD), cont.

Number of frames (endwalls counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

5 5 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
5 20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04
5 50 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.10
5 100 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15
5 200 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19
5 500 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21
5 1000 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.23
5 10000 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24

10 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 10 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
10 20 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05
10 50 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15
10 100 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.23
10 200 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30
10 500 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
10 1000 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37
10 10000 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39

20 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
20 10 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
20 20 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
20 50 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19
20 100 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.31
20 200 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.42 0.41
20 500 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50
20 1000 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.53
20 10000 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57

50 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
50 10 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
50 20 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
50 50 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.22
50 100 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38
50 200 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.52
50 500 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.65
50 1000 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71
50 10000 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77

100 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
100 10 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
100 20 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08
100 50 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.24
100 100 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41
100 200 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
100 500 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73
100 1000 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80
100 10000 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86

1000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
1000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
1000 20 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
1000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
1000 100 0.74 0.72 0.69 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
1000 200 0.85 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.63
1000 500 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81
1000 1000 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89
1000 10000 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98

10000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
10000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
10000 20 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
10000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
10000 100 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
10000 200 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.64
10000 500 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82
10000 1000 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99

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FRAME FRAME APPLIED HORIZONTAL LOAD RESISTED FRACTION OF

NUMBER STIFFNESS LOAD DISPLACEMENT BY FRAME APPLIED LOAD
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 10000.00 500.0 .1946696 1946.7 3.8934
2 100.00 1000.0 .3393392 33.9 .0339
3 100.00 1000.0 .3874022 38.7 .0387
4 100.00 1000.0 .3393392 33.9 .0339
5 10000.00 500.0 .1946696 1946.7 3.8934

DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM SHEAR SHEAR

NUMBER STIFFNESS DISPLACEMENT LOAD
--------------------------------------------
1 10000.00 .1446696 1446.7
2 10000.00 .0480630 480.6
3 10000.00 .0480630 480.6
4 10000.00 .1446696 1446.7

Figure 5.9. Sample output from computer program DAFI.

When requirements for use of tables 5.1 and 5.2
are met, equation 5-8 can be used to calculate
the total sidesway resisting force, Q. In all other
cases, analysis tools such as DAFI must be
used to obtain Q. A copy of output from program
DAFI for a 4-bay building with Ch fixed at 10000,
ke at 10000, k at 100, and R at 1000 is shown in
figure 5.9. Although the sidesway resisting force
for each frame is not given in the DAFI output, it
is numerically equal to the difference between
the load applied to the frame, and the load re-
sisted by the frame – two values that are listed
in the program’s output. For example, Q for the
critical middle frame (frame 3 in figure 5.9),
would be equal to the difference between
1000.0 and 38.7 or 961.3.
Since diaphragm construction typically doesn‘t
change from one side of a frame to the other
side of the frame, Ch and ch,i values associated
with either of the two diaphragm elements (that
are adjacent to the frame) can be used in equa-
tion 5-9.
Horizontal restraining forces calculated for the
three diaphragms in figure 5.2b, are graphically
illustrated in figure 5.10a. For post-frame com-
ponent stress analysis, these restraining forces
should be applied as in-plane forces as shown
in figure 10b. In-plane forces are calculated from
the horizontal forces as follows:
Qp,i = Q i / (cos θ i)
or
q p,i = Q i / (d i cos θ i) (5-11)
where:
Q pi = in-plane force applied to frame by
diaphragm i, lbf (N)
Qi = sidesway resisting force due to dia-
phragm i, lbf (N)
θi = slope of diaphragm i
q p,i = in-plane force applied to the frame
per unit length of diaphragm i, lbf/ft
(N/m)
di = slope length of diaphragm i, ft (m)
5.6.6 Simple Beam Analogy Equations.
McGuire (1998) presented the concept of mod-
eling the diaphragm as a simple beam with an
applied load inversely proportional to deflection.
This analogy resulted in the following equations
for calculating diaphragm shear forces and lat-
eral displacements for the special case when:
(1) all diaphragm elements have the same stiff-
ness Ch, (2) all interior frame elements have the
same stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame ele-
ments (i.e., the two elements representing the
endwalls) have the same stiffness, ke, and (4)
eave load, R, is the same at each interior frame.

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

s = frame spacing, in. (mm)

Roof Gravity Loads y = lateral displacement of diaphragm at
a distance x from the endwall, in.
(mm)
ye = lateral displacement of the endwall,
s x qwr s x qlr in. (mm)
k = stiffness of interior frames, lbf/in.
Qa Qb (N/mm)
Qc ke = stiffness of endwall frames (or
shearwalls), lbf/in. (N/mm)
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width
Ceiling Gravity Loads s of the diaphragm, lbf/in. (N/mm)
s xqww

s xqlw
L = Distance between endwalls, in.
(mm)
sinh = hyperbolic sine
cosh = hyperbolic cosine
(a)
( k / Ch )1/2
α =
Roof Gravity Loads s

A = ye – R/k
s x qwr s x qlr
A ( 1 – cosh(α L))
B =
sinh(α L)
q p,a q p,b
q p,c
ke sinh(α L)
D =
α Ch s (1 - cosh(α L))

Ceiling Gravity Loads

s xqww

5.7 Component Design

s xqlw

5.7.1 General. All building components must be

checked to ensure that actual loads do not ex-
(b) ceed allowable design values. In this section,
special attention is given to components that are
Figure 5.10 (a) Frame with diaphragm resisting involved in load transfer by diaphragm action.
forces. (b) Resisting forces applied as uniformly
distributed in-plane loads for frame component 5.7.2 Diaphragms. The maximum shear in a
stress analysis. diaphragm section, Vp,i, cannot exceed the al-
lowable shear strength of the section, va,i, multi-
plied by the diaphragm length.
Vh = Chαs[A sinh(α x) + B cosh(α x)] (5-12)
Vp,i < va,i d i (5-15)
y = A cosh(α x) + B sinh(α x) + R/k (5-13)
where:
ye = R / [ k (1 – D)] (5-14)
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm
where: section i from equation 5-9 lbf (N)
va,i = allowable in-plane shear strength of
Vh = diaphragm shear force, lbf (N) diaphragm i (see Section 6.3.3),
x = distance from endwall, in. (mm) lbf/ft (N/m)
R = eave load, lbf (N) di = slope length of diaphragm i, ft (m)

5-14
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

5.7.3 Diaphragm Chords. In addition to shear
forces, a roof/ceiling diaphragm assembly must
also resist bending moment. The magnitude of
this bending moment is dependent on a number
of factors. For design, this bending moment is
assumed to be no greater than:
Md = Vh L / 4 (5-16)
where:
Md = diaphragm bending moment, lbf-ft
(N m)
Vh = maximum total shear in roof/ceiling
diaphragm assembly, lbf (N)
L = distance between shearwalls, ft (m)
Equation 5-16 treats the roof/ceiling assembly
as a uniformly loaded beam that is simple sup-
ported by two shearwalls spaced a distance L
apart. Each shearwall is assumed to be sub-
jected to a force that is equal to the maximum
total shear in the roof/ceiling assembly, Vh. The
maximum total shear in the roof/ceiling assem-
bly, Vh, can be obtained from computer output
(e.g. figure 5.9), or equation 5-7 or 5-12 if appli-
cable. The uniform load on the roof/ceiling as-
sembly (w in figure 5.11a) is set equal to 2Vh/L.
This quantity is multiplied by L2/8 to obtain Md.
The bending moment applied to a roof/ceiling
diaphragm assembly is resisted by axial forces
(a.k.a. chord forces) in members orientated per-
pendicular to trusses/rafters. This includes roof
purlins and analogous framing members in the
ceiling diaphragm. For bending moment calcula-
tions, these members are referred to as dia-
phragm chords (figure 5.11a). Any connection in
the chords, either between intermediate chord
members or where they are connected to the
endwalls, must be designed to resist the calcu-
lated axial force.
If the roof/ceiling assembly behaves as a single
beam in resisting bending moment, the maxi-
mum chord force (which is located in the edge
chords) can be calculated as:
Pe = Md α / b (5-17)
where:
Pe = axial force in edge chord, lbf (N)
Md = diaphragm bending moment from
equation 5-16, lbf-ft (N m)
α = reduction factor dependent on chord
force distribution
b = horizontal distance between edge
chords, ft (m)

Vh Vh

Shearwall Chords Trusses/rafters

(b) (c) (d)
(a)

Figure 5.11. (a) Plan view of a diaphragm under a uniform load, w. Chord force distribu-
tions when (b) moment resisted by edge chords only, (b) chord force distribution is linear,
and (c) chord force distribution is linear, but diaphragm halves assumed to act independ-
ently in resisting moment.

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

The axial force in an edge chord is dependent

on chord force distribution as indicated by the Table 5.3. Reduction Factor, α, for Axial
presence of α in equation 5-17. The current Force in Edge Chords
ASAE EP484 diaphragm design procedure n* α n* α
(ASAE, 1999a) assumes that edge chords act 2 1.000 22 0.249
alone in resisting bending moment (figure 3 1.000 23 0.239
5.11b). For this case, α is numerically equal to 4 0.900 24 0.230
one (1). This is a conservative approach. Alter- 5 0.800 25 0.222
natively, many engineers assume a linear distri- 6 0.714 26 0.214
bution of chord forces as shown in figure 5.11c. 7 0.643 27 0.206
When a linear distribution is assumed, the re- 8 0.583 28 0.200
duction factor α is a function of chord location. If 9 0.533 29 0.193
chords are evenly spaced, then α is given as: 10 0.491 30 0.187
11 0.455 31 0.181
(n – 1 )2
α= n/2 when n is even 12 0.423 32 0.176
Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2 13 0.396 33 0.171
i =1 14 0.371 34 0.166
15 0.350 35 0.162
(n – 1 )2 16 0.335 36 0.158
α= (n-1)/2 when n is odd 17 0.314 37 0.154
Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2 18 0.298 38 0.150
i =1
19 0.284 39 0.146
20 0.271 40 0.143
where:
21 0.260 41 0.139
* n is the number of chord rows, including the
α = reduction factor when chords are
two rows of edge chords
evenly spaced and chord forces are
linearly distributed
n = number of chord rows, including the
two rows of edge chords
Technical Note
The preceding equations were used to calculate Chord Forces
the values given in table 5.3.
The axial force induced in an individual chord by
If a linear distribution of chord force is assumed applied building loads is a function of many
(figure 5.11c), and interior chords are evenly complex, interacting design variables. For this
spaced, the load in an interior chord, Pi, is given reason, designers have had to rely on simplify-
as: ing assumptions in order to approximate chord
forces.
Pi = 2 Pe x i / b (5-18)
One common assumption is that the roof/ceiling
where: assembly acts as a large deep beam that is
simply supported by two end shearwalls. This
Pi = axial force for chord in row i, lbf (N) assumption is used to calculate the maximum in-
Pe = axial force in edge chord from equa- plane bending moment to which a diaphragm is
tion 5-17, lbf (N) subjected. This assumption is conservative in
b = horizontal distance between edge that it neglects the resistance to in-plane bend-
chords, ft (m) ing contributed by sidewalls. Sidewalls help re-
xi = horizontal distance from center of sist (and thereby reduce) in-plane bending mo-
diaphragm to chord row i. ments in two ways. First they brace endwalls

5-16
 National Frame Builders Association
and other shearwalls, which limits rotation of the
diaphragm at these shearwalls. Second, they
resist a change in eave length (and hence
changes in eave chord forces) by virtue of their
own in-plane shear stiffness.
Because of the influence of sidewalls, the distri-
bution of in-plane bending moment will not follow
that for a typical simple supported beam (i.e.,
zero moment at the supports, and maximum
moment at midspan). For this reason, Pollock
and others (1996) recommend modeling the
roof/ceiling assembly as a deep beam with fixed
supports.
Because of uncertainty surrounding variation in
in-plane bending moment with building length,
some designers will assign the maximum calcu-
lated in-plane bending moment (Md from equa-
tion 5-16) to every location along the length of
the building. This is obviously a conservative
approach.
Another major assumption that a designer must
make involves the distribution of chord forces
across a building. Three different chord force
distributions are shown in figure 5.11b, 5.11c,
and 5.11d. Whether or not edge chords resist
virtually all of the in-plane bending moment (fig-
ure 5.11b), or a linear distribution of axial forces
exists in chords between edge chords (figure
5.11c) is a question that is at the heart of ongo-
ing research. In reality, the distribution of chord
forces lies somewhere in between these two
extremes, exactly where being dependent on
specifics of the design and on the magnitude of
the applied load (Note: at higher load levels,
load distributions change due to geometric and
material nonlinearities). Presently, there is very
little research data to support one specific de-
sign procedure/assumption. The most extensive
investigation of chord forces was by Niu and
Gebremedhin (1997) who strain gauged purlins
in a full-scale building and in a diaphragm test
assembly. The data collected in this study does
not strongly support any particular hypotheses
regarding chord force distribution. The only
other research of significance to chord force dis-
tribution was the comprehensive finite element
analyses of diaphragm assemblies by Wright
(1992) and Williams (1999). Both of these re-
searchers found that in-plane bending
5-17
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
moment in their models was resisted almost en-
tirely by the edge purlins. Bohnhoff and others
(1999) showed that as the shear stiffness of
cladding is increased, interior purlins get more
involved in resisting in-plane bending moments.
Chord force distribution has also been shown to
depend on the degree of interaction between
individual diaphragms. Figure 5.11d illustrates
the distribution of chord forces when there is no
interaction between individual diaphragms on
both sides of a ridge. Note that interaction be-
tween individual diaphragms on opposites sides
of a ridge is highly dependent on: (1) the spac-
ing between ridge purlins, and (2) the rigidity of
the ridge cap and other elements joining the two
diaphragms.
5.7.4 Shearwalls. End and intermediate shear-
walls must have sufficient strength to transmit
forces from roof and ceiling diaphragms to the
foundation system. In equation form:
va > Vs / (W – DT) (5-19)
where:
va = allowable shear capacity of shear-
wall, lbf/ft (N/m)
Vs = force induced in shearwall, lbf (N)
W = building width, ft (m)
DT = total width of door and window
openings in the shearwall, ft (m)
The allowable shear capacity of end and inter-
mediate shearwalls, va, is obtained from vali-
dated structural models, or from tests as out-
lined in ASAE EP558 (see Section 6.5). The
total force in the shear wall, Vs, is obtained from
computer output (e.g. figure 5.8), or equation 5-
7 or equation 5-12 if applicable.
The total width of door and window openings,
DT, generally varies with height as shown in fig-
ure 5.12. At locations where DT is the greatest
(section b-b in figure 5.12) additional reinforcing
may be required to ensure that the allowable
shear stress is not exceeded.
The structural framing over a door or window
opening will act as a drag strut transferring
 National Frame Builders Association
shear across the opening. The header over the
opening shall be designed to carry the force in
tension and/or compression across the opening.
a a
b b
c W c post frames, the designer may want to assume
Figure 5.12. Shearwall showing variations in
opening width, DT, with height.
Shearwall strength can easily be increased
when the applied load exceeds shearwall capac-
ity. For example, the density of stitch screws can
be increased and additional fasteners can be
added in panel flats (on both sides of each ma-
jor rib is the most effective). If only one side of
the wall has been sheathed, add wood paneling
or metal cladding to the other side. Metal diago-
nal braces can also be added beneath any wood
paneling or corrugated metal siding.
5.7.5 Shearwall Connections. Connections
that fasten (1) roof and ceiling diaphragms to a
shearwall, and (2) shearwalls to the foundation
system, must be designed to carry the appropri-
ate amount of shear load. The design of these
connections may be proved by tests of a typical
connection detail or by an appropriate calcula-
tion method.
At end shearwalls it is not uncommon to use the
truss top chord to transfer load from roof clad-
ding to endwall cladding. Sidewall steel is fas-
tened directly to the truss chord, as is the roof
steel when purlins are inset. In buildings with
top-running purlins, roof cladding can not be
fastened directly to the truss. In such cases,
blocking equal in depth to the purlins is placed
between the purlins and fastened to the truss.
Roof cladding is then attached directly to this
blocking.
5-18
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
5.7.6 Shearwall Overturning. Diaphragm load-
ing produces overturning moment in shearwalls.
This moment induces vertical forces in shear-
wall-to-foundation connections that must be
added to vertical forces resulting from tributary
loads. In the case of embedded posts, increases
in uplift forces may require an increase in em-
bedment depth, and increases in downward
force may require an increase in footing size
(see Chapter 8).
5.8 Rigid Roof Design
5.8.1 General. When diaphragm stiffness is
considerably greater than the stiffness of interior
that the diaphragm and shearwalls are infinitely
stiff. Under this assumption, 100% of the applied
eave load, R, is transferred by the diaphragm to
shearwalls, and none of the applied eave load is
resisted by the frames. Because all eave load is
assumed to be transferred to shearwalls, no
special analysis tools or design tables are re-
quired to determine load distribution between
diaphragms and post-frames. This simplifies the
entire diaphragm design process. This simplified
procedure is referred to as rigid roof design
(Bender and others, 1991).
5.8.2 Calculation. When (1) the shearwalls and
roof/ceiling diaphragm assembly are assumed to
be infinitely rigid, (2) the only applied loads with
horizontal components are due to wind, and (3)
wind pressure is uniformly distributed on each
wall and roof surface, then the maximum shear
force in the diaphragm assembly is given as:
Vh = L (hwr qwr – hlr qlr +
hww fw qww – hlw fl qlw) / 2 (5-20)
where:
Vh = maximum diaphragm element shear
force, lbf (N)
L = building length, ft (m)
hwr = windward roof height, ft (m)
hlr = leeward roof height, ft (m)
hww = windward wall height, ft (m)
hlw = leeward wall height, ft (m)
 National Frame Builders Association
qwr = design windward roof pressure,
lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlr = design leeward roof pressure, lbf/ft2
(N/m2)
qww = design windward wall pressure,
lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlw = design leeward wall pressure lbf/ft2
(N/m2)
fw = frame-base fixity factor, windward
post
fl = frame-base fixity factor, leeward
post
Inward acting wind pressures have positive
signs, outward acting pressures are negative
(figure 5.8). As previously noted, frame-base
fixity factors, fw and fl, determine how much of
the total wall load is transferred to the eave, and
how much is transferred directly to the ground.
The greater the resistance to rotation at the
base of a wall, the more load will be attracted
directly to the base of the wall. For substantial
fixity against rotation at the groundline, set the
frame-base fixity factor(s) equal to 3/8. For all
other cases, set the frame-base fixity factor(s)
equal to 1/2.
For symmetrical base restraint and frame ge-
ometry, equation 5-20 reduces to:
Vh = L [hr (qwr – qlr) + hw f (qww – qlw)] / 2 (5-21)
where:
hr = roof height, ft (m)
hw = wall height, ft (m)
f = frame-base fixity factor for both lee-
ward and windward posts
5.8.3 Application. The Vh value calculated us-
ing equation 5-20 (or 5-21) is always a conser-
vative estimate of the actual maximum shear
force (due to wind) in a diaphragm assembly.
This estimate becomes increasingly conserva-
tive as the amount of load resisted by interior
post-frames increases. It follows that equations
5-20 and 5-21 are most accurate when dia-
phragm stiffness is considerably greater than
interior post-frame stiffness. This tends to be the
case in buildings that are relatively wide and/or
high, and in buildings where individual posts
offer no resistance to rotation (i.e., the posts are
more-or less pin-connected at both the floor and
eave lines).
5-19
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Output from a DAFI analysis of a building with
relatively high diaphragm and shearwall stiffness
values is presented in figure 5.9. This output
shows less than 3% of the total horizontal eave
load being resisted by the interior frames.
Although rigid roof design expedites calculation
of maximum diaphragm shear forces, the design
procedure does not provide estimates of sides-
way restraining force for interior post-frame de-
sign.
5.9 References
Anderson, G.A., D.S. Bundy and N.F. Meador.
1989. The force distribution method: procedure
and application to the analysis of buildings with
diaphragm action. Transactions of the ASAE
32(5):1781-1786.
ASAE. 1999a. EP484.2 Diaphragm design of
metal-clad wood-frame rectangular buildings.
ASAE Standards, 46th Ed., ASAE, St. Joseph,
MI.
ASAE. 1999b. EP558.1 Load tests for metal-
clad wood-frame diaphragms. ASAE Standards,
46th Ed., ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Bender, D. A., T. D. Skaggs and F. E. Woeste.
1991. Rigid roof design for post-frame buildings.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture 7(6):755-760.
Bohnhoff, D. R., P. A. Boor, and G. A. Anderson.
1999. Thoughts on metal-clad wood-frame dia-
phragm action and a full-scale building test.
ASAE Paper No. 994202, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Bohnhoff, D. R. 1992. Expanding diaphragm
analysis for post-frame buildings. Applied Engi-
neering in Agriculture 8(4):509-517.
Gebremedhin, K.G. 1987a. SOLVER: An inter-
active structures analyzer for microcomputers.
(Version 2). Northeast Regional Agricultural En-
gineering Service. Cornell University, Ithaca,
NY.
Gebremedhin, K.G. 1987b. METCLAD: Dia-
phragm design of metal-clad post-frame build-
ings using microcomputers. Northeast Regional
Agricultural Engineering Service. Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, NY.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

McGuire, P.M. 1998. One equation for compati-

ble eave deflections. Frame Building News
10(4):39-44.

Meader, N.F. 1997. Mathematical models for

lateral resistance of post foundations. Trans of
ASAE, 40(1):191-201.

Niu, K.T. and K.G. Gebremedhin. 1997. Evalua-

tion of interaction of wood framing and metal-
cladding in roof diaphragms. Transactions of the
ASAE 40(2):465-476.

Pollock, D. G., D. A. Bender and K. G. Gebre-

medhin. 1996. Designing for chord forces in
post-frame roof diaphragms. Frame Building
News 8(5):40-44.

Purdue Research Foundation. 1986. Purdue

plane structures analyzer. (Version 3.0). De-
partment of Forestry and Natural Resources.
Purdue University, West Layfette, IN.

Williams, G. D. 1999. Modeling metal-clad

wood-framed diaphragm assemblies. Ph.D.
diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madi-
son, WI.

Wright, B.W. 1992. Modeling timber-framed,

metal-clad diaphragm performance. Ph.D. diss.
The Pennsylvania State University, University
Park, PA.

5-20
 National Frame Builders Association
Chapter 6: METAL-CLAD WOOD-FRAME DIAPHRAGM PROPERTIES
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 General. One of the first steps in dia-
phragm design is to establish in-plane shear
strength and stiffness values for each identified
diaphragm section. In most post-frame build-
ings, these diaphragm sections consist of corru-
gated metal panels that have been screwed or
nailed to wood framing. Behavior of these metal-
clad wood-frame (MCWF) diaphragms is com-
plex, and consequently, has been the subject of
considerable research during the past 20 years.
In addition to improving overall design, this re-
search has led to improved methods for predict-
ing metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm strength
and stiffness.
6.1.2 Predicting Diaphragm Behavior. There
are essentially three procedures for predicting
the strength and stiffness of a building dia-
phragm. First, an exact replica of the building
diaphragm (a.k.a. a full-size diaphragm) can be
built and tested to failure. Second, a smaller,
representative section of the building diaphragm
can be built and laboratory tested. The strength
and stiffness of this test assembly are then ex-
trapolated to obtain strength and stiffness values
for the building diaphragm. Lastly, diaphragm
behavior can be predicted using finite element
analysis software. The latter requires that the
strength and stiffness properties of individual
component (e.g., wood framing, mechanical
connections, cladding) be known.
Of the three procedures for predicting metal-clad
wood-frame diaphragm properties, only the sec-
ond one – extrapolation of diaphragm test as-
sembly data - is commonly used. This is be-
cause testing full-size diaphragms is simply not
practical (a new test would have to be con-
ducted every time overall dimensions changed),
and finite element analysis of MCWF dia-
phragms is, for practical purposes, still in a de-
velopmental stage. The later can be attributed to
the fact that the large number of variables affect-
ing diaphragm structural properties, as well as
the nonlinear behavior of some variables, has
thus far precluded the development of a quick
and reasonably accurate closed-form approxi-
6-1
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
mation of diaphragm strength and stiffness.
6.1.3 ASAE EP558 and EP484. Construction
specifications and testing procedures for dia-
phragm test assemblies are given in ASAE
EP558 Load Test for Metal-Clad Wood-Frame
Diaphragms (ASAE, 1999b). EP558 also gives
equations for calculating diaphragm test assem-
bly strength and stiffness. These calculations
along with construction specifications and test-
ing procedures from EP558 are outlined in Sec-
tion 6.3: Diaphragm Assembly Tests. For addi-
tional details and further explanation of testing
procedures, readers are referred to the ASAE
EP558 Commentary (ASAE, 1999b).
ASAE EP484, which was introduced in detail in
Chapter 5, contains the equations for extrapolat-
ing diaphragm test assembly properties for use
in building design. These calculations are pre-
sented in Section 6.4: Building Diaphragm
Properties.
6.2 Design Variables
6.2.1 General. Many variables affect the shear
stiffness and strength of a structural diaphragm,
including: overall geometry, cladding character-
istics, wood properties, fastener type and loca-
tion, and blocking. A short description of each of
these variables follows.
6.2.2. Geometry. Geometric variables include:
spacing between secondary framing members
(e.g. purlins), spacing between primary framing
members (e.g., trusses/rafters), and overall di-
mensions. With respect to overall dimensions,
diaphragm depth is measured parallel to primary
frames, diaphragm length is measured perpen-
dicular to primary frames. In most structures, the
overall length of a roof diaphragm is equal to the
length of the building.
6.2.3 Cladding. Cladding type (e.g., wood,
metal, fiberglass, etc.) is a significant design
variable. Coverage (and examples) in this de-
sign manual is limited to corrugated metal clad-
ding. Important design characteristics of this
type of cladding include: base metal (e.g., steel,
 National Frame Builders Association
aluminum), base metal thickness, panel profile,
and individual sheet width and length.
6.2.4 Wood Framing. The species, moisture
content and specific gravity of wood used in the
framing system will not only affect the structural
properties of the wood members, but also the
shear stiffness and strength of mechanical con-
nections between wood members and between
wood members and cladding.
6.2.5 Mechanical Connections. Type (screw
or nail), size, and relative location of mechanical
fasteners used to join components significantly
impact diaphragm properties. Fasteners are
primarily defined by what they connect. Major
categories include purlin-to-rafter, sheet-to-
purlin, and sheet-to-sheet (see figure 6.1).
Sheet-to-sheet fasteners are more commonly
referred to as stitch or seam fasteners. Remov-
ing stitch fasteners can dramatically reduce the
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners (Field)
Stitch Fastener
Sheet-to-Purlin Fastener (Edge)
Sidelap Seam
Rake Blocking between purlins
Board
Figure 6.1. Components of a metal-clad wood-frame roof diaphragm.
6-2
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
shear strength and stiffness of a diaphragm.
Sheet-to-purlin fasteners are also defined by
their location (i.e., end, edge, and field). A
sheet-to-purlin fastener may be located in a rib
or in the flat of a corrugated metal panel. Locat-
ing fasteners in the flat generally produces
stronger and stiffer diaphragms. The nonlinear
nature of fastener performance is one of the
more complex variables affecting diaphragm
stiffness.
6.2.6 Blocking. When secondary framing
members are installed above primary framing
(e.g. top running purlins) or below primary fram-
ing (e.g. bottom-running ceiling framing), clad-
ding can only be fastened directly to the secon-
dary framing (see figure 6.1). In such cases,
blocking is often placed between the cladding
and primary framing to increase shear transfer
between the components. This is commonly
done at locations where diaphragms and shear-
walls intersect.
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners (End)
Corrugated Metal Cladding
Purlin Rafter/Truss Top Chord
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Applied
force, P
F Rafter / Truss chord G
2
Purlins
Notes:

b = Test assembly length

Cladding 1. Force P may be alternately applied at point H
2. Locate gages 2 and 4 on the edge purlins
3. Locate gages 1 and 3 on the rafter / truss chord

Corrugations
Direction of

4
E H
a = Test assembly width
Deflection gage location
and direction of measured
1 3 deflection (typ.)

(a)

3a = Test assembly width

Applied force, P/2 Applied force, P/2

F Rafter / Truss chord I K G

Purlins
b = Test assembly length

Cladding
corrugations
Direction of

E J L H

2 3
1 Deflection gage location 4
and direction of measured
deflection (typ.)

Notes: 1. The applied forces may alternately be applied at points J and L

2. Locate gages 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the rafters/ truss chords

(b)

Figure 6.2. (a) Cantilever test configuration, and (b) Simple beam test configuration for
diaphragm test assemblies.

6-3
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

6.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies When this reduction is not applied (as would be
the case when test assembly failure is not initi-
ated by wood failure), the NDS load duration
6.3.1 Construction. With the exception of
factor, CD, can not be used to increase the al-
overall length and width, a diaphragm test as-
lowable design shear strength during building
sembly is required to be identical to the dia-
design. Completely separate of the load duration
phragm in the building being designed. Specifi-
factor adjustment is the 30% increase in allow-
cally, frame members must be of identical size,
able strengths allowed by most codes for wind
spacing, species and grade; metal cladding
loadings (see Section 3.9.4).
must be identical in composition, profile and
thickness; and fastener type and location must
6.3.4 Shear Stiffness. The procedure for de-
be the same. ASAE EP558 has established
termining the effective shear modulus of a test
minimum sizes for diaphragm test assemblies to
assembly begins with calculation of the adjusted
ensure that there is not too great a difference
load-point deflection, DT. This value takes into
between the size of a diaphragm test assembly
account rigid body rotation/translation during
and the actual building diaphragm.
assembly test and is calculated as follows:
6.3.2 Test Configurations. ASAE EP558 al-
Cantilever test:
lows for two different testing configurations: a
DT = D3 – D1 – (a/b) (D2 + D4) (6-3)
cantilever test and a simple beam test (figures
6.2a and 6.2b, respectively). In both figures 6.2a
Simple beam test:
and 6.2b, variable “a” represents the spacing
DT = (D2 + D3 – D1 – D4) / 2 (6-4)
between rafters/trusses (a.k.a. the frame spac-
ing). This spacing should be equal to, or a multi-
where:
ple of, the frame spacing in the building being
designed.
DT = adjusted load point deflection, in.
(mm)
6.3.3 Shear Strength. The allowable design
D1, D2, D3, and D4 = deflection measure-
shear strength, of a diaphragm test assembly is
ments, in. (mm) (see figure 6.2)
equal to 40% of the ultimate strength of the as-
a = assembly width, ft (m)
sembly. In equation form:
b = assembly length, ft (m)
Cantilever test:
The effective in-plane shear stiffness, c, for a
va = 0.40 Pu / b (6-1)
diaphragm test assembly is defined as the ratio
of applied load to adjusted load point deflection
Simple beam test:
at 40% of ultimate load. In equation form:
va = 0.40 Pu / (2b) (6-2)
Cantilever test:
where:
c = 0.4 Pu / DT,d (6-5)
va = allowable design shear strength,
Simple beam test:
lbf/ft (N/m)
c = 0.2 Pu / DT,d (6-6)
Pu = ultimate strength, lbf (N)
= total applied load at failure
where:
b = assembly length, ft (m) (see figure
6.2)
c = effective in-plane shear stiffness,
lbf/in. (N/mm)
If one or more of the test assembly failures were
DT,d = adjusted load-point deflection, DT, at
initiated by lumber breakage or by failure of the
0.4 Pu, in. (mm)
fastenings in the wood, then the allowable de-
sign shear stress must be adjusted to account
The in-plane shear stiffness for the diaphragm
for test duration. To adjust from a total elapsed
test assembly, c, is converted to an effective
testing time of 10 minutes to a normal load dura-
shear modulus for the test assembly, G, as:
tion of ten years, divide va by a factor of 1.6.

6-4
 National Frame Builders Association
G = c (a/b) (6-7)
where:
G = effective shear modulus of the test
assembly, lbf/in (N/mm)
6.4 Building Diaphragm Properties
6.4.1 General. As described in Chapter 5, each
building diaphragm is sectioned for analysis.
Each of these sections must be assigned a hori-
zontal stiffness value, ch, and an allowable load,
va.
6.4.2 Shear Strength
The allowable design shear strength of a build-
ing diaphragm is equal to that calculated for the
diaphragm test assembly. Consequently, to cal-
culate the total in-plane shear load that a build-
ing diaphragm can sustain, simply multiply the
allowable design shear strength, va, by the slope
length of the building diaphragm.
6.4.3 In-Plane Shear Stiffness. The in-plane
shear stiffness, cp, of a building diaphragm sec-
tion is calculated from the effective shear
modulus, G, of the diaphragm test assembly
using the following equation:
G bs
cp = (6-8)
s ding must be identical; and fastener type and
or
G bh
cp = (6-9)
s cos(θ)
where:
G = effective shear stiffness of test as-
sembly, lbf/in (N/mm)
bS = slope length of building diaphragm
section being modeled, ft (m)
s = width of the building diaphragm sec-
tion being modeled, ft (m)
bh = horizontal span length of building
diaphragm section, ft (m)
θ = slope of the building diaphragm sec-
tion, degrees
Implicit in equation 6-8 is the assumption that
the total shear stiffness of a building diaphragm
is a linear function of length.
6-5
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
6.4.4 Horizontal Shear Stiffness. The horizon-
tal shear stiffness, ch, of a building diaphragm
section is related to its in-plane shear stiffness
as follows:
ch = cp cos2(θ) (6-10)
or
ch = G bh cos(θ) / s (6-11)
6.5 Building Shearwall Properties
6.5.1 General. The same procedure used to
determine the strength and stiffness of building
diaphragms is used to determine the strength
and stiffness of building shearwalls. That is, rep-
resentative test assemblies are loaded to failure,
to determine their shear strength and stiffness.
These properties are then linearly extrapolated
to obtain strength and stiffness values for the
building shearwall(s).
6.5.2 Shearwall Test Assemblies. ASAE
EP558 also contains guidelines for construction
and testing of shearwall test assemblies. With
the exception of overall length and width, a
shearwall test assembly is required to be identi-
cal to the shearwall in the building being de-
signed. Specifically, frame members must be of
identical size, spacing, species and grade; clad-
location must be the same.
6.6 Tabulated Data
6.6.1 Sources. Testing replicate samples of
diaphragm test assemblies can get expensive.
For this reason, a designer may choose not to
conduct his/her own diaphragm tests, relying
instead on designs that have been previously
tested by others. Information on many tested
designs is available in the public domain. Clad-
ding manufacturers may have additional test
information on assemblies that feature their own
products.
6.6.2 Example Tabulated Data. Table 6.1 con-
tains design details and engineering properties
for roof diaphragm tests assemblies. The infor-
mation in this table represents a small percent-
age of available data.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 6.1. Steel-Clad Roof Diaphragm Assembly Test Data

Test Assembly Number 1 2 3 4

Test Configuration Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Cladding
Wick Agri Wick Agri Wick Agri Midwest Manu-
Manufacturer/Trade Name
Panel Panel Panel facturing.
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 28 28 29 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 12 12 12 12
Major Rib Height, inches 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.5
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.5
Yield Strength, ksi 50 50 80 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 9 9 9 6
Length, b , feet 12 12 12 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2 2 2 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 9 9 9 6
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge On edge On edge
Number of Internal Seams 2 2 2 2
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.2 SYP
Rafter Species and Grade No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP
Stitch Fastener
Type None Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 8d
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24 24
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 #10 8d
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat Major Rib
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 12 12 12 12
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 6 6 6 12
60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 2140 3390 3220 1930
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 71 113 107 64
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 1625 2720 2720 1590
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 1220 2040 2040 795
Anderson, Anderson, Anderson, Wee & Ander-
Reference
1989 1989 1989 son, 1990

6-6
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 6.1. cont., Steel-Clad Roof Diaphragm Assembly Test Data

Test Assembly Number 5 6 7 8

Test Configuration Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Cladding
Midwest Manu- Walters
Manufacturer/Trade Name Grandrib 3 Grandrib 3
facturing STR-28
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 29 29 29 28
Major Rib Spacing, inches 12 12 12 12
Major Rib Height, inches 1.0 0.75 0.75 0.94
Major Rib Base Width, inches 2.5 1.75 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.5 0.5 0.5
Yield Strength, ksi 80 80 80 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 6 9 9 9
Length, b , feet 12 12 12 16
Purlin Spacing, feet 2 2 2 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 6 9 9 9
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge On edge On edge
Number of Internal Seams 2 2 2 2
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.2 SYP No.2 DFL No.2 SPF No.2 SYP
Rafter Species and Grade No. 1 SYP No. 2 DFL No. 2 SPF 1950f1.7E SYP
Stitch Fastener
Type EZ Seal Nail None None Screw
Length, inches 2.5 1.5
Diameter 8d #10
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw Screw Screw Screw
Length, inches 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.5
Diameter #12 #10 #10 #10
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 6 12 12 12 and 18
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 6 6 6 12
60d Threaded 1-60d Spike + 1-60d Spike + 60d Threaded
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Hardened Nail 2-10d Toenails 2-10d Toenails Hardened Nail
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 3995 3300 2775 4884
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 133 110 93 122
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 2980 2920 2950 3890
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 1490 2190 2210 2190
Wee & Ander- Lukens & Lukens & Bohnhoff and
Reference
son, 1990 Bundy, 1987 Bundy, 1987 others, 1991

6-7
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 6.1. cont., Steel-Clad Roof Diaphragm Assembly Test Data

Test Assembly Number 9 10 11 12

Test Configuration Simple Beam
Cladding
Type Regular Leg Extended Leg Regular Leg Extended Leg
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 9
Major Rib Height, inches 0.62
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.75
Yield Strength, ksi 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 36
Length, b , feet 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2
Rafter Spacing Pair of rafters every 12 feet (each pair spaced 6 in. apart)
Purlin Location Top running and lapped Inset
Purlin length, ft 13.2 and 12.0 11.25
To special blocking nailed be- To joist hanger attached to raf-
Purlin Attachment
tween each pair of rafters ters
Purlin Orientation On edge
Number of Internal Seams 11
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 6-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.2 DFL and 1650f DFL
Rafter Species and Grade No. 2 DFL
Stitch Fastener*
Type None Screw* None Screw*
Length, inches 1.5 1.5
Diameter #10 #10
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw
Length, inches 1.5
Diameter #10
Location in Field In Flat
Location on End In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 9
Avg. On–Center Spacing on End, in. 9
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 6950 7850 6400 6950
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 116 131 107 116
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 4700 7500 3700 4400
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 4700 7500 3700 4400
Reference NFBA, 1996
* Because of the extended leg, screws installed in the flat at overlapping seams function as stitch fasteners.

6-8
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 6.1. cont., Steel-Clad Roof Diaphragm Assembly Test Data

Test Assembly Number 13 14 15

Test Configuration Simple Beam Simple Beam Simple Beam
Cladding
Metal Sales Pro Metal Sales Pro McElroy Metal
Manufacturer/Trade Name
Panel II Panel II Max Rib
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 30 30 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 9.0 9.0 9.0
Major Rib Height, inches 0.75
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches
Yield Strength, ksi 104 104 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 24 24 24
Length, b , feet 12 12 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2.33 2.33 2
Pair of rafters every Pair of rafters every
Rafter Spacing, feet 12 feet (each pair 12 feet (each pair 8
spaced 6 in. apart) spaced 6 in. apart)
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge NA
Number of Internal Seams 8 8 7
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 6-inch 2- by 6-inch Mac-Girt steel hat
section: 1.5 in. tall,
Purlin Species and Grade 1650f 1.5E SPF 1650f 1.5E SPF 3.2 in. wide, 18 ga.
Rafter Species and Grade 1650f 1.5E SPF 1650f 1.5E SPF 2250f 1.9E SP
Stitch Fastener
Type Screw None None
Length, inches 0.625
Diameter #12
On Center Spacing, inches 9
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw Screw Screw
Length, inches 1.5 1.5 1.0
#10 in field
Diameter #10 #14
#14 in ends
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 9 9 18 (3 screws/sheet)
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 4.5 4.5 9 (4 screws/sheet)
Two - #12 x 1.6 in.
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
screws/joint
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 9600 6600 8645
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 160 110 144
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 7680 7100 10700
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 7680 7100 7130
Reference Townsend, 1992 Townsend, 1992 Myers, 1994

6-9
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

6.7 Example Calculations

A designer wishes to find ch and va for roof diaphragm sections in a gable-roofed building
with roof slopes of 4-in-12. Distance between eaves is 36 feet, and post-frame spacing,
s, is 10 feet.

A cantilever test of a representative diaphragm test assembly with a width, a, of 10 feet

and a length, b, of 12 feet, yields an ultimate strength, Pu of 3900 lbf and an effective in-
plane stiffness, c, of 4000 lbf/in. The test assembly failure was not wood related, there-
fore the ultimate strength was not adjusted for load duration.

Equation 6-1: va (test assembly) = 0.40 Pu / b

va (test assembly) = 0.40 (3900 lbf) /12 ft = 130 lbf/ft

Equation 6-7: G = c (a/b)

G = (4000 lbf/in) (10 ft/12 ft) = 3333 lbf/in.

Equation 6-11: ch = G bh cos(θ) / s

ch = (3333 lbf/in) (36 ft / 2) (cos 18.4°) / 10 ft = 5690 lbf/in.

The horizontal stiffness, ch of 5690 lbf/in represents a single diaphragm section that
runs from eave to ridge and has a width of 10 feet.

va (diaphragm) = 1.30 va (test diaphragm) = 1.3 (130 lbf/ft) = 169 lbf/ft

As described in Section 3.9.4, the allowable strength of a diaphragm can generally

be increased by 30% when wind or seismic loads are acting in combination with
other loads.

6.8 References Lukens, A.D., and D.S. Bundy. 1987. Strength

Anderson, G.A. 1989. Effect of fasteners on the
stiffness and strength of timber-framed metal-
clad roof sections. ASAE Paper No. MCR89-
501. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
ASAE. 1999a. EP484.2: Diaphragm design of
metal-clad, wood-frame rectangular buildings.
ASAE Standards, 46th Edition. St. Joseph, MI.
ASAE. 1999b. ASAE EP558: Load tests for
metal-clad wood-frame diaphragms. ASAE
Standards, 46th edition. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Anderson, and P.A. Boor. 1991. Influence of
insulation on the behavior of steel-clad wood
frame diaphragms. Applied Engineering in Agri-
culture 7(6):748-754.
and stiffnesses of post-frame building roof pan-
els. ASAE Paper No. 874056. ASAE, St. Jo-
seph, MI.
Myers, N.C. 1994. McElroy Metal Post Frame
Roof Diaphragm Test. Test Report 94-418. Pro-
gressive Engineering, Inc., Goshen, IN.
NFBA. 1996. 1996 Diaphragm Test. National
Frame Builders Association, Inc., Lawrence, KS.
Townsend, M. 1992. Alumax test report: dia-
phragm loading on roofs and end wall sections.
Alumax Building Products, Perris, CA.
Wee, C.L. and G.A. Anderson. 1990. Strength
and stiffness of metal clad roof section. ASAE
Paper No. 904029. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.

6-10
 National Frame Builders Association
Chapter 7: POST PROPERTIES
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Types. Several different post types are
currently used in post-frame construction. The
most common of these are laminated lumber
posts. Solid-sawn posts are still used by most
builders, but not to the extent they were a dec-
ade ago. Parallel strand lumber (PSL) and
laminated veneer lumber (LVL) products are
gaining in popularity. Use of these and other
engineered lumber products as posts in post-
frame buildings can only be expected to in-
crease as the relative cost of these products
decreases.
7.1.2 Preservative Treatment. If posts are to
be embedded, they must be preservative treated
to avoid decay. General issues of preservative
treatment have already been presented in
Chapter 4. Discussion in this chapter will focus
on the structural aspects of post selection and
design.
7.2 Solid-Sawn Posts
7.2.1 Size. Post size varies considerably with
building geometry and design loads. The most
common sizes are 6- by 6-inch, 6- by 8-inch,
and 4- by 6-inch. Although both S4S (Surfaced
on 4 Sides) and rough sawn posts are available,
most rough sawn posts are not graded and
therefore are generally only used in code ex-
empt applications.
7.2.2 Wood Species. Species of wood used in
posts depends on local availability and on
preservative treatment needs. Commonly used
species includes Southern Pine, Douglas Fir and
Ponderosa Pine.
7.2.3 Design Properties. NDS design values
for species and grades typically used in post-
frame construction are given in table 7.1. These
values have been adjusted for conditions of use
in which wood moisture content exceeds 19%
for extended time periods, as is the case for
embedded posts. To apply the values in table
7-1
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
7.1, a post must be graded by an approved
grading agency and stamped accordingly.
7.2.4 Current Demand. Solid-sawn post use in
post-frame construction is on the decline, pri-
marily because posts of acceptable size, length
and quality are increasingly difficult to obtain.
The scarcity of long posts in structural sizes has
made laminated posts more price competitive.
Additionally, laminated post prices are typically
constant on a per-foot basis regardless of
length, while the cost of solid-sawn posts in-
creases exponentially with length.
7.3 Laminated Lumber Posts
7.3.1 General. Laminated lumber posts are
posts that are fabricated by joining together
individual pieces of dimension lumber, most
commonly 2- by 6-inch, 2- by 8-inch and 2- by
10-inch members. Structural properties of the
finished product vary significantly depending on
the means of lamination and the presence or
absence of joints in individual layers. Laminates
are either glued together or joined together with
mechanical fasteners (i.e., nails, screws, bolts,
shear transfer plates, metal plate connectors).
7.3.2 Advantages. By combining individual
laminates to build up a desired cross-section,
the statistical probability that a strength-reducing
characteristic of wood (such as a knot) would
exist through the entire cross section is greatly
diminished. Consequently, laminated posts have
more uniform strength and stiffness properties
than solid-sawn posts. This increased reliability
results in higher allowable design values.
7.3.3 Laminate Orientation. Laminated post
strength is dependent on orientation of individual
laminates with respect to the principal load
direction. If a post is designed (and positioned
within the structure) to resist loads acting on the
edge, or narrow face, of the laminates, the post
is said to be vertically-laminated (figure 7.1a). If
a post is oriented such that the applied load acts
on the wide face of the laminates, the post is
said to be horizontally-laminated (figure 7.1b).
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 7.1. Design Stresses for Selected Species and Grades of Solid-Sawn Posts *

Design Values in Pounds per Square Inch (psi)

Species and Tension Shear Compression Compression
Grade Bending, Modulus of
Parallel to Parallel to Perpendicular Parallel to
Fb Elasticity, E
Grain, Ft Grain, Fv to Grain, Fc┴ Grain, Fc

Douglas Fir-Larch
Sel Str 1500 1000 85 420 1045 1,600,000
No. 1 1200 825 85 420 910 1,600,000
No. 2 750 475 85 420 430 1,300,000

Northern Pine
Sel Str 1150 800 65 290 820 1,300,000
No. 1 950 650 65 290 730 1,300,000
No. 2 500 375 65 290 340 1,000,000

Ponderosa Pine
Sel Str 1000 675 65 360 730 1,100,000
No. 1 825 550 65 360 635 1,100,000
No. 2 475 325 65 360 295 900,000

Southern Pine
Sel Str 1500 1000 110 375 950 1,500,000
No. 1 1350 900 110 375 825 1,500,000
No. 2 850 550 100 375 525 1,200,000

* From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for wood under wet-use conditions, AF&PA (1997b).
Values are for lumber in the size category “Posts and Timbers”.

7.4 Glued-Laminated (Glulam) Posts

Load Load 7.4.1 Advantages. For a given species and
grade of lumber, glued-laminated posts have
higher allowable design values than solid-sawn
posts and most spliced mechanically-laminated
H V posts (see Section 7.6). Glued-laminated posts
exhibit complete composite action, that is, the
glue interface is of sufficient integrity that it is
assumed that there is no slip between laminates
V V H H regardless of load level. With no slip between
layers, glued-laminated posts behave much like
solid-sawn posts, and are very effective in
carrying biaxial bending loads.
H V

(a) (b) 7.4.2 Vertical Lamination. Glued-laminated

Figure 7.1. (a) Vertically laminated, and (b)
horizontally laminated post cross-sections.
posts that have a rather square cross-section
are typically designed as vertically-laminated
components; that is, they are designed to resist
primary bending moments about an axis per-
pendicular to the wide faces of individual lamina-
tions (Axis V-V, figure 7.1b). This class of posts

7-2
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

(cross-sectional aspect ratios less than 1.5) are of curved members.

commonly used as posts in post-frame build-
ings.
7.4.3 Horizontal Lamination. In contrast to the
glued-laminated posts commonly used in post-
frame construction, deep glulam beams (e.g.
door headers) are generally designed as hori-
zontally laminated components (figure 7.1a).
Lumber is used more efficiently in these assem-
blies by placing higher grade lumber in outer
laminates where bending stresses are higher,
and using lower grade lumber near the center
where bending stresses are low. In addition,
horizontal lamination facilitates the manufacture
7.4.4 Design Properties. Design properties for
both horizontally- and vertically-laminated glu-
lams are published by American Institute of
Timber Construction (AITC, 1985) and AF&PA
(1997b). Values for selected vertically-laminated
assemblies are listed in table 7.2. These values
are for dry-use conditions and normal load
duration. In actual application, glulam design
values must be adjusted by applicable factors
involving curvature, volume, beam stability and
column stability. These factors (and direction
regarding their application) can also be found in
the two references cited in this paragraph.

Table 7.2. Design Values for Vertically Glued Laminated Posts a

Extreme Fiber in Bending, psi

Compression Parallel
AITC Bending about Tension
MOE, to Grain, psi
Combin V-V Axis. Bending Parallel
Lumber Grade million
ation 4 or about to Grain, 4 or
psi 2 or 3
Symbol 3 Lams More H-H Axis. psi More
Lams
Lams Lams

Douglas Fir- Larch

13 Dense Sel Str 2.0 2300 2400 2200 1600 1950 2300
12 Sel Str 1.8 1950 2100 1900 1400 1650 1950
11 No. 1 Dense 2.0 2100 2300 2100 1500 1700 2300
10 No. 1 1.8 1750 1950 1750 1300 1450 1950
9 No. 2 Dense 1.8 1800 1850 1600 1150 1350 1800
8 No. 2 1.6 1550 1600 1350 1000 1150 1550

Hem-Fir
21 Sel Str 1.6 1650 1750 1500 1100 1350 1450
20 No. 1 1.6 1500 1550 1350 975 1250 1450
19 No. 2 1.4 1300 1350 1150 850 975 1300

Southern Pine
52 Dense Sel Str 1.9 2300 2400 2100 1500 1850 2200
51 Sel Str 1.7 1950 2100 1750 1300 1600 1900
50 No. 1 Dense 1.9 2100 2100 b 1800 b 1550 1700 2300
49 No. 1 1.7 1750 1850 b 1550 b 1350 1450 2100
48 No. 2 Dense 1.7 1800 1850 b 1600 b 1400 1350 2200
47 No. 2 1.4 1550 1600 b 1350 b 1200 1150 1900

Wet Service Factor, CM c 0.833 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.73 0.73
a
From the National Design Specifications (NDS), AF&PA (1997b).
b
Values reflect the removal of the more restrictive slope-of-grain requirements.
c
The tabulated values are applicable when in-service moisture content is less than 16%. To obtain
wet-use values, multiply the tabulated values by the factors shown.

7-3
 National Frame Builders Association
7.4.5 Manufacturing Requirements. For glu-
lam design values apply, tight quality control
must be maintained during the laminating proc-
ess. The AITC has published standards for the
design (AITC, 1985) and manufacturing (AITC,
1988) of glued-laminated members. Fabrication
procedures for the members must conform to an
additional standard (AITC, 1983), which covers
physical construction issues as well as quality
control, testing and marking procedures. The
rigorous requirements for construction, as well
as the planing that must be performed (individ-
ual laminates prior to lamination, and the fin-
ished member after lamination completion),
combine to essentially eliminate the possibility of
on-site fabrication. These factors also increase
product price, however, for many applications,
higher design properties justify the higher cost.
7.4.6 End Joints. Posts of any length can be
created by end-joining individual laminates. The
most common glued end joint is the finger joint.
Although finger joining is a common manufactur-
ing process, only a few manufacturing facilities
have the capability of producing finger joints that
meet AITC quality standards for structural joints
(i.e., the type of joints required in glulams).
Joints that do not meet criteria established for
structural joints are likely to fail when subjected
to design level stresses.
7.4.7 Glulams for Post-Frame Buildings. A
handful of companies now manufacture and
market glulams specifically for use in post-frame
buildings. These posts are intended for soil
embedment, with pressure preservative treated
wood on one end, and non-treated wood on the
other. Fabrication of such posts requires special
resins and procedures for joining and laminating
treated wood to non-treated wood.
7.5 Unspliced Mechanically-
Laminated Posts
7.5.1 General. The majority of posts used in
post-frame construction with an overall length
less than 18 feet are unspliced, mechanically-
laminated posts. An unspliced post is any lami-
nated post that does not contain end joints. This
means that each layer is comprised of a single
uncut piece of dimension lumber.
7.5.2 Fasteners. As previously noted, a me-
chanically laminated post is a laminated post in
7-4
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
which nails, screws, bolts, and/or shear transfer
plates (STPs) have been used to join individual
laminates. Nails are the most commonly used
mechanical fastener and posts that only feature
nails are often referred to as nail-laminated
posts. STPs are medium-gage metal plates that
are stamped such that teeth protrude from both
surfaces.
Mechanical fasteners that connect preservative
treated lumber should be AISI type 304 or 316
stainless steel, silicon bronze, copper, hot-
dipped galvanized (zinc-coated) steel nails or
hot-tumbled galvanized nails.
7.5.3 Advantages. Unspliced mechanically-
laminated posts generally cost less than solid-
sawn posts, and they are stronger than similarly
sized solid-sawn posts when bent around axis
V-V (figure 7.1a). As previously noted, this is
due to the fact that strength reducing defects are
spread out in laminated assemblies. Also,
pressure preservative treatment retention is
more uniform in the narrower laminates of a
mechanically-laminated post than it is in wide
solid-sawn posts.
7.5.4 Disadvantages. When mechanically-lami-
nated posts are bent around axis H-H (figure
7.1b), there can be considerable slip between
laminates. For this reason, the bending strength
and stiffness of mechanically-laminated assem-
blies bent about axis H-H is relatively low. To
compensate for this weakness, mechanically-
laminated posts are generally only used where:
(1) there is adequate weak axis support (i.e., the
posts are part of a sheathed wall), (2) cover
plates can be added to increase bending
strength and stiffness about axis H-H (figure
7.2), or (3) the bending moment about axis H-H
is relatively low or non-existent.
Figure 7.2. Cover plates used to increase the
bending capacity of a mechanically laminated
post about axis H-H.
 National Frame Builders Association
7.5.5 Bending About Axis V-V. Allowable
design stresses for bending of unspliced me-
chanically-laminated posts about axis V-V are
calculated in accordance with ANSI/ASAE
EP559 Design Requirements and Bending
Properties for Mechanically Laminated Columns
(ASAE, 1999). The procedure outlined in
ANSI/ASAE EP559 is identical to procedures
outlined in the NDS (AF&PA, 1997a) with the
exception of two adjustment factors: the repeti-
tive member factor, Cr, and the beam stability
factor, CL.
7.5.5.1 Repetitive Member Factor. ANSI/
ASAE EP559 allows the use of the repetitive
member factors in Table 7.3 when: (1) each
lamination is between 1.5 and 2.0 inches,
(2) all laminations have the same depth
(face width), (3) faces of adjacent lamina-
tions are in contact, (4) the centroid of each
lamination is located on the centroidal axis
of the post (axis V-V in figure 7.1a), that is,
no laminations are offset, (5) all laminations
are the same grade and species of lumber,
(6) concentrated loads are distributed to the
individual laminations by a load distributing
element, and (7) the mechanical fasteners
joining the individual layers meet the criteria
in table 7.4. Note that if one or more of these
criteria are not met, the NDS repetitive
member factor of 1.15 should be used if it
applies.
7.5.5.2 Beam Stability Factor. The beam
stability factor, CL, is a function of the slen-
derness ratio, RB, which in turn, is a function
of: beam thickness, b; depth, d; and effec-
tive span length, Le. ANSI/ASAE EP559
states that for mechanically-laminated posts
being bent about axis V-V, thickness, b,
shall be equated to 60% of the actual post
thickness, and depth, d, to the actual face
width of a lamination. The effective span
length, Le, is a function of the unsupported
length, Lu. The unsupported length shall be
set equal to the on-center spacing of bracing
that keeps the post from buckling laterally.
7.5.5.3 Design Values. Tables 7.5a and
7.5b contain design values for assemblies
fabricated from visually graded and machine
stress rated dimension lumber, respectively.
The design bending stresses have been ad-
justed for repetitive member use. They must
be further adjusted to account for stability,
7-5
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
wet use, load duration, temperature, and in
certain cases, special preservative and fire
treatments.
Table 7.3. Repetitive Member Factors*
Number of laminations
3 4
Visually graded 1.35 1.40
Mechanically graded 1.25 1.30
* For mechanically-laminated dimension lumber
assemblies with minimum interlayer shear
capacities as specified in Table 7.4. From
ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASAE, 1999).
Table 7.4. Minimum Required Interlayer
Shear Capacities*
Minimum required
Nominal face
interlayer shear capacity
width of lamina-
per interface per unit
tions, inches
length of post, lb/in.
6 12
8 15
10 19
12 24
* For unspliced mechanically-laminated posts.
From ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASAE, 1999).
7.5.6 Bending About Axis H-H. When all
laminates are the same size, species and grade
of lumber, the allowable design bending strength
about axis H-H is conservatively taken as the
sum of the bending strengths of the individual
layers. The bending strength of an individual
layer is equated to the product of the “flatwise”
section modulus of an individual laminate and
the NDS adjusted design bending stress. For
flatwise bending, the NDS adjusted design
bending stress, Fb’, is equal to tabulated design
bending stress, Fb, multiplied by the appropriate
flat use factor, a repetitive member factor of
1.15, and all other applicable factors. Note that
the beam stability factor is equal to 1.0 for
flatwise bending.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 7.5a Design Values for Unspliced Mechanically-Laminated Posts in Bending About Axis V-V.
Extreme Fiber Bending Stress*, psi
Nominal Width of Individual Layers, inches Modulus
of
6 8 10 12
Elasticity,
Grade Number of laminations x 106 psi
3. 4. 3. 4. 3. 4. 3. 4.
Douglas Fir-Larch
Sel Str 2540 2640 2350 2440 2150 2230 1960 2030 1.9
No. 1 & Better 2020 2090 1860 1930 1710 1770 1550 1610 1.8
No. 1 1760 1820 1620 1680 1490 1540 1350 1400 1.7
No. 2 1540 1590 1420 1470 1300 1350 1180 1230 1.6

Hem Fir
Sel Str 2460 2550 2270 2350 2080 2160 1890 1960 1.6
No. 1 & Better 1840 1910 1700 1760 1560 1620 1420 1470 1.5
No. 1 1670 1730 1540 1600 1410 1460 1280 1330 1.5
No. 2 1490 1550 1380 1430 1260 1310 1150 1190 1.3

Southern Pine
Dense Sel Str 3650 3780 3310 3430 2900 3010 2770 2870 1.9
Sel Str 3440 3570 3110 3220 2770 2870 2570 2660 1.8
Non-Dense SS 3170 3290 2840 2940 2500 2590 2360 2450 1.7
Dense No. 1 2360 2450 2230 2310 1960 2030 1820 1890 1.8
No. 1 2230 2310 2030 2100 1760 1820 1690 1750 1.7
Non-Den. No. 1 2030 2100 1820 1890 1620 1680 1550 1610 1.6
Dense No. 2 1960 2030 1790 1960 1620 1680 1550 1610 1.7
No. 2 1690 1750 1620 1690 1420 1470 1320 1370 1.6
Non-Den. No.2 1550 1610 1490 1540 1280 1330 1220 1260 1.4
* For dry posts under normal load duration. Size and repetitive member factors applied. For other appli-
cable modification factors, see NDS (AF&PA, 1997a).

Table 7.5b Design Values for Unspliced Mechanically-Laminated Posts in Bending About Axis V-V.
Extreme Fiber Bending Stress*, psi Extreme Fiber Bending Stress*, psi
Grade Grade
3 Laminates 4 Laminates 3 Laminates 4 Laminates
900f-1.0E 1130 1170 1950f-1.5E 2440 2540
900f-1.2E 1130 1170 1950f-1.7E 2440 2540
1200f-1.2E 1500 1560 2100f-1.8E 2630 2730
1200f-1.5E 1500 1560 2250f-1.6E 2810 2930
1350f-1.3E 1690 1760 2250f-1.9E 2810 2930
1350f-1.8E 1690 1760 2400f-1.7E 3000 3120
1450f-1.3E 1810 1890 2400f-2.0E 3000 3120
1500f-1.3E 1880 1950 2550f-2.1E 3190 3320
1500f-1.4E 1880 1950 2700f-2.2E 3380 3510
1500f-1.8E 1880 1950 2850f-2.3E 3560 3710
1650f-1.4E 2060 2150 3000f-2.4E 3750 3900
1650f-1.5E 2060 2150 3150f-2.5E 3940 4100
1800f-1.6E 2250 2340 3300f-2.6E 4130 4290
1800f-2.1E 2250 2340
* For dry posts under normal load duration. Repetitive member factors applied. For other applicable
modification factors, see NDS (AF&PA, 1997a).

7-6
 National Frame Builders Association
7.5.7 Flexural Rigidity. To calculate deflections
due to bending requires that the flexural rigidity
of the member be known. The flexural rigidity of
a solid-sawn member is equal to its modulus of
elasticity times its moment of inertia about the
axis it is being bent. The flexural rigidity of an
unspliced laminated post when bent around axis
V-V is simply equal to the sum of the flexural
rigidities of the individual laminates about axis V-
V. In other words, the flexural rigidity about axis
V-V is not dependent on the properties of the
mechanical fasteners. This is not the case with
respect to bending about axis H-H. The bending
stiffness about axis H-H axis is highly dependent
on the shear stiffness of the mechanical connec-
tions between the individual laminates. A high
bound for flexural rigidity about axis H-H is
obtained by assuming complete composite
action between layers (no interlayer slip). A
lower bound is obtained by assuming no com-
posite action (no interlayer connections). In the
latter case, the total flexural rigidity is equal to
the sum of the flexural rigidities of the individual
laminates. Special analysis procedures, such as
that developed by Bohnhoff (1992) are available
for more accurate estimates of deformation due
to bending about axis H-H. Use of these pro-
grams requires knowledge of the shear stiffness
properties of the mechanical connections.
7.5.8 Compressive Properties. The allowable
compressive load for an unspliced mechanically
laminated post is typically calculated by treating
the individual laminates as discrete columns.
This method conservatively assumes no com-
posite action between laminates. An allowable
compressive stress is first calculated for each
laminate for buckling about axis V-V. This allow-
able stress is then multiplied by the cross-
sectional area of the laminate to obtain an
allowable load for buckling about axis V-V. This
calculation is repeated for each layer, and the
resulting individual laminate loads are summed
to obtain a total allowable column load for buck-
ling about axis V-V. The entire process is re-
peated to obtain a total allowable load for buck-
ling about axis H-H.
The NDS (AF&PA, 1997a) presents methods for
calculating a compressive load capacity that
accounts for some composite action; however,
connectors used in fastening the laminations
must meet criteria outlined in the NDS.
7-7
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
7.5.9 Field Fabrication. A distinct advantage of
mechanically-laminated posts is that fabrication
can be performed using tools and equipment
readily available on the job site. With unspliced
posts that will be embedded in the ground, it is
common to construct the post so that an interior
laminate is left shorter than the surrounding
laminates. When the post is installed with this
feature located on the top of the post, the truss
can be set in the resulting pocket, enabling a
double shear connection between the post and
truss. The interior laminate is generally signifi-
cantly shorter (approximately 1 foot) than
needed to accommodate the truss. This is done
to compensate for varying depths of embed-
ment. After posts are installed, a spacer (or
block) of the same cross-sectional size as the
shortened laminate is placed in between the
shortened laminate and the truss. A schematic
of this procedure is shown in Figure 7.3.
Block Block
Height
1. Post set, bottom of 2. Truss set on 3. Block nailed into
truss marked, and block block and bolted place and top of outer
height measured into place. layers cut off.
Figure 7.3. On-site truss placement in a me-
chanically laminated post.
7.6 Spliced Mechanically-Laminated
Posts
7.6.1 Types. A spliced post is any post in which
at least one laminate contains one or more end-
joints (i.e., is comprised of two or more individual
pieces of lumber). Major end-joint types used in
spliced mechanically-laminated posts include:
simple butt joints, reinforced butt joints, and
glued finger joints. Butt joints are generally
reinforced by pressing metal plate connectors
into one or both sides of each joint.
 National Frame Builders Association
(a) (b)
Figure 7.4. (a) Treated portions of 3-layer spliced posts are embedded in the soil. (b)
Top of treated portions cut so that tops at same elevation. (c) Untreated post portions
spliced to treated portions.
7.6.2 Use. Virtually all mechanically-laminated
posts with overall lengths exceeding 20 foot are
spliced posts.
7.6.3 Advantages. Splicing enables the fabrica-
tion of long posts from shorter, less expensive
lengths of dimension lumber. Splicing also
enables the construction of posts with preserva-
tive treated lumber on only one end. This re-
duces the quantity of treated lumber used in a
building, which in turn reduces the number of
special corrosion-resistant fasteners needed to
join treated lumber.
With simple butt joints, the attachment of non-
treated lumber to treated lumber is sometimes
done in the field. This attachment is done after
the treated pieces have been laminated and
embedded in the ground (figure 7.4a). Prior to
attaching the untreated top-portion of each post,
the embedded treated portions are all cut so that
their tops are at the same elevations (note:
because of differing depths-of-embedment, the
top of each embedded section is generally at a
different height above grade). With the embed-
ded portions at the same elevation (figure 7.4b),
7-8
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Level
line of
sight
(c)
the upper portions will have the same overall
length (figure 7.4c). This eliminates cutting and
blocking like that associated with the special
construction shown in figure 7.3.
7.6.4 Disadvantages. Spliced mechanically-
laminated posts have the same disadvantages
as unspliced mechanically-laminated posts (see
Section 7.5.4). In addition, a simple (non-
reinforced) butt joint can significantly reduce
bending strength and stiffness in the vicinity of
the joint. If a post contains a simple butt joint in
each laminate, and these joints are all located
within 1 or 2 feet of each other, engineers will
often model that portion of the post as a hinge
connection.
7.6.5 Design Properties. Design properties for
spliced mechanically-laminated posts are highly
dependent on the type and relative location of
end joints, and on the type and relative location
of mechanical fasteners, especially those lo-
cated in the vicinity of end joints. Procedures for
designing and determining the bending strength
and stiffness of spliced nail-laminated posts are
outlined in ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASAE, 1999).
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

The design portion of EP559 includes require- American Forest and Paper Association
ments for joint arrangement, overall splice (AF&PA). 1997b. NDS Supplement - Design
length, nail strength, nail density, nail diameter, values for wood construction. American Forest
and nail location. If these design requirements and Paper Association, Washington, D.C.
are followed, the bending strength and stiffness
of the nail-laminated post can be calculated American Institute of Timber Construction
using the equations in the EP. It is important to (AITC). 1983. Structural glued laminated timber.
note that the intent of the EP559 design re- ANSI/AITC A190.1-1983. Englewood, CO.
quirements is to maximize the bending strength
of the splice region, while minimizing overall American Institute of Timber Construction
splice length. Overall splice length is defined as (AITC). 1985. Design standard specifications for
the distance between the two farthest removed structural glued laminated timber of softwood
end joints in a post that contains one end joint in species. AITC 117.85. Englewood, CO.
each laminate. Reducing overall splice length
generally reduces the amount of preservative American Institute of Timber Construction
treated lumber used in a post. (AITC). 1988. Manufacturing standard specifica-
tions for structural glued laminated timber of
7.6.6 Laboratory Tests. Engineers must gen- softwood species. AITC 117.88. Englewood,
erally rely on laboratory tests to determine CO.
design properties for spliced posts that do not
meet the design requirements of ANSI/ASAE ASAE. 1999. ANSI/ASAE EP559: Design re-
EP559. In recognition of this, a laboratory test quirements and bending properties for mechani-
procedure specifically for spliced mechanically cally laminated columns. ASAE Standards, 46th
laminated posts is outlined in ANSI/ASAE edition. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
EP559.
Bohnhoff, D.R. 1992. Modeling horizontally nail-
7.6.7 Computer Modeling. Discontinuities at laminated beams. ASCE Journal of Strucutral
butt joints result in a post with a varying bending Engineering 118(5):1393-1406.
stiffness along its length. If the overall splice
length is rather short (i.e., all joints are located
within a distance equal to 1/4th the post length),
the post is generally sectioned into three ele-
ments for computer frame analysis: a middle
element that contains all the joints, and two
“joint-free” outer elements. The joint-free ele-
ments are treated like unspliced mechanically-
laminated posts with flexural rigidities calculated
as described in Section 7.5.7. The element
containing the joints is assigned an effective
flexural rigidity that will cause it to deform like
actual laboratory tested posts. A procedure for
“backing-out” an effective flexural rigidity from
bending test data is given in ANSI/ASAE EP559.
The EP also contains an equation for calculating
the flexural rigidity of the splice region of any
nail-laminated post that meets the design re-
quirements of the EP.

7.7 References

American Forest and Paper Association

(AF&PA). 1997a. National Design Specifications
for Wood Construction (NDS). American Forest
and Paper Association, Washington, D.C.

7-9
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

7-10
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Chapter 8 - POST FOUNDATION DESIGN

8.1 Introduction The most comprehensive current design guide-

line is ASAE EP486 (ASAE, 1999a). The mate-
rial in this chapter is largely based on this engi-
8.1.1 General. A distinct advantage of post-
neering practice.
frame construction is the opportunity to transfer
structural loads to the soil via embedded posts,
CL
thereby eliminating the need for a traditional B/2 B/2
foundation.

8.1.2 Post Loads. Post loads (i.e., structurally

Post
induced shear, bending moment and axial
q
loads) are obtained using procedures presented
in Chapter 5. Most post foundation design equa- 2.0B 1.5B 1.0B 1.0B 1.5B 2.0B
tions require that post loads be specified at the 0.9q

ground surface. 0.5B

0.8q

0.7q
0.6q
8.1.3 Post Foundation Classification. Based 1.0B
on their depth, post foundations are categorized 0.4q
0.5q
0.1q
as shallow foundations. Shallow foundations 1.5B
exhibit behavior quite different from that of 0.3q
deeper systems such as pilings. Specifically, 2.0B
post deformation below grade is relatively insig- 0.2q

nificant compared to the deformation of the soil 2.5B

around the post. Soil deformation around a post
is a three-dimensional phenomena. Figure 8.1
shows the lines of constant soil pressure (in a
horizontal plane of soil) that form when a post
moves laterally. The greater the distance be-
tween two posts, the less influence one post will
have on the soil pressure near the other. For
design purposes, individual embedded posts are
considered isolated foundations when post
spacing is six times greater than post width.
Higher allowable lateral soil bearing pressures
are justified for a foundation featuring isolated
posts instead of a continuous foundation wall.
8.1.4 Design Variables. Factors that influence
the strength and stiffness of a post foundation
include: embedment depth, post constraint (Sec-
tion 8.2), soil properties (Section 8.3), footing
size (Section 8.4), collar size (Section 8.5),
backfill properties (Section 8.6), and post di-
mensions (Section 8.7).
8.1.5 Design Guides. The first design manual
for post foundations was originally published by
the American Wood Preservers Institute (Patter-
son, 1969). The basic design approach and
guidelines for post embedment analysis have
been accepted by several major building codes.
3.0B
3.5B
Figure 8.1. Constant Pressure Lines in a Hori-
zontal Plane of Soil.
8.2 Post Constraint
8.2.1 Nonconstrained Post. The most basic
type of post foundation consists of a post simply
embedded in the ground, with no attachments or
additional support (figure 8.2). If the rotation and
lateral displacement of the post are resisted
solely by the soil, the post foundation is said to
be non-constrained.
8.2.2 Constrained Post. If a post bears on (or
is attached to) an additional “immovable” struc-
tural element such that the lateral displacement
at some point at or above the ground surface is
essentially equal to zero, the post foundation is
said to be constrained. An example of a con-
strained post foundation would be when the post
is installed immediately adjacent to a concrete
slab floor in the building (figure 8.3).

8-1
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

8.2.3 Varying Constraint. It is important to note
that a single post can be both constrained or
non-constrained, depending on the load case.
Using the previous example of a slab floor, and
assuming that the post is not attached to the
slab, if the wind loading was such that the post
was pushing on the slab, the post would be con-
sidered constrained. However, if the wind were
blowing in the opposite direction, the post would
not be supported by the slab; hence, the post
would be analyzed for that load case as non-
constrained.

Ma Ma
Ground Level Ground Level
Va Va

Resultant
Post Soil Force
do do

d d

Rotation Axis
Resultant
Soil Force Rotation Axis

Soil Forces Footing Footing

LOAD CASE A LOAD CASE B

Figure 8.2. Free body diagrams of non-constrained post foundations. Load Case A:
groundline shear and moment both cause clockwise rotation of embedded portion of
post. Load Case B: groundline shear and moment cause clockwise and counter clock-
wise rotation, respectively, of embedded portion of post.
Ma
Ground Level Va
R

Floor

Resultant
Soil Force Post

Soil Forces
Footing

Figure 8.3. Free body diagram of a constrained post foundation.

8-2
 National Frame Builders Association
8.3 Soil Properties
8.3.1 General. The capability of a soil to handle
loads transmitted to it by a post depend on such
characteristics as: particle size and size distribu-
tion (a.k.a. soil classification), moisture content,
density, and depth below grade. These soil
characteristics control the allowable vertical and
lateral soil pressures.
8.3.2 Soil Classification. Soil is classified by
the size of individual particles and the distribu-
tion of sizes within the sample. There are four
major particle (grain) sizes: gravel, sand, silt,
and clay. The most popular classification system
in the U.S. (i.e., the Unified Soil Classification
(USC) system) classifies gravels as grains be-
tween 0.2 and 3.0 inches, sands as particles
between 0.003 and 0.2 inches, silts as grains
between 0.003 and 0.00008 inches, and clays
as all particles finer than 0.00008 inches. The
distribution of these particles within a given soil
has a major impact of soil behavior. A soil with a
wide distribution of particle sizes is referred to
as a well-graded soil. A poorly graded soil is
comprised of similar sized particles. The best
soils for foundation design are gravels and
sands, with well-graded gravels and sands, bet-
ter than poorly graded gravels and sands. Or-
ganic silt, peat and soft clay soils are not suit-
able for post foundations, as they have neither
the strength nor the stability to support structural
loads.
8.3.3 Soil Moisture Content. The effective
shear strength of a soil can be reduced signifi-
cantly when soil is allowed to saturate with wa-
ter. To avoid water saturation of soils around
posts, install rain gutters, and slope the finish
grade away from the building. A minimum 2%
slope for a distance of at least 6 ft (2 m) from the
building walls is recommended.
8.3.4 Soil Density and Depth. Allowable verti-
cal and lateral soil pressures increase with in-
creases in soil density and depth. This is be-
cause soil confinement pressures increase as
both of these variables increase.
8.3.5 Tabulated Design Values. Table 8.1
8-3
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
contains soil properties as tabulated in ASAE
are referred to as presumptive values and
should only be used if there is no active building
code in effect, and site-specific soil properties
are unavailable.
The vertical soil pressures given in table 8.1 are
for the first foot (300 mm) of footing width and
first foot below grade. A twenty percent increase
in allowable soil pressure is allowed for each
additional foot (300 mm) of foundation width or
depth, up to a maximum of three times the origi-
nal value.
The lateral soil pressure values in table 8.1 are
per unit depth. To obtain the allowable lateral
pressure at a point below grade, SL, multiple the
lateral soil pressure value, S, by the distance
below grade of the point in question. For exam-
ple, the lateral pressure per unit depth, S, for a
firm sandy gravel is 300 lbm/ft2 per foot of depth.
This equates to an allowable pressure of 1200
lbf/ft2 (4 ft x 300 lbm/ft2 per ft x 1lbf/lbm) for
points four feet below grade. [Note: use of
variable SL to represent S when adjusted for
depth, is unique to this design manual, and
is done to avoid confusion between values
that have and have not been adjusted for
depth. It is important to realize that SL and S
have different units.]
8.3.6 Soil Tests. Site-specific soil test results
are often used to determine allowable soil pres-
sures. Such calculations generally result in
higher allowable design values than would be
obtained using table 8.1. This is because pre-
sumptive values are the lowest values associ-
ated with a broad classification of soils, each at
their minimum strength conditions.
8.3.7 Soil Sampling. Soil samples should be
gathered from the applicable location in the soil
profile: one-third the foundation depth for lateral
soil pressure calculations for non-constrained
posts; and at footing depth for lateral soil pres-
sure calculations for constrained posts and for
vertical soil pressure calculations. From each
soil sample, the cohesion, c, angle of internal
friction φ, and bulk density, w, must be deter-
mined.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 8.1. Presumed Soil Properties for Post Foundation Design (ASAE, 1999). For use in ab-
sence of codes or test.
Lateral Pressure Lateral
Density Vertical Friction
Per Unit Depth, S Sliding Density, w ±
or Con- Pressure, Sv ↓ Angle,
Class of Material ↑ Coeffi-
sistency 2 degrees
lbf/ft kPa per cient
← lbf/ft
2
kPa ° lbm/ft
2
kg/m
3
per ft m →

1. Massive crystalline bedrock - 1200 180 0.79 4000 200 - - -

2. Sedimentary and foliated rock - 400 60 0.35 2000 100 - - -

3. Sandy gravel and/or gravel (GW firm 300 45 - - - 38 120 2000

and GP) loose 200 30 0.35 2000 100 32 90 1500

4. Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, firm 200 30 - - - 30 105 1750

silty gravel and clayey gravel
(SW, SP, SM, SC, GM, and GC) loose 150 22.5 0.25 1500 75 26 85 1400

5. Clay, sandy clay, silty clay and medium 130 20 ″ - - 15 120 2000
clayey silt (CL, ML, MH and CH) soft 100 15 - 1000 50 10 90 1500

← Firm consistency of class 4 and the medium consistency of class 5 can be molded by strong finger pressure, and the firm con-
sistency of class 3 is too compact to be excavated with a shovel.
↑ The hydrostatic increase in lateral pressure per unit depth has been included in the equations of this chapter. Source: Table 29-
B UBC modified with the addition of firm and medium values from Hough (1969).
→ Sliding resistance source: Table 29-B UBC.
↓ Allowable foundation pressures are for footings at least 1 ft (300 mm) wide and 1 ft (300 mm) deep into natural grade. Pressure
may be increased 20% for each additional 1 ft (300 mm) of width and/or depth to a maximum of three times the tabulated value.
Source: Table 29-B UBC.
° Soil friction angle varies from soft to medium density for clay materials, and from loose to firm for sand and gravel materials.
Source: Merritt (1976).
± Soil density varies from soft to medium density for clay materials, and from loose to firm for sand and gravel materials. Source:
Hough(1969).
″ Multiply an assumed lateral sliding resistance of 130 lbf/ft (6 kPa) by the contact area. Use the lesser of the lateral sliding resis-
2

tance and one-half the dead load.

8.3.8 Allowable Vertical Soil Pressure c = soil cohesion, lbf/ft2 (Pa)

From Soil Test Data. The allowable vertical soil φ = soil angle of internal friction, de-
pressure for round or square footings, Sv, can grees
be estimated from site-specific soil test as: w = soil bulk density, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant, 1 lbf/lbm
Sv = SBC / FS (8-1) (0.00981 kPa m2/kg)
y = depth where soil allowable pressure
where: is calculated, ft (m)
b = footing diameter or length of one
Sv = allowable vertical soil pressure, side, ft (m)
lbf/ft2 (kPa)
FS = factor of safety (2.3 to 3.0) For shallow foundations, a factor of safety be-
SBC = ultimate soil bearing capacity, lbf/ft2 tween 2.3 and 3.0 is typically applied to vertical
(kPa) soil pressure (Whitlow, 1995). Equation 8.2 is a
modified Terzaghi-Meyerhoff equation taken
SBC = 0.6 g w b (Nq + 1) tan φ + from Whitlow (1995). Values compiled in table
(Nq - 1+ Nq tan φ)(g w y + c/tanφ) (8-2) 8.2 can be used to facilitate calculation of the
ultimate soil bearing capacity, SBC.
Nq = eπ tanφ tan2(φ/2 + 45)

8-4
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 8.2. Ultimate Bearing Capacity* For lateral earth pressures in drained soils, a
SBC = 0.6 w b T1 + factor of safety between 1.5 and 2.0 is typical
φ T2(w y + c T3) (Whitlow, 1995). Equation 8-2 assumes drained
Nq
deg. soils (i.e., the water table is located below the
T1 T2 T3
10 2.471 0.612 1.907 5.671 top of the footing). Equation 8-2 does not ac-
12 2.974 0.845 2.606 4.705 count for soil cohesion, therefore the equation is
14 3.586 1.143 3.480 4.011 conservative for clays. Values for the Rankine
passive pressure are given in table 8.3.
16 4.335 1.530 4.578 3.487
18 5.258 2.033 5.966 3.078
Table 8.3. Rankine Passive Soil Pressures
20 6.399 2.693 7.729 2.747 for Drained, Cohesiveless Soils
22 7.821 3.564 9.981 2.475 SRP, lbf/ft2 per ft
24 9.603 4.721 12.879 2.246 φ
Soil Density, lbm/ft3
26 11.854 6.269 16.636 2.050 deg.
95 100 105 110 115 120
28 14.720 8.358 21.547 1.881
10 135 142 149 156 163 170
30 18.401 11.201 28.025 1.732
12 145 152 160 168 175 183
32 23.177 15.107 36.659 1.600
14 156 164 172 180 188 197
34 29.440 20.532 48.297 1.483
16 167 176 185 194 203 211
36 37.752 28.155 64.181 1.376
18 180 189 199 208 218 227
38 48.933 39.012 86.164 1.280
20 194 204 214 224 235 245
40 64.195 54.705 117.061 1.192
22 209 220 231 242 253 264
42 85.374 77.771 161.244 1.111
24 225 237 249 261 273 285
44 115.308 112.317 225.659 1.036
26 243 256 269 282 295 307
46 158.502 165.169 321.635 0.966
28 263 277 291 305 319 332
50 319.057 381.429 698.295 0.839
30 285 300 315 330 345 360
* See Equation 8.2 for variable descriptions.
32 309 325 342 358 374 391
34 336 354 371 389 407 424
8.3.9 Allowable Lateral Soil Pressure From 36 366 385 404 424 443 462
Soil Test Data. The allowable lateral pressure 38 399 420 441 462 483 504
per foot of depth, S, can be estimated from site- 40 437 460 483 506 529 552
specific soil test data as: 42 479 504 530 555 580 605
44 527 555 583 611 638 666
S = SRP / FS (8-3) 46 582 613 643 674 704 735
50 717 755 793 830 868 906
where:

S = allowable lateral soil pressure, lbf/ft2 8.3.10 Adjustment to Allowable Vertical

per ft, (kPa per m) Pressure. Most codes allow for a 33% increase
FS = factor of safety (1.5 to 2.0) in the allowable vertical pressure values, Sv,
SRP = Rankine passive pressure for when post loads result from wind and seismic
drained, cohesiveless soils, lbf/ft2 forces acting alone or in combination with verti-
per ft, (kPa per m). cal forces (see Section 3.9.4). This adjustment
would apply directly to the Sv value from equa-
SRP = w g tan2(45 + φ/2) (8-4) tion 8-1, and is cumulative with the adjustments
described in Section 8.3.5 for the presumptive
w = soil bulk density, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3) Sv values listed in table 8.1. In this manual, a
φ = soil angle of internal friction, de- prime (‘) will be used to denote an allowable Sv
grees value that has been adjusted (i.e., Sv Î Sv’).
g = gravitational constant, 1 lbf/lbm
(0.00981 kPa m2/kg) 8.3.11 Adjustment to Allowable Lateral
Pressure. In addition to the 33% increase gen-
erally allowed when post loads result from wind

8-5
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

and seismic forces (acting alone or in combina-
tion with vertical forces), the allowable lateral
pressure, S, can be doubled when posts have a
spacing at least six times their width. This in-
crease is due to the multi-dimensional nature of
pressure distribution in the soil around isolated
posts as depicted in figure 8.1, and described in
Section 8.1.3. In this manual, a prime (‘) will be
used to denote an allowable S value that has
been adjusted (i.e., S Î S’).
8.4 Footings
8.4.1 General. Typically, the soil is not able to
resist applied vertical loads when those loads
are transferred through the post alone. There-
fore, the post is set on some type of footing,
which is installed in the hole prior to post place-
ment. Footings in post-frame construction are
usually poured concrete. This type of footing is
depicted in Figure 8.4. Generally there is no
mechanical attachment of the footing to the post.
8.4.2 Friction. A footing is assumed to only re-
sist vertical loads; the friction between the foot-
ing and the post is assumed to be negligible
when assessing the post lateral load resistance
capabilities. Also, the friction between the post
(and/or collar) and the surrounding soil are as-
sumed to be negligible when assessing the ver-
tical load-carrying capability of a given post
foundation design.
8.5 Collars
8.5.1 General. When lateral soil pressures ex-
ceed allowable values, additional lateral surface
area can be obtained by increasing post depth,
or by adding a structural element called a collar.
A collar is typically either concrete cast around
the base of the post (and considered to be at-
tached to the post) or built-up wood attached to
the post. These structural elements are repre-
sented in figure 8.4.
8.5.2 Location. The collar increases the lateral
load resistance capability of the post foundation
by increasing the bearing area in the region of
the post where lateral soil capability is relatively
high. Collars are typically not placed at the top of
the post foundation (at the surface of the
ground) due to the possibility of frost heave.

Ground level

Post

Original excavated post

hole and backfill region

Poured concrete collar

Built-up wood collar

Footing

(a) (b)

Figure 8.4. Examples of common post foundation elements with (a) a poured concrete
collar, and (b) a built-up wood collar.

8-6
 National Frame Builders Association
8.5.3 Attachment. Whether poured concrete or
wood, the collar must be attached to the post in
a manner sufficient to carry the structural loads
involved. As with any wood structural element
exposed directly to the soil, appropriate pre-
servatives and fastener systems must be em-
ployed to maintain structural integrity over the
design life of the building.
8.6 Backfilling
8.6.1 General. The details of backfilling are of-
ten overlooked by the designer, and with poten-
tially dire consequences. After the footing and
post are installed (and the collar, if required), the
hole that was dug or drilled is backfilled. Essen-
tially, the material used for backfill is the medium
through which some, if not all, transverse loads
are passed from the post to the virgin soil. Back-
fill material is subjected to higher pressures than
the surrounding virgin soil due to its proximity to
the post. Therefore, material used for backfill
and its installation are critically important for the
successful performance of a post foundation
design.
8.6.2 Materials. Typical materials for backfill
include concrete, well-graded granular aggre-
gate, gravel, sand, or soil initially excavated from
the post hole. These alternatives are listed in the
order of decreasing stiffness.
8.6.3 Concrete. While concrete is the stiffest
backfill material, it is also the most expensive.
Concrete backfill essentially increases post
width, b. It must be installed with attention to the
possibility of frost heave (discussed later).
8.6.4 Excavated Soil. The most common back-
fill material is the excavated soil. If used as
backfill, it should be free of topsoil and organic
matter. Silt- or clay-based soils should be moist
(not wet) and well packed.
8.6.5 Compaction. Backfill materials should be
tamped or vibrated upon backfill in maximum
layers (a.k.a. lifts) of 8 inch (400 mm).
8.7 Post Dimensions
8.7.1 Effective Width. Design equations for
lateral loading (Section 8.7) are a function of
8-7
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
effective post width, b, which in turn, is a func-
tion of post size and shape.
For posts whose narrow face is pushing on the
soil:
b = 1.4 B (8-5)
where:
b = effective post width, ft (m)
B = width of post face pushing on the
soil, ft (m)
For posts whose wide face is pushing on the
soil, b is equal to the diagonal dimension of the
post.
For poles, the effective post width, b, is equal to
the pole diameter.
8.7 Design for Lateral Loadings
8.7.1 General. Bending moments and post
shears cause lateral movement of the post
foundation. Designers must insure that this
movement does not induce soil stresses that
exceed allowable lateral soil pressures. If the
allowable lateral soil pressure is exceeded, the
designer must increase the lateral soil bearing
area by adding a collar, by increasing embed-
ment depth, d, and/or by increasing effective
post width, b. In the majority of cases, the most
economical way to increase bearing area is to
increase post depth. For this reason, embed-
ment depth, d, is the dependent variable in most
design equations. Occasionally a designer will
add an extra laminate to the embedded portion
of a laminated post to increase effective width.
More often, designers will backfill all or a portion
of the hole with concrete, which is akin to adding
a concrete collar.
8.7.2 Assumptions. Equations in 8.7.3 and
8.7.4 assume that only the post (and not the
footing) resists lateral loads. This is because
variations in vertical post loads make it impossi-
ble to rely on post-to-footing friction for lateral
load resistance.
8.7.3 Required Embedment Depth for Non-
Constrained Posts Without Collars. Two dif-
ferent load cases for a non-constrained, non-
collared post are shown in figure 8.2: The first
 National Frame Builders Association
load case (a.k.a. Load Case A ) represents con-
ditions where groundline shear and groundline
bending moment both cause the embedded por-
tion of the post to rotate in the same direction.
Load Case B represents conditions where
groundline bending moment causes the embed-
ded portion of the post to rotate in an opposite
direction than the rotation caused by groundline
shear. Minimum post embedment depth, d, for
both Load Case A & B is calculated using one of
the following equations.
From ASAE EP486 (1999a), AWPI (Patterson,
1969), and the UBC (ICBO, 1994):
7.02 Va + 7.65 Ma / d
d 2=
S’ b
From ASAE EP486.2 (1999b):
6 Va + 8 Ma / d
d2=
S’ b
where:
d = minimum embedment depth, ft (m)
Va = shear force applied to foundation at
ground surface, lbf (N)
Ma = bending moment applied to founda-
tion at ground surface, ft-lbf (N-m)
S’ = adjusted allowable lateral soil pres-
sure, lbf/ft per ft (kPa/m per m)
b = effective post width, ft (m), see Sec-
tion 8.7.1
Equations 8-6 and 8-7 must be solved by itera-
tion. For Load Case B, Va and Ma must be input
with opposing signs. Note that equation 8-6 is in
a slightly different form than appears in any of
the three referenced documents. See the follow-
ing technical note on equation development for
additional information.
Technical Note
Non-Constrained Post Equations
Equation 8-6 for the embedment depth, d, of
non-constrained, non-collared posts appears in
most code documents as:
d = 0.5 A [1 + (1 + 4.36 h / A)1/2]
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
where:
A = 2.34 P / (SL’ b)
b = effective post width, ft (m)
d = post embedment depth, ft (m)
P = applied lateral force, lbf (N)
h = distance from ground surface to
point of application of force P, ft (m)
SL’ = adjusted allowable lateral soil pres-
sure at one-third the embedment
depth, lbf/ft2 (kPa)
Equation T-1 was developed for point-loaded
posts that behave as pure cantilevered beams.
Unfortunately, posts in post-frame buildings are
(8-6)
not point-loaded, and embedded posts are sup-
ported in such a way that they behave more like
propped cantilevers.
To adjust equation T-1 so that it can be applied
(8-7)
to posts subjected to a variety of loadings and
“above-grade” constraint conditions, load P is
replaced with an equivalent shear force and
bending moment located at the ground surface.
Using predefined nomenclature: Va is substi-
tuted into equation T-1 for P, and Ma is substi-
tuted for the product of P and h. In addition, the
adjusted allowable lateral soil pressure at one-
third the embedment depth, SL’, is replaced by
the quantity S’ d / 3. This substitution eliminates
having to recalculate SL’ every time the embed-
ment depth changes. With these substitutions,
equation T-1 appears in ASAE EP486 (1999a)
as:
d 2 = 3.51Va/(S’ b)[1+(1+(0.62 Ma S’ b d)/ Va2)1/2]
Because it is somewhat confusing, the ASAE
EP486 equation was rewritten for this design
manual in the form of Equation 8-6.
The first major revision to ASAE EP486 (due for
release in 2000) will contain several changes,
including a switch from equation 8-6 to equation
8-7. Equation 8-7 is based on five common as-
sumptions: (1) only the post (and not the footing)
resists lateral loads, (2) the post behaves as a
rigid body below grade (3) soil type remains
constant, (4) at a given depth, soil resisting
pressure, q, is equal to the product of soil stiff-
(T-1) ness, k, and lateral post movement at that
depth, and (5) soil stiffness, k, at a distance, y,
8-8
 National Frame Builders Association
below grade is equal to the product of the hori-
zontal subgrade reaction, nh, and the distance
below grade, y. In equation form, the soil resist-
ing pressure, q, for a non-constrained, non-
collared post is given by Meador (1997) as:
q = nh ∆ (y – y2/do) (T-2)
where:
q = actual soil pressure at a depth y
below grade, lbf/ft2 (kPa)
nh = constant of horizontal subgrade re-
action, lbf/ft4 (N/m4)
∆ = lateral post deflection at grade, ft
(m)
y = depth below grade, ft (m)
do = distance from surface to point of
post rotation in soil, ft (m), (see fig-
ure 8.2)
Equation T-2 is a parabolic function that pro-
duces the soil pressure profile shown in figure
8.2. If a summation of the horizontal forces in
figure 8.2 is set equal to zero, and the bending
moment around any point is equated to zero, the
following two equations can be obtained for the
grade deflection ∆, and distance to post rotation
point, do.
∆ = (24 Ma + 18 Va d)/(d 3 nh b) (T-3)
do = (3 Va d + 4 Ma)/(4 Va + 6 Ma /d) (T-4)
Examination of equation T-4 shows that the
point of post rotation is two-thirds the embed-
ment depth when there is no shear in the post at
the ground surface (Va = 0). When there is no
moment in the post at the ground surface (Ma =
0), the point of post rotation is located at three-
quarters of the embedment depth. If both Va and
Ma are positive and non-zero, the point of rota-
tion is between two-thirds and three-fourths of
the embedment depth.
Substitution of equation T-3 into equation T-2
yields the following equation for soil pressure:
q = (18 Va + 24 Ma/d)(y – y 2/do)/(d 2 b) (T-5)
Typically, a designer selects a value for d, such
that for all points below the surface, the actual
8-9
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
soil pressure, q, does not exceed the adjusted
allowable lateral soil pressure, SL’ = S’ y. It can
be shown that every time a designer does this,
the depth at which the actual soil pressure is
closest to the allowable pressure is right at the
surface. In other words, for a non-constrained
post, the designer does not need to compare S’
y and q from equation T-5 at every value of y,
instead, the designer only needs to check it at y
= 0. It follows that the embedment depth, d,
needed to ensure that the actual soil pressure
does not exceed the allowable soil pressure at
the surface (or any point below the surface) is
given as:
d 2 = (18 Va + 24 Ma / d )/(S’ b) (T-6)
Equation T-6 is not used in practice as field and
laboratory tests have shown that it is extremely
conservative for non-constrained posts. This is
because when actual soil pressures at the sur-
face equal the allowable soil pressure, the ac-
tual soil pressure at points below the surface are
below (and in most cases substantially below)
allowable soil pressures. Consequently, non-
constrained post foundations are no where near
failure when allowable soil pressures near the
surface are exceeded. A more realistic embed-
ment depth is obtained by replacing S’ in equa-
tion T-6 with 3S’. The resulting equation is equa-
tion 8-7. Note that when this equation is used,
actual soil pressure will exceed allowable soil
pressure for points between y = 0 and y = 2do/3,
and for points deeper than y = 4do/3.
For an in-depth discussion and greater detail on
non-constrained post foundation equation de-
velopment see Meador (1997).
8.7.4 Required Embedment Depth for Con-
strained Posts Without Collars. A free body
diagram of a constrained, non-collared post is
shown in figure 8.3. Minimum post embedment
depth, d, for the constrained, non-collared case
is calculated using one of the following equa-
tions.
From ASAE EP486 (1999a), AWPI (Patterson,
1969), and the UBC (ICBO, 1994):
1/3
4.25 Ma
d= (8-8)
S’ b
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

From ASAE EP486.2 (1999b):

of these is a switch from equation 8-8 to equa-
1/3
4 Ma tion 8-9. Equation 8-9 is based on the same as-
d= (8-9) sumptions as described for equation 8-7. These
S’ b
assumptions result in the following equation for
where: actual soil resisting pressure, q, for a con-
strained, non-collared post (Meador, 1997):
d = minimum embedment depth, ft (m)
Ma = bending moment applied to founda- q = nh y 2 ∆ / d (T-2)
tion at ground surface, ft-lbf (N-m)
S’ = adjusted allowable lateral soil pres- where:
sure, lbf/ft per ft (kPa/m per m)
b = effective post width, ft (m), see Sec- q = actual soil pressure at a depth y
tion 8.7.1 below grade, lbf/ft2 (kPa)
nh = constant of horizontal subgrade re-
Note that equation 8-8 is in a slightly different action, lbf/ft4 (N/m4)
form than appears in any of the three referenced ∆ = lateral movement of post at a depth
documents. See the following technical note on y = d, ft (m)
equation development for additional information. y = depth below grade, ft (m)

Equation T-2 is a parabolic function that pro-

duces the soil pressure profile shown in figure
Technical Note 8.3. If the bending moment around any point in
Constrained Post Equations figure 8.3 is equated to zero, the following equa-
tion is obtained for the lateral movement, ∆, of
Equation 8-8 for the embedment depth, d, of the post at a depth, d.
constrained, non-collared posts appears in most
code documents as: ∆ = 4 Ma /(d 3 nh b) (T-3)
1/2
d = [4.25 P h / (SL’ b)] (T-1) Substitution of equation T-3 into equation T-2
yields the following equation for soil pressure:
where:
q = 4 Ma y 2/(d 4 b) (T-4)
d = post embedment depth, ft (m)
P = applied lateral force, lbf (N) The actual soil pressure increases at an increas-
h = distance from ground surface to ing rate as y increases. The allowable lateral
point of application of force P, ft (m) soil pressure, SL’, increases at a constant rate
SL’ = adjusted allowable lateral soil pres- as y increases (note: SL’ = S’ y). This means that
sure at the full embedment depth, if a designer ensures that the actual soil pres-
lbf/ft2 (kPa) sure, q does not exceed the allowable pressure
b = effective post width, ft (m) at a depth, y = d, then the actual stress will be
less than the allowable for all points between the
Equation 8-8 is derived from equation T-1 by ground surface and y = d. In equation form:
substituting bending moment, Ma, for the product
of P and h, and replacing SL’ with the quantity S’ y > q = 4 Ma y 2/(d 4 b) for y = d (T-5)
S’d. This latter substitution eliminates having to
recalculate SL’ every time the embedment depth Equation T-5 becomes equation 8.9 after it is
changes. rearranged so that d is the dependent variable.
As described in the previous technical note on For an in-depth discussion and greater detail on
non-constrained posts, the first major revision to constrained post foundation equation develop-
ASAE EP486 will contain several changes. One ment see Meador (1997).

8 - 10
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

8.7.5 Required Embedment Depth for Posts

With Collars. This design manual does not con- Ground
tain embedment equations for posts with collars. Level
For such equations, see ASAE EP486 (1999a,
1999b) and Meador (1997).
Post
8.8 Design for Downward Loadings

8.8.1 Required Footing Area. Downward Ap dT

φ
forces are resisted by the footing. The footing
area, A, required to resist these forces is:

A = P / SV’ (8-10)

where:

A = required footing area, ft2 (m2) r / tan φ

P = vertical foundation load, lbf (N) Collar
SV’ = adjusted allowable vertical soil Footing
pressure, lbf/ft2 (kPa) (see Section
8.3.10)
2r

8.9 Design for Uplift Loadings Figure 8.5. Schematic of relevant uplift resis-
tance components for post foundation with an
8.9.1 General. If the net vertical force acting on attached circular collar.
a post is upward, either the footing or a collar
must be attached to the post. When the footing
or a collar is attached to the post, upward
movement of the post foundation cannot occur
without displacing a cone-shaped mass of soil. Ground
The mass of this of soil depends on foundation Level
depth, footing (or collar) size, soil density, and
soil internal friction angle.
Post
8.9.2 Skin Friction. An attached footing or col-
lar is required to resist uplift forces because skin
friction between a post and backfill cannot be
relied on to resist such forces. AP
dT
φ
8.9.3 Concrete Backfill. Concrete cast against
undisturbed soil and mechanically fastened to
the post adds uplift resistance of both the con-
crete mass and the skin friction between the
concrete and soil. Note that this practice is not Collar
recommended in soils with a high susceptibility
to frost heave
l1 l2
8.9.4 Volume of Displaced Soil. The volume of
soil that must be displaced when pushed up- Unattached Footing
ward by a footing or collar is dependent on the
shape of the footing or collar. Figures 8.5 and Figure 8.6. Schematic of relevant uplift resis-
8.6 show configurations for circular and rectan- tance components for post foundation with an
gular foundation elements, respectively. attached rectangular collar.

8 - 11
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

The volume of displaced soil, VS, is calculated forced upward.

using the following equations:
8.10.2 Problems. Frost heave can induce
For circular footings and collars: large differential movements in the foundation.
This differential movement can crack building
VS = π dT [r 2 + dT r tanφ + dT 2 tan2φ / 3] – finishes, and induce significant stress in struc-
dT Ap tural connections and components. When ice
lenses thaw, soil moisture content increases
For rectangular footings and collars: dramatically. The soil is generally in a saturated
state with reduced strength. As soil water drains
VS = dT (l1 l2 - Ap) + dT2 tanφ (l1 + l2) + from the soil, effective soil stresses increase and
dT 3π tan2φ / 3 the foundation will generally settle.

where: 8.10.3 Minimizing Frost Heave. Frost heave

VS = volume of displaced soil, ft3 (m3) can be minimized by: (1) avoiding clays and
dT = distance from ground surface to top silts, (2) extending footings below the frost line,
of collar, or to top of footing if collar and (3) providing good drainage.
is not present, ft (m)
r = radius of collar, or footing if collar is 8.10.3.1 No Silts and Clays. Fine grained
not present, ft (m) soils such as clays and silts are more sus-
φ = angle of internal soil friction ceptible to frost heave because (1) water is
Ap = post cross-sectional area, ft2 (m2) drawn upward by the fine pores which func-
l1, l2 = length and width of a rectangular tion as capillaries, and (2) there is much
collar or footing, ft (m) more surface area in a unit volume of fine
grained soil, and therefore more surface
8.9.5 Uplift Resistance, U. The resistance to area for water adsoprtion.
uplift, U, is calculated as:
8.10.3.2 Footing Depth. The most sure
U = g ( MF+ w VS ) (8-11) fire way to avoid frost heave problems is to
locate the footing where water never freeze.
where: It is for this reason that codes require foun-
dations to be located below the frost line.
U = uplift resisting force, lbf (N) Exceptions include footings on rock and
MF = mass of all foundation elements that floating foundation systems. A floating foun-
are attached to the post, lbm (kg) dation is reinforced so that it can float as a
w = soil density, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3) monolithic unit as the soil swells and
dT = distance from ground surface to top shrinks.
of collar, or to top of footing if collar
is not present, ft (m) 8.10.3.3 Water Drainage. Proper surface
VS = volume of displaced soil, ft3 (m3) and subsurface drainage can reduce frost
g = gravitational constant, 1 lbf/lbm heave. Drainage of surface waters from a
(9.81 N/kg) builder is enhanced by installing rain gutters,
adequately sloping the finish grade away
from the building, and raising the building
8.10 Frost Heave Considerations elevation to a level above that of the sur-
rounding area. Subsurface drainage is
8.10.1 General. Freezing temperatures in the achieved with the placement of drain tile or
soil result in the formation of ice lenses in the coarse granular material below the maxi-
spaces (a.k.a. pores) between soil particles. mum frost depth, with drainage to an outlet.
Under the right conditions, these ice lenses will Such drainage lowers the water table and
continue to attract water and increase in size. interrupts the flow of water moving both ver-
This expansion of the ice lenses increases soil tically and horizontally through the soil.
volume. If this expansion occurs under a footing,
or alongside a foundation element with a rough
surface, that portion of the foundation will be

8 - 12
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

8.10.4 Concrete Floors. If the ground beneath
a concrete floor can freeze, the floor should be
installed such that its vertical movement is not
restricted by embedded posts or by structural
elements attached to embedded posts. While
concrete shrinkage may break bonds between a
floor and surrounding components, more proac-
tive measures will ensure independent vertical
behavior. For example, plastic film can be
placed against surrounding surfaces prior to
pouring the floor.
Merritt, F.S. 1976. Standard Handbook for Civil
Engineers, pp. 7-53.
Patterson, D. 1969. Pole Building Design.
American Wood Preservers Institute (AWPI),
Washington D.C.
Whitlow, R. 1995. Basic Soil Mechanics. 3rd edi-
tion. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY

8.10.5 Concrete Backfill. The use of poured

concrete as a backfill material may actually in-
crease the likelihood of frost heave. The rough
soil-to-concrete backfill interface provides the
potential for significant vertical uplift forces due
to frost heave. Also, the placement of concrete
in holes that decrease in diameter with depth
provide additional risk for frost heave.

8.10.6 Top Collars. Although common in past

years, placement of collars at the ground sur-
face (to increase lateral load resistance) has all
but been abandoned due to frost heave consid-
erations.

8.11 References

ASAE. 1999a. ASAE EP486: Post and pole

foundation design. Shallow post foundation de-
sign. ASAE Standards, 46th Edition. ASAE,. St.
Joseph, MI

ASAE. 1999b. ASAE EP486.2: Shallow post

foundation design. In review. ASAE. St. Joseph,
MI.

Hough, B.K. 1969. Basic Soils Engineering, 2nd

Edition. Ronald Press Co. Table 7-2, p. 249.

International Conference of Building Officials

(ICBO). 1994. Uniform Building Code, 1994 Edi-
tion. ICBO, Whittier, CA

McGuire, P. M. 1998. Overlooked assumption in

nonconstrained post embedment. ASCE Prac-
tice Periodic on Structural design and Construc-
tion, 3(1):19-24.

Meador, N.F. 1997. Mathematical models for

lateral resistance of post foundations. Trans of
ASAE, 40(1):191-201.

8 - 13
National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Chapter 9: DESIGN EXAMPLE

9.1 Introduction 9.2 Step 1: Modeling

9.1.1 General. Structurally efficient post-frame 9.2.1 General. The structural model for this ex-
buildings utilize the roof as a diaphragm to resist ample building follows that in Section 5.2. The
horizontal wind forces. This chapter presents an frames are numbered from one to seven begin-
example of diaphragm design following the five ning on the left end. That portion of the roof dia-
steps outlined in Section 5.1.4. phragm between each frame is broken into two
discrete segments labeled 1a, 1,b, …6a, 6b.
9.1.2 Building Specifications. Table 9.1 lists See Figure 9.1.
design parameters for the example building.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table 9.1. Example Building Specifications
Width (truss length) 36 ft
Length (along ridge) 60 ft 1a 2a 3a 4a 5a 6a
Height at post bearing 12 ft
Roof slope 4/12 (18.43°) 1b 2b 3b 4b 5b 6b
Bay spacing 10 ft
Number of frames
7
(including end walls)
Figure 9.1. Identification of frame elements and
Post embedment depth 4 ft roof diaphragm segments.
Post grade & species No.2 S. Pine
Post size Nom. 6- by 6-in. 9.3 Step 2: Stiffness Properties
Roof snow load 30 psf
Roof dead load 5 psf 9.3.1 Frame Stiffness, k. One reliable way to
Concrete slab? Yes determine frame stiffness is to use a plane-
frame analysis program such as the PPSA pro-
Ceiling? No gram mentioned in Section 5.3.2. In this exam-
ple, all posts will be considered fixed at the
grade line and pin connected to trusses (figure
9.1.3 Wind Loads. It is assumed that the ex- 5.5). Consequently, the stiffness of each em-
ample building is located in a jurisdiction that bedded post can be calculated using equation 5-
has adopted the 1994 Uniform Building Code. 3 which is given as:
Design wind loads calculated according to this
code are presented in Table 9.2 kp = 3 E I / Hp3

Table 9.2. Wind Loads For the nominal 6- by 6-inch No. 2 Southern
Wind speed 80 mph Pine posts:
Exposure category B
E = 1.2 x 106 lbf/in.2 (No adjustment for
Windward wall, qww 8.13 psf wet conditions is necessary for
Leeward wall, qlw -5.08 psf * Southern Pine timbers. It is gener-
Windward roof, qwr 3.05 psf ally required for laminated posts.)
Leeward roof, qlr -7.12 psf * I = 76.26 in.4
Hp = 144 in.
* Negative loads act away from the surface in
question. Positive loads act toward the sur- Thus, kp = 91.9 lbf/in.
face in question.

9-1
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Frame stiffness, k, is obtained by summing indi-
vidual post stiffness values (equation 5-2). This
summation yields:
k = 184 lbf/in.
9.3.2 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch. The diaphragm
assembly used in this example is Test Assembly
11 in Table 6.1. Its properties are summarized in
Table 9.3.
9.3.3 Shearwall Stiffness, ke. There are no
large doors in the endwalls of the example build-
ing. Lacking a specific tested endwall assembly,
the 12 ft high endwalls will be assumed to have
the same shear stiffness as an 8 ft section of the
roof diaphragm; that is, ke will be set equal to Ch
or 12,640 lbf/in.
9.4 Step 3: Eave Loads

Table 9.3. Diaphragm Properties 9.4.1 Windward Roof Pressures. As noted in

Metal thickness 29 gage Section 9.1.3, this example uses wind loads cal-
culated in accordance with the 1994 UBC. Pres-
Assembly width, 3 x a 36 ft
sure coefficients (from UBC table 16-H) for
Assembly length, b 12 ft windward roof slopes between 2/12 and 9/12
Allowable shear strength, va 107 lbf/ft are -0.9 (outward) and 0.3 (inward). It is impor-
Effective in-plane shear tant to recognize the significant impact that wind
3700 lbf/in.
stiffness, c direction (inward or outward) has on calculated
Effective shear modulus, G 3700 lbf/in. eave loads. The 3.05 psf design windward roof
pressure listed in table 9.2 was calculated using
In-plane shear stiffness for a single diaphragm the 0.3 pressure coefficient. When combined
section is calculated using equation 6-9, which with the negative pressure of 7.12 psf on the
is given as. leeward roof, the net lateral roof pressure is
10.17 psf. If the –0.9 pressure coefficient would
G bh have been used, the net lateral roof pressure
cp = would have been –2.03 psf.
s cos(θ)

Substitution of appropriate values yields: 9.4.2 Fixity Factors, f. Based on the assump-
tion of a post fixed at the groundline (see Sec-
tion 9.3.1), a fixity factor of 3/8 is appropriate for
(3700 lbf/in.)(18 ft)
cp = this example.
(10 ft)(cos(18.43))
9.4.3 Eave Load, R. Since this example uses
cp = 7020 lbf/in.
symmetrical base restraint and frame geometry,
equation 5-6 may be used.
The horizontal shear stiffness, ch, of a single
diaphragm section is calculated using equation
R = s [hr (qwr – qlr) + hw f (qww – qlw)]
6-10 which is given as:
where:
ch = cp cos2 (θ)
hr = (36 ft /2) (4/12) = 6 ft
Substitution of appropriate values yields:
hw = 12 ft
s = 10 ft
ch = (7020 lbf/in.) cos2(18.43°) f = 0.375
= 6320 lbf/in.
or
Total horizontal shear stiffness of a diaphragm
element, Ch, is found by summing the stiffness R = 10 ft [6 ft (3.05 psf + 7.12 psf) +
values of the two sections that comprise each 12 ft (.375)(8.13 psf + 5.08 psf)]
diaphragm element (see equation 5-4).
R = 1205 lbf
Ch = 6320 + 6320 = 12,640 lbf/in.

9-2
 National Frame Builders Association
For later calculations, it is convenient to calcu-
late R in terms of its components – roof, wind-
ward wall and leeward wall.
RR = 10(6)(3.05 + 7.12) = 610.2 lbf
RW = 10(12)(.375)(8.13) = 365.8 lbf
RL = 10(12)(.375)(-5.08) = -228.6 lbf
RR + RW – RL = 1205 lbf
9.5 Step 4: Load Distribution
9.5.1 Introduction. For this example problem,
diaphragm shear stiffness, Ch, frame stiffness, k,
endwall stiffness, ke, and eave load, R, are all
constant. Consequently, in addition to analysis
methods such as DAFI, load distribution can be
determined using the ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 ta-
bles (Section 5.6.3) and the simple beam anal-
ogy equations (Section 5.5.6). For comparison
purposes, all three methods are demonstrated
here (Sections 9.5.2 – 9.5.4). The information
obtained from these analyses is then used to
determine the maximum diaphragm shear force
(Section 9.5.6) and maximum post forces (Sec-
tion 9.5.7).
9.5.2 ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Tables. In this de-
sign manual, the ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 tables
are tables 5.1 and 5.2. Table 5.1 contains shear
force modifiers or “mS” values. The product of
this modifier and eave load, R, is the maximum
shear force in the diaphragm, Vh. Table 5.2 con-
tains sidesway restraining force modifiers or
“mD” values. The product of this modifier and
eave load, R, is referred to as the horizontal re-
straining force, Q, which is the amount of eave
load transferred away from the center post-
frame(s) by the diaphragm.
Use of tables 5.1 and 5.2 requires two ratio: ke/k
and Ch/k. For this example analysis, both ratios
are equal to 69 (12640/184). Using linear inter-
polation, the mS value from table 5.1 is 2.77,
and the mD value from table 5.2 is 0.90.
The maximum diaphragm shear force, Vh, which
occurs adjacent to each endwall, is given as:
Vh = mS R = 2.77(1205 lbf) = 3340 lbf
The horizontal restraining force, Q, that must be
applied to the center post frame (i.e., frame 4 in
figure 9.1) is given as:
9-3
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Q = mD R = 0.90(1205 lbf) = 1085 lbf
The difference between eave load, R, and the
horizontal restraining force, Q, is the amount of
the eave load that is transferred by the center
post-frame to the foundation.
R – Q = 120 lbf
The eave deflection, ∆, for a post-frame with
stiffness, k, subjected to an eave load, R, and
horizontal restraining force, Q, is given as:
∆ = (R – Q) / k
Eave deflection for the center post-frame is
given as:
∆ = (1205 lbf – 1085 lbf) / 184 lbf/in.
∆ = 0.652 in.
9.5.3 Simple Beam Analogy Equations. As
previously noted, the simple beam analogy
equations for diaphragm shear force, Vh, and
diaphragm displacement, y, can be used when
R, k, ke and Ch are constant. These two equa-
tions are given in Section 5.6.6 as:
Vh = Ch α s [A sinh(α x) + B cosh(α x)]
y = A cosh(α x) + B sinh(α x) + R/k
Input parameters and calculated equation con-
stants for the simple beam analogy equations
have been compiled for this example analysis in
Table 9.4.
Maximum diaphragm shear is calculated by set-
ting x = 0 in., or:
Vh = 12,640 lbf/in.(1.0054x10-3 in.-1)
•(120 in.)[-6.286 in.(0) + 2.181 in.(1)]
Vh = 3326 lbf
Maximum diaphragm displacement is calculated
by setting x = L/2 = 360 in. , or:
y = -6.286 in.( 1.0662)
+ 2.181 in.( 0.3699)
+ 1205 lbf/(184 lbf/in.)
y = 0.6535 in.
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

Table 9.4. Parameters for Simple Beam Anal- The force transferred to the foundation by the
ogy Equations center frame (frame 4) is equal to the product of
R 1205 lbf eave displacement, y, and frame stiffness, k, or:
s 120 in.
yk = 0.6535 in. (184 lbf/in.) = 120.2 lbf
L 720 in.
ke 12,640 lbf/in. The horizontal restraining force, Q, for the frame
k 184 lbf/in. 4 is equal to the difference between the eave
load, R, and the 120.2 lbf, or
R/ k 6.549 in.
Ch 12,640 lbf/in. Q = 1205 lbf – 120.2 lbf = 1084.8 lbf
α 1.0054x10-3 in.-1 *
αL 0.7239 Note that ye in table 9.4 is the eave displace-
ment of the endwall.
cosh(α L) 1.2737
sinh(α L) 0.7888 9.5.4 DAFI. As previously mentioned, DAFI is a
D -23.890 * computer program specifically written for deter-
ye 0.2631 in. * mining load distribution between diaphragms
and frames. DAFI can be downloaded free from
A -6.286 in. * the NFBA web site (www.postframe.org).
B 2.181 in. *
cosh(0) 1 The maximum shear force in the diaphragm. Vh,
sinh(0) 0 is numerically equal to the load resisted by the
endwall frame. In figure 9.2, this value is given
cosh(α 360 in.) 1.0662 as 3353.2 lbf. Note that this value is more pre-
sinh(α 360 in.) 0.3699 cise than the 3340 lbf value calculated from the
* Equations for calculation of these values are mS values in table 5.1 because the values in
given in Section 5.6.6. table 5.1 are only given to three significant fig-
ures. It is important to note that the shear load

FRAME FRAME APPLIED HORIZONTAL LOAD RESISTED FRACTION OF

NUMBER STIFFNESS LOAD DISPLACEMENT BY FRAME APPLIED LOAD
---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 12640.00 602.5 .2652868 3353.2 5.5655
2 184.00 1205.0 .4829074 88.9 .0737
3 184.00 1205.0 .6122254 112.6 .0935
4 184.00 1205.0 .6551232 120.5 .1000
5 184.00 1205.0 .6122254 112.6 .0935
6 184.00 1205.0 .4829074 88.9 .0737
7 12640.00 602.5 .2652867 3353.2 5.5655

DIAPHRAGM DIAPHRAGM SHEAR SHEAR

NUMBER STIFFNESS DISPLACEMENT LOAD
--------------------------------------------
1 12640.00 .2176206 2750.7
2 12640.00 .1293180 1634.6
3 12640.00 .0428978 542.2
4 12640.00 .0428979 542.2
5 12640.00 .1293180 1634.6
6 12640.00 .2176206 2750.7

Figure 9.2. Output from computer program DAFI for example building.

9-4
 National Frame Builders Association
listed for each diaphragm in the DAFI output is
essentially an average shear load in the dia-
phragm. For example, the average shear load in
diaphragm 1 is listed as 2750.7 lbf. To calculate
the maximum shear load in each diaphragm
element, simply add the quantity R/2 to the av-
erage value. For this example analysis, half the
eave load is 602.5 lbf. Adding this to the aver-
age shear load in diaphragm 1 yields the ex-
pected maximum shear force in the diaphragm
of 3353.2 lbf.
The amount of eave load transferred to the
foundation by each frame is listed in figure 9.2
under the column heading “load resisted by
frame.” The difference between this value and
the eave load, R, is the horizontal restraining
force, Q. The load resisted by the most heavily
loaded frame (i.e., frame 4) is 120.5 lbf. This
equates to a horizontal restraining force for
frame 4 of 1084.5 lbf (1205 lbf – 120.5 lbf).
9.5.5 Comparison of Methods. The ANSI/
ASAE EP484.2 tables (tables 5-1 and 5-2), sim-
ple beam analogy equations, and program DAFI
yield identical values for maximum diaphragm
shear, horizontal restraining force, and eave
deflections. Again, it is important to note that the
ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 tables and the simple
beam analogy equations are restricted to de-
signs with fixed values of Ch, k, R, and ke. Al-
though DAFI is more versatile, a DAFI analysis
requires computer access. The simple beam
analog equations can be quickly solved with a
hand calculator that supports hyperbolic trigo-
nometric functions.
9.5.6 Diaphragm Shear. The maximum in-
plane shear force, Vp, in a diaphragm section is
calculated from the maximum horizontal shear
force, Vh, in the diaphragm elements using
equation 5-9 which is given as:
Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch) Vh / (cos θ i)
For this example analysis, all six diaphragm
elements have the same Ch, and all twelve of
the diaphragm sections shown in figure 9.1 have
the same horizontal stiffness, ch and slope, θ,
that is:
Ch = 12,640 lbf/in.
ch,i = 6320 lbf/in.
θ = 18.43°
9-5
Post-Frame Building Design Manual
Diaphragm elements 1 and 6 are both subjected
to the maximum horizontal shear, Vh, of 3350
lbf. Consequently, the in-plane shear force in
diaphagm sections 1a, 1b, 6a and 6b is given
as:
6320 lbf/in (3350 lbf)
Vp =
12,640 lbf/in (cos 18.43°)
Vp = 1766 lbf
Dividing the in-plane shear force by the slope
length of a diaphragm section yields the in-plane
shear force on a unit length basis, vp.
vp = 1766 lbf /(18 ft / cos (18.43°))
vp = 93.1 lbf/ft
9.5.7. Post Forces. The most critical posts from
a design perspective are those associated with
the most heavily loaded frame. In the example
building this is the center post-frame (a.k.a.
frame 4).
There are two basic methods for determining
post forces. The first is to analyze the frame with
a plane-frame structural analysis program, the
second is to assume the truss is rigid and then
use a series of equations to calculate post
forces.
A structural analog for a plane-frame structural
analysis of frame 4 is shown in figure 9.3a. Post
forces obtained with this analog are given in fig-
ure 9.3b. For this example analysis, the load
combination of “full dead + full wind + ½ snow “
was used, with a roof dead load of 5 psf and a
roof snow load of 30 psf (Note: in practice, the
building designer must check all applicable load
cases). The force applied to the frame by the
diaphragm, qp, was applied as a force of 30.12
lbf per foot of top chord. This force was obtained
by first combining equations 5-10 and 5-11 into
the following equation:
q p,i = Q (c h,i / Ch ) / b i (9-1)
where: Q is the horizontal restraining force
(1084.5 lbf for frame 4); ch,i is the horizontal
stiffness of diaphragm segment i (6320 lbf/in); Ch
is the horizontal stiffness of diaphragm element i
(12,640 lbf/in); and bi is the horizontal span of
diaphragm segment i (18 ft).
 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

s x (5 psf + 30 psf /2)

3820 lbf 2650 lbf

0 in.-lbf 0 in.-lbf
sx
7.1
psf 2p 313 lbf 161 lbf
x 3
.05 sf
s
Windward post
ft 30.1
lbf/ 2
12 lbf/f
30. t Leeward post

662 lbf 449 lbf

s x 8.13 psf

s x 5.08 psf
25100 in.-lbf 20700 in.-lbf

3821 lbf 2646 lbf

(a) (b)

Figure 9.3. (a) Structural analog for frame 4 of the example building (s = 10 ft). (b) Re-
sulting forces on post ends. Lateral deflection at the top of the windward and leeward
posts were 0.572 and 0.735 inches, respectively.

Roof dead + 1/2 snow = 7200 lbf

Vertical component of windward roof Vertical component of leeward roof

pressure = 549 lbf pressure = -1281.6 lbf
+ +
Vertical component of diaphragm Vertical component of diaphragm
restraining force = 180.75 lbf restraining force = -180.75 lbf

9 ft 9 ft 9 ft 9 ft
Horizontal component of windward Horizontal component of leeward roof
roof pressure = 183 lbf pressure = -427.2 lbf
3 ft 3 ft
+ +
Horizontal component of diaphragm 3 ft 3 ft Horizontal component of diaphragm
restraining force = -542.25 lbf restraining force = 542.25 lbf
Vtw Vtl

Pw = 3821 lbf Pl = 2646 lbf

Figure 9.4. Resultant of forces applied to truss of frame 4.

In lieu of a computer analysis, post axial forces

for a two-post frame can be obtained by drawing To obtain post shears and bending moments
a free-body diagram of the truss and summing without reliance on a computer is a straight for-
forces about each truss-to-post connection. ward process if the truss is assumed to be com-
Such a free-body diagram for frame 4 of the ex- pletely rigid. When this assumption is made, the
ample building is shown in figure 9.4. The axial lateral movement, ∆, of all posts at their truss
forces (Pw and Pl) obtained in this manner are attachment point will be equal to that obtained
identical to those obtained via the computer using the methods outlined in Sections 9.5.2,
analysis (figure 9.3). 9.5.3 and 9.5.4. Post shear and post bending

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

moment can then be calculated using the follow- Using equation 9-2, the shears at the top, Vt,
ing equations which assume zero bending mo- and bottom, Vb, of the windward post of frame 4
ment at the top of the post. are:

Vy = kp ∆ – R i + s q (Hp – y) (9-2) Vt = (91.9 lbf/in.)(0.655 in.) – 365.8 lbf

+ (10 ft)(8.13 psf) (12 ft – 12 ft)
My = (s q / 2)(Hp – y)2 + Vt (Hp – y) (9-3)
Vt = –305.6 lbf
Mmax = - Vt2 / (2 s q) (9-4)
Vb = (91.9 lbf/in.)(0.655 in.) – 365.8 lbf
where: + (10 ft)(8.13 psf) (12 ft – 0 ft)

Vy = post shear at distance y from base, Vb = 670.0 lbf

lbf (N)
kp = post stiffness, lbf/in. (N/mm) and the shears at the top, Vt, and bottom, Vb, of
∆ = lateral movement of post top, in. the leeward post of frame 4 are:
(mm)
Ri = contribution of wall pressure to eave Vt = (91.9 lbf/in.)(0.655 in.) – 228.6 lbf
load, lbf (N) + (10 ft)(5.08 psf) (12 ft – 12 ft)
= RW for windward wall
= RL for leeward wall Vt = –168.4 lbf
s = frame spacing
q = wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2) Vb = (91.9 lbf/in.)(0.655 in.) – 228.6 lbf
Hp = post height, ft (m) + (10 ft)(5.08 psf) (12 ft – 0 ft)
y = distance from post base, ft (m)
My = bending moment in post at distance Vb = 441.2 lbf
y from base, lbf-ft (N-m)
Vt = Vy at y = Hp, lbf (N) Equation 9-3 yields bending moments at the
Mmax = bending moment at y = Hp + Vt /(sq) base of the windward and leeward posts of
(i.e., at the point of zero post shear) 26200 and 19640 lbf-in., respectively. The dif-
ference between these values and those in fig-
Positive sign conventions for the preceding vari- ure 9.3b are due to the rigid truss assumption.
ables are illustrated in figure 9.5.
According to equation 9-4, bending moments at
∆ the point of zero shear in the windward and lee-
ward posts are 6890 and 3350 lbf-in., respec-
tively.

9.6 Step 5: Check Allowable Values

y
9.6.1 Diaphragm Shear. The actual maximum
Vy
diaphragm shear stress of 93.1 lbf/ft (Section
s xq

Hp My 9.5.6) is less than the allowable of 107 lbf/ft (ta-

ble 9.3) so the diaphragm has sufficient
Vy
strength.

9.6.2 Windward Post Stresses. Posts are sub-

Figure 9.5. Positive sign convention for vari-
ables used in equations 9-2 and 9-3.
ject to combined bending and compression and
must be checked per the requirements of the
1997 NDS Section 3.9.2 and NDS equation 3.9-
3. This equation, simplified for uniaxial bending
is:

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

CSI = ( fc / Fc’ )2 +
f b / {Fb’ [ 1 – ( fc / FcE)]} < 1.0 (9-5) CD = 1.60 since the shortest duration load
in the combination of loads is wind
where: CM = 1.00 for modulus of elasticity, com-
pression and bending of Southern
CSI = combined stress index Pine timber regardless of moisture
fc = actual compressive stress content
fb = actual bending stress CF = 1.00 for nominal 6- by 6-inch No.2
Fc’ = allowable compressive stress Southern Pine
= Fc •CD •CM •CF •Ci •CP Ci = 1.00 since Southern Pine does not
Fb’ = allowable bending stress need to be incised for pressure
= Fb •CD •CM •CF •Ci •CL•Cr •Cf •CV treatments
FcE = critical buckling design stress CL = 1.00 since post is square
= K E’ I / ( le / d )2 Cr = 1.00 because post spacing exceeds
24 inches. Note that this value is
and: non-zero for mechanically laminated
posts
Fc = tabulated compressive stress Cf = 1.00 since posts are rectangular
Fb = tabulated bending stress CV = 1.00 since posts are not glued-
CD = load duration factor laminated
CM = wet service factor CP = 1.00 at the base of the post where
CF = size factor support is provided in both direc-
Ci = incising factor tions
CP = column stability factor CP = is less than 1.00 at locations re-
CL = beam stability factor
moved from supports that keep the
Cr = repetitive member factor
post from buckling. For such cases,
Cf = form factor
CP is calculated using NDS equation
CV = volume factor
3.7-1.
E’ = E •CM •Ci
I = moment of inertia
le /d = slenderness ratio It follows that at the base of both the windward
K = 0.3 for visually graded lumber and leeward posts:
= 0.384 for machine evaluated lumber
Fc’ = ( 525 lbf/in.2)(1.60) = 840 lbf/in.2
Actual stresses for the windward post are: Fb’ = ( 850 lbf/in.2)(1.60) = 1360 lbf/in.2
FcE = A very large number if the effective
fc = PW / A = 3821 lbf / (30.25 in.2) buckling length, le, is assumed to be
= 126 lbf/in.2 very small because of support at the
base. As a result, the ratio fc / FcE in
fb = M / S = 26200 lbf-in. / (27.73 in.3) equation 9-5 is assumed to equal
= 945 lbf/in.2 (at the base) zero.

fb = 6890 lbf-in. / (27.73 in.3) and at the base of the windward post:
= 248 lbf/in.2 (at point of zero shear)
CSI = ( 126 / 840 )2 + ( 945 / 1360 )
For No. 2 Southern Pine timber, the tabulated = 0.02 + 0.70 = 0.72 < 1.0 OK
compression and bending stresses and modulus
The other critical location to check the combined
of elasticity are:
stress index (CSI) is at the point of maximum
bending moment (point of zero shear) in the up-
Fb = 850 lbf/in.2
per portion of the post. At this location, the col-
Fc = 525 lbf/in.2
umn stability factor is generally based on an ef-
E = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2
fective column buckling length of 0.8 Hp (see
Applicable adjustment factors are:

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

NDS Appendix G), which results in the following

slenderness ratio: The minimum embedment depth, d, is:
1/3
le / d = 0.8 (144 in.) / 5.5 in. = 20.9 4.25 (2180 lbf-ft)
d =
(532 lbf/ft3) (0.64 ft)
thus:
d = 3.00 ft < 4 ft OK
2 2
FcE = 0.3 (1200000 lbf/in. ) / (20.9)
= 820 lbf/in.2 9.6.4 Leeward Post Stresses. Because (1) the
axial force and maximum bending moments as-
The ratio of FcE / Fc is 0.976. This yields a Cp of sociated with the leeward post are all less than
0.682, resulting in the following allowable com- those for the windward post, (2) the windward
pressive stress, Fc’. and leeward posts are similarly supported, and
(3) the windward post is not overstressed, there
Fc’ = ( 525 lbf/in.2)(1.60)(0.682) is not need to check stresses in the leeward
= 573 lbf/in.2 post.

The CSI at the point of maximum moment in the
upper portion of the post is:
CSI = ( 126 / 573 )2
+ 248 / [1360 (1 - 126/820)]
= 0.05 + 0.22 = 0.27 < 1.0 OK
9.6.5 Leeward Post Embedment. Unless the
post-frame designer makes special provisions to
tie the base of the leeward post to the floor slab,
it will be non-constrained. Since this is a UBC
jurisdiction, embedment depth will be checked
using equation 8-6, which is given as follows:

7.02 Va + 7.65 Ma / d
9.6.3 Windward Post Embedment. The wind- d2 =
ward post is constrained by the floor slab. Since S’ b
our example building is in an UBC jurisdiction,
embedment depth will be checked using equa- Solution of this equation is an iterative process.
tion 8-8 which is given as: The values for S’ and b are as determined for
the windward post. Leeward post base shear
1/3 and bending moment where previously calcu-
4.25 Ma
d= lated as 441 lbf and 1640 lbf-ft, respectively
S’ b
7.02(441 lbf) + 7.65(1640 lbf-ft)/d
For this example, the soil is assumed to be a d2 =
(532 lbf/ft3) (0.64 ft)
firm silty sand which puts it in class 4 (firm) of
Table 8.1 – a soil with a tabulated lateral soil
d = 4.22 ft > 4 ft
pressure of 200 lbf/ft per foot of depth. In accor-
dance with the UBC, the tabulated lateral pres-
At this point, the post-frame designer must apply
sure can be adjusted for wind loading by a factor
engineering judgement. It is important to re-
of 1.33. Since the posts are more than six di-
member that the analogs in this example pro-
ameters apart, the allowable lateral pressure
duce conservative values for base moments and
can also be doubled for isolated conditions.
shears, especially for the non-constrained case.
Thus, the allowable lateral soil bearing pressure
The designer must also consider what is known
is:
about the soil type and its variability on the build-
ing site. If an embedment of 4 ft rather than
S' = (200 lbf / ft2 / ft)(1.33)(2)
4.22 ft satisfies uplift requirements as calculated
= 532 lbf / ft2 / ft
elsewhere (not included in this example) an ex-
perienced post-frame designer could validly
As previously calculated, the moment at grade is
judge that an embedment of 4 ft. is OK.
26200 lbf-in or 2180 lbf-ft.

The effective width of the post, b, is:

b = (1.4)(5.5 in)/12 = 0.64 ft

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 National Frame Builders Association Post-Frame Building Design Manual

9.7 Example Summary

There are many items that the post-frame de-

signer must still check. These include but are
not limited to:

• The interconnection between diaphragms

and shearwalls
• Diaphragm chords
• Footings for gravity loads
• Uplift checks for embedded posts
• All secondary members and headers
• The connections of all members, especially
truss to post
• End wall posts
• Diaphragms and shearwalls for wind against
the endwall

This example has focused solely on those items

that are unique to post-frame. The post-frame
designer should be able to perform the remain-
ing checks and designs using commonly ac-
cepted practices and techniques.

9-10