NEWTONS RING

Q.What are Newtons Rings?

A.Alternate dark and bright rings formed due to presence
of air film when plano convex lens is placed on glass
plate is called newtons rings.
Q.How are Newtons rings formed?
A.They are formed as a result of interference between
light waves reflected from the upper and lower surfaces
of the air film developed between the convex surface
of plano convex lens and plane glass plate.
Q.Why are they circular?
A.This is so because the air film formed is wedge shaped
and loci of points of equal thickness are circles
concentric with point of contact.
Q.what is the function of the 45 inclined glass plate?
A.It turns the light rays coming from an extended source
to ninety degrees and so the rays fall normally on the
plano convex lens.
Q.Why do rings get closer as their order increases?
A.The diameter of dark rings is proportional to the square
root of natural numbers while bright rings are
proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers
hence the dont increase at the same rate.
Q.Why is the center of the ring dark?

A.At the point of contact the path difference is zero but

one of the rays is reflected so the effective path
difference becomes /2 thus the condition of minimum
intensity is created hence it is a dark spot.
Q.What if the glass plate is replaced with plane mirror?
A.Then we will not get interference fringe because the
intensity of light reflected from mirror will be so great
that it wont be visible and we will get uniform
illumination.
Q.What if sodium light is replaced with white light?
A.Few colored fringes will be observed near the center.
Q.What will happen if we replace the lens with plane
glass?
A.Then interference will take place but the shape of the
rings will be irregular.
Q.What will happen if few drops of liquid is introduced
between the lens and glass?
A.The diameter of the rings will decrease because the
diameter of the rings is inversely proportional to
the refractive index.
Q.What will happen if we use a lens of small radius of
curvature?
A.Then the rings will be of smaller diameter and there is
chance of error while taking the readings.
Q.What if a plane glass making some angle with the glass
stripe is used in place of lens?

A.Then we will have dark and bright fringes in shape of a

line.

HALL EFFECT
Q.What is Hall Effect?
A.When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field mutually perpendicular to the direction of
current a potential difference is developed at right angle
to both the magnetic and electric field.This phenomenon
is called Hall effect.
Q.Define hall co-efficient.
A.It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in
the specimen crystal by unit current when it is placed
perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1 weber/
(meter*meter).
Q.Define mobility.
A.It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers
to applied electric field.
Q.Why is Hall potential developed?
A.When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
transverse magnetic field the magnetic field exerts a
deflecting force(Lorentz Force) in the direction
perpendicular to both magnetic field and drift velocity
this causes charges to shift from one surface to another
thus creating a potential difference.

Q.What is Flemings Left Hand Rule?

A.Stretch thumb,first finger,middle finger at right angles
to each other such that fore finger points in the direction
of magnetic field,middle finger in the direction of current
then thumb will point in the direction of the force acting
on it.
Q.How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?
A.It is directly proportional to conductivity.
Q.Define Hall angle.
A.It is the angle made with the x direction by the drift
velocity of charge carrier is known as hall angle.
Q.Which type of charge has greater mobility?
A.In semiconductors,electron has greater mobility than
holes.
Q.What happens to the hall coefficient when number of
charge carriers is decreased?
A.Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of
charge carriers per unit volume.
Q.Name one practical use.
A.It is used to verify if a substance is a
semiconductor,conductor or insulator.Nature of charge
carriers can be measured.

DIFFRACTION GRATING

Q.What is diffraction?
A.The process by which a beam of light or other system
of waves is spread out as a result of passing through a
narrow aperture or across an edge, typically
accompanied by interference between the wave forms
produced.
Q.What is diffraction grating?
A.It is an optically flat glass plate on which large number
of equidistant parallel lines are ruled by a fine diamond
pen.
Q.What is grating element?
A.It is the distance between the centers of any two
successive ruled lines or transparent stripes.
Q.What is the difference between prism and
grating spectrum?
A.In grating spectrum violet color is least deviated and
red color is most deviated but in prism the reverse is
true.
Q.When will the even order spectra disappear?
A.They will disappear if the size of opaque lines and
transparent stripes is made equal.
Q.Why does red color deviate the most in case of
grating?
A.This is so because in case of grating sin =n /(e+d) i.e
angle of diffraction is proportional to the wavelength and
the wavelength of red is maximum.

Q.What gives a more intense spectrum prism or

grating?
A. A prism gives more intense spectrum because in prism
entire light is concentrated into one spectrum while in
the case of grating light is distributed in the grating
spectra of different orders.
Q.Why is light incident on the side of grating which has
no rulings?
A.To avoid refraction of diffracted light.
Q.Define dispersion of light.
A.The process of splitting of white light into its
constituent colors is called dispersion of light.
Q.Describe essential parts of spectrometer.
A. Collimator , prism table,telescope.
Q.Why do we need two vernier scales?
A.To remove the error in reading due to not coinciding
the axis of prism table and telescope.
Q.Name two types of spectra.
A. Emission spectra,Absorption spectra

L-C-R Circuit :
(1) What will happen if both capacitor and inductor are
connected in a circuit ?

Ans : When a capacitor and an inductor are combined in a

single circuit the energy can be traded back and forth between
them at any given time.This leads to
oscillations in the circuit.(ex : radio receiver ).
(2) What is quality factor ?
Ans : It is the ratio between Resonant frequency to the Band
Width.
ie., Q = f 0 / f Where f = f2 f1 .
(3) What is impedence ?
Ans : It is the ratio between Maximum voltage value to the
current value. Z = Vmax / I .
(4) What is Resonant frequency ?
Ans : The maximum / minimum current occurs at particular
frequency in the circuit is known as resonant frequency.
(5) LCR series circuit is called Acceptor.Why ?
Ans : Because the impedence is mimimum at resonant.
(6) What is the relation between impedence and current in
this series circuit ?
Ans : Inversly proportional because in LCR series circuit the
impedence is minimum at resonant but we get maximum
current at that particular resonant.
That means if the current is less the impedence is high
and if the current is more the impedence is less.
(7) What is he status of a current in series and parallel
connections ?
Ans : In series the current will be maximum and in parallel the
current will be minimum.

Energy Gap Of A Semi Conductor :

(1) What is diode ?

Ans : The diode consists of two electrodes one is cathode and

another is anode. The cathode emits electrons and the anode
will attracts the emitted electrons when it is supplied by
positive potential.
(1) What is energy gap ?
Ans : The gap between conduction band and the valency
band is called Energy Gap.To move the electrons from the
valency band to conduction band the supplied external
voltage must be equal to energy gap.
(2) What is valency band ?
Ans : The range of energy which is possessed by vaency
electrons is known as valency band.Here the electrons which
are situated at outer most orbits are called valency
electrons.The valency band consists of valency electrons
which are having highest energy.
(3) What is conduction band ?
Ans : The range of energies possessed by a conducting
electrons is known as conduction band.the conduction
electrons are responsible for the conduction of current in a
conducting material. So , these electrons are called as
conduction electrons.
(4) How many types of solid materials are there and what are
those materials?
Ans : Based on the energy gap the solid materials are
classified into 3 types they are : conductors , insulators and
semi conductors.
(5) what is a conductor ?
Ans : Those substances whose atoms have their outermost
orbits incomplete are known as conductors(ex:Sodium , 1s 2
2s2 2p6 3s1 ).In these conductors the valency electrons are
very closely bounded to the nucleus and hence they can
easilymove from valenvy band to conduction band.so, the
energy gap is very less or zero.
(6) what is insulator ?
Ans : Those substances which have more and more energy
gap between valency and conduction band they are called

insulators.In these materials the valency electrons are very

lightly bounded to nucleus.
(7) What are Semi conductors ?
Ans : Those substances which have conductivity and
resistivity properties in between conductors and insulators are
called semi conductors.(ex : Si , Ge).Energy gap of these
semiconductors lies between 0.5 to 1.1 eV.(Foe Ge it is 0.5
0.7eV ).
(9)How many types of semi conductors are there ?
Ans : Two types of semi conductors are there (1) Intrinsic or
pure semi conductors.(2) Extrinsic or impure semi conductors.
(10)What is intrinsic semi conductor ?
Ans : Intrinsic semi conductor is a pure semiconductor.In
these semi conductors if the temperature increases then the
conductivity is also increases.At higher temperatures due to
collisions some electrons absorb energy and raises to
conduction band then in their places in valency band holes
are created.
In intrinsic semiconductor number of holes are equal to
number of electrons.
(11) What u meant by Fermi energy level ?
Ans : The average energy of charge carriers is calculated by
Fermi energy level.
In pure semi conductors Fermi energy level is at the
centre of the valency and conduction bands.
In P-type semi conductors(extrinsic/impure
semiconductor) Fermi energy level is near to the valency
band.
In N-type semi conductors(extrinsic/impure
semiconductor) Fermi energy level is near to the conduction
band.
(12)What is Doping and Dopant?

Ans : The process of adding impurities to a pure semi

conductor is called doping .And the material added as a
impurity is called as Dopant.
(13)What u meant by Extrinsic or impure semi conductor ?
Ans : A pure semiconductor after doping is called extrinsic or
impure semi conductor.We can add either trivalent or
pentavalent impurities.
(14)What is P-type semi conductor ?
Ans : If we add trivalent impurities such as Aluminium to a
pure semi conductor then that is called P-type semi
conductor.
(15)Why P-type semi conductor is called Acceptor impurity ?
Ans : Because 3 electrons of trivalent atom makes covalent
bonds with Semiconductors such as Si or Ge and there is a
need of one more electron in Si or Ge because Si or Ge has 4
electrons in their outermost orbits.
(16)What is N-type semi conductor ?
Ans : If we add pentavalent impurities such as Arsinic to a
pure semi conductor then that is called N-type semi
conductor.
(17)Why N-type semi conductor is called Donar impurity ?
Ans : Because 4 electrons of pentavalent atom makes
covalent bonds with Semiconductors such as Si or Ge which
have 4 electrons in their outermost orbits and hence there is
one free electron in pentavaent atom.
(18) What is P-N junction diode ?
Ans : If P-type and N-type semi conductors are combined to
each other then that is called P-N junction diode.That means
If we dopped trivalent impurities to one end of the pure semi
conductor and pentavalent impurities to other end of the pure
semiconductor then that is called P-N junction diode.
(19)What you meant by Forward Biasing ?

Ans : When a battery positive terminal is connected to Pterminal and battery negative terminal is connected to Nterminal then that is said to be in forward bias mode. Here the
P-holes are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery
and N-electrons are repelled by the negative terminal of the
battery and hence both holes and electrons moves towards
the junction and then this causes the depletion layer
decreases.
This Forward Biasing is also called as low resistance
connection .In this bias the current is mainly due to majority
charge carriers.
(20) What you meant by Reverse Biasing ?
Ans : When a battery positive terminal is connected to Nterminal and battery negative terminal is connected to Pterminal then that is said to be in reverse bias mode. Here the
P-holes are attracted by the negative polarity of the battery
and N-electrons are attracted by the positive polarity of the
battery and hence both holes and electrons move away from
the junction and then this causes the depletion layer
increases.
This Forward Biasing is also called as High resistance
connection .In this bias the current is mainly due to minority
charge carriers.In this mode very small current flows across
the junction.

Dispersive power of prism :

(1) What is prism ?
Ans : A transparent medium like glass bounded by two
smooth surfaces which are transparent and one rough surface
which is not transparent.
(2)What u meant by Angular Dispersion ?
Ans : the difference in deviation between any two colours.

(3)Dispersive power of the prism ?

Ans : The ability to disperse various colours of the light.
(4)What is Refractive index ?
Ans : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence in the first
medium to the sine of angle of refraction in the second
medium.
(5)What is Spectrometer ?
Ans : It is an optical instrument which is used to study the
nature of light.
It consists of collimator,prism table and telescope.
(6)What is the function of Collimator ?
Ans : It will produce parallel beam of light.
(7)What u meant by Angle of Prism ?
Ans : Angle between two refracting surfaces of the prism.
(8)What is Dispersion of Light ?
Ans : When the light is allowed to fall on one of the refracting
surfaces of a prism , it is split into its constituent colours.This
splitting of light into its constituent
colors by refraction through prism is called Dispersion
of light.
(9)What is the main optical action of the prism ?
Ans : The main optical action of a prism is to disperse white
light into its component parts.
Dispersion of light is minor optical action of prism , but
main effect of a prism is to deviate a beam of light.
(10)What type of prism do u use in this experiment ?
Ans : Crown prism.
(11)What are the units of Dispersive power ?
Ans : No units.
(12)What type of light do u use in this experiment ?

Ans : White light.

(13)Which colour in the spectrum is having more refractive
index ?
Ans : Violet Colour.
The refractive index for Violet is maxium when
compared to other colours.
The refractive index for Red is minimum when compared
to other colours.

ULTRA SONIC INTERFEROMETER:

) What are ultrasonic waves?

Ans: Ultrasonic waves are sound waves, whose frequencies are greater than 20KHz. Their
wavelength is less than 1.65cm. They exhibit all the properties of sound waves and some additional
properties.

2) What are the properties of ultrasonic waves?

Ans:
i)Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves of high frequency(greater than 20KHz). Owing to their short
wave length they can travel long distances as a sharp beam.
ii) They undergo reflection and refraction.
iii) They produce heating effect, mechanical effect & chemical effect.
iv) They produce biological effect. Animals such as frogs and rats are killed when subjected to
ultrasonic waves.

3) How are ultrasonic are produced?

Ans: Ultrasonic are produced by
i) Galton's whistle.

ii) Magnetostriction oscillator

iii) Piezo-electric generator

Galton'd whistle is primarily a mechanical device based on the principle of resonance of air column. It
can produce ultrasonic waves about 30KHz.

A magnetostriction oscillator is based on the property of magnetostriction exhibited by ferromagnetic

materials. It can produce ultrasonic waves of 25KHz.

Piezo-electic oscillator is also an electrical device, which makes use of the piezo-electric property of
quartz. It generators ultrasonic waves of high frequencies.

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS :

1) What is transistor? what are the types of transistors?

Ans: Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device.
There are two types of semiconductor i.e,. n-p-n and p-n-p.

2) Define n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Ans: If an intrinsic semiconductoris doped with pentavalent impurity. Then it is called n-type
semiconductors.
If it is doped with trivalent impurity then it is called p-type semiconductor.

3) What is doping?
Ans: Adding trivalent or pentavalent impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.

4. What are three basic transistor connection modes? Which mode is most preferred? Why?
Ans: Common-Emitter, Common-Base & Common-Collector connections.
CE mode is most preffered because CE modes gives Highest voltage gain.

5. Define current amplification factor of a transistor?

Ans: It is defined as ratio of change in collector current to change in base current.

7. What is the biasing rule of transistor?

Ans: Emitter base junction should be forward biased and collector base junction should be reversed
biased.

8. What is semiconductor?
Ans: Semiconductor is a substancewhich has the resistivityin between that of conductor and insulator.
semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

9) Which are the commonly used semiconductors?

Ans: Germanium & Silicon

RECTIFIERS

1. Define Rectifier?
An electrical circuit used to convert AC into DC current. A rectifier is a diode
that causes the current to flow in only one direction. The output of the
rectifier is essentially half-AC current, which is then filtered into DC.
2. Define Full wave Rectifier?
A rectifier that flattens both positive and negative halves of the incoming AC
to pulsating DC. This design is used more often because it is more efficient
than a half-wave rectifier.
3. Define construction of Full wave Rectifier?

Full wave rectifier is a circuit which rectifies both half cycles of the a.c. when
P of 1st diode is positive, the 1st diode is forward biased and will conduct.
Now the 2nd diode will not conduct as it is reverse biased. In all the half
cycles either of the two diodes will be conducting. The efficiency of a full
wave rectifier is about 81.2 %, twice the efficiency of a half wave rectifier.
4. What are the merits of Full Wave Rectifier?
major advantage of full-wave and bridge rectifiers over half-wave rectifiers is
the ease of filtering their output voltages. You can now see the reason for
this. The ripple frequency is doubled; therefore, the time period the capacitor
is allowed to discharge is cut in half. This means that the capacitor
discharges less. Thus, ripple amplitude is less, and a smoother output
voltage occurs.
5. What is the major disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier?
The only disadvantage is that the peak voltage in a full-wave rectifier is only
half the peak voltage in a half-wave rectifier. This is because the secondary of
the power transformer in a full-wave rectifier is center tapped; therefore only
half the source voltage goes to each diode.
6. what are the futures of Full Wave Rectifier [center-tap]?
center-tap :A wire connected to the midpoint of a transformer secondary
winding. This allows the transformer to use different turns ratios.

HE NE LASER:

1. What is semi conductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. It emits laser light
when it is
forward biased.

2. What is LASER?
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is
a device
which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in which the waves
are coherent.

3. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?

Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, high monochoromation and high
directionality
with less divergence.

ZENER DIODE
What is zener break down?
When a diode is heavily doped, its depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse
voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And
the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener
break down.