WorldShare Books

PSYCHOTHERAPY BY KARMA
TRANSFORMATION:
Relational Buddhism and Rational Practice

G.T. Maurits Kwee

A Taos Institute Publication


PSYCHOTHERAPYBYKARMATRANSFORMATION:
RelationalBuddhismandRationalPractice

G.T.MauritsKwee

Taos Institute Publications

WorldShare Books
Chagrin Falls, Ohio
USA

http://www.taosinstitute.net/worldshare-books

PSYCHOTHERAPY BY KARMA TRANSFORMATION:

Relational Buddhism and Rational Practice

G.T. Maurits Kwee

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WorldShare Books Free PDF Download
Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation: Relational Buddhism and Rational Practice (2013) G.T. Maurits Kwee
La terapia como dilogo hermenutico y construccionista: Mrgenes de libertad y deco-construccin en los juegos relacionales, de lenguaje
y de significado (2012) by Gilberto Limn Arce
Wittgenstein in Practice: His Philosophy of Beginnings, and Beginnings, and Beginnings (2012) by John Shotter
Social Construction of the Person (PDF free version 2012). Editors: Kenneth J. Gergen and Keith M. Davis, Original copyright date: 1985,
Springer-Verlag, New York, Inc.
Images of Man (PDF free version 2012). By John Shotter. Original copyright date: 1975, Methuen, London.
Ethical Ways of Being (PDF free version 2012). By Dirk Kotze, Johan Myburg, Johann Roux, and Associates. Original copyright date: 2002,
Ethics Alive, Institute for Telling Development, Pretoria, South Africa.
Piemp (PDF free version 2012), by Theresa Hulme. Published in Afrikaans.

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Taos Tempo Series: Collaborative Practices for Changing Times
Retiring but Not Shy: Feminist Psychologists Create their Post-Careers, (2012) by Ellen Cole and Mary Gergen. (also available as an ebook)
Relational Leadership: Resources for Developing Reflexive Organizational Practices, (2012) by Carsten Hornstrup, Jesper Loehr-Petersen,
Joergen Gjengedal Madsen, Thomas Johansen, Allan Vinther Jensen (also available as an e-book)
Practicing Relational Ethics in Organizations, (2012) by Gitte Haslebo and Maja Loua Haslebo
Healing Conversations Now: Enhance Relationships with Elders and Dying Loved Ones, (2011) by Joan Chadbourne and Tony Silbert
Riding the Current: How to Deal with the Daily Deluge of Data, (2010) by Madelyn Blair
Ordinary Life Therapy: Experiences from a Collaborative Systemic Practice, (2009) by Carina Hkansson
Mapping Dialogue: Essential Tools for Social Change, (2008) by Marianne Mille Bojer, Heiko Roehl, Mariane Knuth-Hollesen, and
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The Appreciative Organization, Revised Edition (2008) by Harlene Anderson, David Cooperrider, Ken Gergen, Mary
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Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Approach to Building Cooperative Capacity, (2005) by Frank Barrett and Ronald Fry
Dynamic Relationships: Unleashing the Power of Appreciative Inquiry in Daily Living, (2005) by Jacqueline Stavros and Cheri B. Torres
Appreciative Sharing of Knowledge: Leveraging Knowledge Management for Strategic Change, (2004) by Tojo Thatchekery
Social Construction: Entering the Dialogue, (2004) by Kenneth J. Gergen, and Mary Gergen (also available as an e-book)
Appreciative Leaders: In the Eye of the Beholder, (2001) edited by Marge Schiller, Bea Mah Holland, and Deanna Riley
Experience AI: A Practitioner's Guide to Integrating Appreciative Inquiry and Experiential Learning, (2001) by Miriam Ricketts and Jim
Willis

Books for Professionals Series

New Horizons in Buddhist Psychology: Relational Buddhism for Collaborative Practitioners, (2010) edited by Maurits G.T. Kwee
Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators, (2010) edited by Cynthia Sampson, Mohammed Abu-Nimer, Claudia
Liebler, and Diana Whitney
Social Construction on the Edge: Withness-Thinking & Embodiment, (2010) by John Shotter
Joined Imagination: Writing and Language in Therapy, (2009) by Peggy Penn
Celebrating the Other: A Dialogic Account of Human Nature, (reprint 2008) by Edward Sampson
Conversational Realities Revisited: Life, Language, Body and World, (2008) by John Shotter
Horizons in Buddhist Psychology: Practice, Research and Theory, (2006) edited by Maurits Kwee, Kenneth J. Gergen, and Fusako
Koshikawa
Therapeutic Realities: Collaboration, Oppression and Relational Flow, (2005) by Kenneth J. Gergen
SocioDynamic Counselling: A Practical Guide to Meaning Making, (2004) by R. Vance Peavy
Experiential Exercises in Social Construction A Fieldbook for Creating Change, (2004) by Robert Cottor, Alan Asher, Judith Levin, and
Cindy Weiser
Dialogues About a New Psychology, (2004) by Jan Smedslund

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Contents

Forewords

6
ByKennethJ.Gergen

ByM.W.PadmasirideSilva

ByPaulJ.C.L.vanderVelde

ByMichaelM.DelMonte

Preface

11

Dedication

13

PrologueContextualizingBuddhistPsychology

14

Chapter1RelationalBuddhism:ConnectingtoOthers
21

Chapter2RelationalBuddhism:ConnectingtoOneself

40

Chapter3CanThereBeBuddhistPsychotherapy?

55

Chapter4KarmaAssessmentandMethodicGuidelines

77

Chapter5TransformingKarmicThoughtandRelationalAction 99

Chapter6PristineMindfulness:HeartfulnessinPractice 119

Chapter7KarmicLifeHistoryQuestionnaire(KLHQ)
137

EpilogueSomeFinalGuidingIssues

160

References

162

ForewordbyProfessorKennethJ.Gergen,PhD
MustinProfessorofPsychologyatSwarthmoreCollege,USA
PresidentoftheTaosInstitue

AlthoughradicaldifferencesincultureandtimeseparatetheoriginsofBuddhistandsocial
constructionist thought, many find striking affinities between them. First, there is the
concern with the way linguistic categories hold sway over our lives, creating realities that
canoftenbringwiththemceaselesssuffering.Thereisthesharedinvestmentinpracticesof
liberation,whetherbymeditation,dialogue,orotherwise.Bothtraditionsdrawattentionto
therelationaloriginsofourwellbeing,andaswell,seektoestablishpracticescontributing
tothegoodwillofall.Itisthesejointconcernsthatinitiallygaverisetomydialogueswith
MauritsKwee,anditwasfromthesedialoguesthatamostvaluedfriendshipblossomed.I
have learned much through this relationship; my understanding of Buddhist thought and
practice has been expanded manyfold, my appreciation deepened, and my sense of
collaborativepotentialssharplystimulated.Itiswithinthiscontextin2006thatMauritsand
I, along with Fusako Koshikawa, edited the 28chapter volume,Horizons in Buddhist
Psychology:Practice,ResearchandTheory.Later,in2010,Mauritswentontoeditasecond
major work,New Horizons in Buddhist Psychology: Relational Buddhism for Collaborative
Practitioners.WeareproudtoofferboththeseworksasTaosInstitutePublications.
And now, with the present offering, we are presented with a special gift. We are
invitedhereintoarichlynuancedaccountofDr.Kweesorientationtotherapeuticpractice:
Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation. This is no small undertaking. My friend has a
wonderfully sophisticated knowledge of Buddhism, psychotherapy, and relational
constructionism among many other things and the present work beautifully weaves
themintoasinglemultihuedtapestry.Ifoundmyselffullyfascinated,astheworklinksthe
Buddhist focus on karma with constructionist concerns with dialogue; the Four Noble
TruthsandtheEightfoldPathwithconstructionistconceptsofmindasrelationshipand
multibeing;andkarmatransformationwiththecoconstructionofmeaning.Hereisworkof
enormousconceptualskillandimagination.Then,asthisremarkableconceptualscaffolding
islinkedtohandson,therapeuticpractice,wearerewardedwithanewprofusionofideasin
action.Welearnofexperiencebasedpracticesforthesequentialtransformationofkarmic
thoughtandaction,engaginginapristinemindfulnesspracticeofmeditation,employinga
lifehistory questionnaire for enriching dialogue, and narrative rebiographing. This is
creativetherapeuticworkatitsbest,openingnewandintriguingpaths,packedwithmultiple
potentials. It is a joy and privilege to offer this work to the world at large through
WorldShareBooks.
Some readers might ask me if the work is sufficiently constructionist. For example,
theworkspeaksboldly thoughprovisionallyandforthesake ofcommunicatingofthe
individual mind, symptoms of emotional disorder, personality disorders, and the like. All
suchreificationshavebeensubjecttoconstructionistcritiqueatonetimeoranother.Yet,as
I see it, there is little need to draw a firm line between what is and what is not
constructionist.JustasDr.KweeseesBuddhismnotasareligion,butasawayoflife,sodoI
seeconstructionism.Andbotharewaysoflifethatseekinterbeingasopposedtodivided
beings.Infact,oneofthemajorreasonsIhavebeendrawntosocialconstructionistideas
lies in the admission that its own teachings are themselves constructions. In effect, it
providesnotafoundationalontology,butawayofapproachingtheworld.Anditisawayof
approaching the world that is simultaneously critical and compassionate. It serves as a
6

bulwarkagainstreification,butsimultaneouslyisopentothepotentialsofanydiscoursefor
contributingtoplanetarywellbeing.AndthisisthewayIunderstandMauritsdeployment
ofconceptsthatmightotherwiseseemunconstructionist.Mostimpressively,hedevelops
waysinwhichallthesetermscandancetogether.Inthisheis
relational/Buddhist/constructionistandfriend.

ForewordbyProfessorPadmasirideSilva,PhD
ProfessorofPhilosophyandProfessionalCounsellor
MonashUniversity,Victoria,Australia

Maurits Kwee, psychologist and therapist, has over the years, while standing firmly on his
early training and practice inRational Emotive Behavior TherapyandCognitive Therapy,
belongs to a group of therapists who contributed to the early blossoming of mindfulness
basedCognitiveBehaviorTherapy.Apioneerbackthen,heisnowbreakingnewgroundin
presentingandaddingtwoimportantconceptstohistherapeuticbaggage:Psychotherapyby
KarmaTransformationandRelationalBuddhism.
This book has two layers, one a highly sophisticated, academic and dense but rich
layer of his main thesis; but secondly, also a clear and practical thesis related to everyday
living and a wellfocused therapy: how do we relate the Buddhist concept of therapy to
practical living and therapy? On the level of doctrinal Buddhism, Maurits Kwee is moving
fromacosmologicalperspectiveofkarma(whichtheBuddhaandothermysticsclaimto
have experienced) to a downtoearth, partly verifiable/falsifiable concept of the
phenomenological and experiential dimension of karma experienced here and now. As a
matter of fact: the Buddha himself and contemporary Buddhist monks value this second
perspectivegreatly.
Thusthisbookismorethanvaluable;ascholarlygem,itfitsintothecontemporary
context and offers new horizons for psychotherapy. His main thesis is also
documented/corroboratedbyauthenticBuddhistsourcesfromthesermons(suttas/sutras)
oftheBuddha.ThesecondthesisonRelationalBuddhismhasafocusonthetheme,toact
is to interact and sees Buddhism in terms of communal and social discourse, a concept
ingrained in the Buddhas discourse on morality and missed by many authoritative
interpretersofBuddhismlikeMaxWeber.
Onthepsychologicalandtherapeuticlevel,thetheoryofdependentoriginationisa
veritableoasisandverymoderningettingintothepsychodynamicsofkarmaasintentional
activity.Iampersonallyinterestedinthissecondlayerinthebookandwarmlyinvitereaders
to participate in enjoying and reflecting on this rich harvest of Buddhist psychological and
therapeuticinsights,andfortherapiststoexploreandimbibepatientlyintegratingfacetsof
thismessageintotheirtherapy.Thisbookpromisesthereader,therapistsandpatientsalike,
togathertheinsightswhichbestfitsintoonespersonalwayofthinking,behavingandliving.

ForewordbyProfessorDr.PaulJ.C.L.vanderVelde

ProfessorofAsianReligions
RadboudUniversityNijmegen,Netherlands

Buddhismisflexibleandslippery.Assoonasonetriestodefineit,itescapesthedefiner.
However,thisalsocreatestheabilityforadjustmentwhichaddstothevalueoftheDharma
7

in the present world. The readiness for adaptation has proven its value if we consider the
historyofBuddhisminAsia.Justly,scholarsstarttoviewBuddhismasBuddhisms,because
itsappearancesarethusmanifoldthatatitleinsingularprovestoberestrictive.Thissame
readiness to adopt the Dharma to move beyond restriction is one of the qualifications of
Maurits Kwee and his manifold activities. Anyone who has witnessed one of Maurits
workshops will know and remember this. I have seen him perform miraculous things. His
meditations comprise singing, shouting, laughing and smiling, and his presentations show
jumpingrabbitsonhugescreensandimagesinadaringspeed.Inthisheshowsaremarkable
ability to adapt Dharma practice and theory to presentday audiences, i.e. to the actual
needsofhistwentyfirstcenturyparticipants.Thisincludespsychotherapy.

ModernBuddhistfundamantalistsmayremarkthatthedevelopmentsassketched
abovedonotrepresenttheoriginalDharmaoftheBuddhaanymore,whateverthismay
be,astheassumedpurityofSiddharthasmeditationislostinadjustment.Idonotagree
andIthinkMauritswillagreewithmeonthismatter.Dharmapracticenotonlyneedstobe
open; it needs an eye for what postmodern humanity needs as well. If it comes to
adaptation,thereisasimilarityinhistory.InChina,forexample,Buddhismatfirstmetwith
stern adversity as monks did not marry; they were vegetarians, did not work in any
profession and worst of all: they did not bow for the emperor. However, when monks
showedtheirknowledgeofmedicineandtransferredkarmicmeritstodeceasedancestors,
adaptabilitycameinastheseabilitieswereofgreatimportancewithinChineseculture.And
somonksgottheirnewpositionasphysiciansandritualistsindeathandotherceremonies.
TraditionhasitthattheBuddhaobjectedtothesekindsoftrends.Monksmaynotworkas
doctorsandshouldnotbecomeartisans,poets,andsoon.Onlylayfollowersareallowedto
pursueformratherthancontent.
InspiteoftraditioninstalledbytheBuddhahimselfchangestookplaceinBuddhism.
This is due to the concept of upaya, skilful means, which also exists from the very
beginning of Dharma practice. The Buddhas pivotal understanding when he attained
awakeningwasthatDharmapresentationshouldbeadjustedtotheaudienceaddressedto
andadaptedtotheneedsofonestimeandplace.ThisiswhattheBuddhadidasfromhis
very first sermon to the last. In an impermanent world upaya never ends: skilful means
inheres in constant dynamics. The Dharma will never reach a definite status because the
veryactofgraspingpermanencemakesitelusive.Dharmaisliketherecipeofbakingbread.
In this analogy, the recipe may be centuries old, but one needs to bake fresh bread
everyday.LikewisetheDharmaneedstobereinventedandreconstructedeveryday.And
at present, at the other end of the scale, we come across Maurits and his new book.
Buddhism reinvents itself once more, this time as nonreligious and nondogmatic
psychological processes. Maurits dares to question whether there can be Buddhist
psychotherapy. What about ageold concepts as karma (and Dharma for that matter) and
howtoreinventthem?
The book Maurits has now produced uses a keyterm in the title which I think is a
keyconceptinallofMauritsreinventinglabor.Irefertothetermtransformation.Inmy
opinion to transform is to adapt and to newly interpret concepts whose meaning change
overtimeaccordingtohistory,peopleandculture.Itsoriginalmeaning,intentionorpower
may have been lost as time lapses. Yet a new impulse, by giving a new definition or a
hithertounmentionednewinterpretation,atraditionalandmaybeeven outdatedconcept
mightbecomerevivedandreempowered.Transformationalsoimpliesthatcharacteristics
andtraitsof theoriginalconcept insomeway ortheothercontinuetoliveoninthe new
8

practicalinterpretation.Thus,theoriginalconcept/recipedoesnotdisappearbutchangesin
practice, warranting edibility. As examples, in Maurits work I came across terms like the
Brahmaviharas, transformed by him into the relational sublimes, empty dharmas is
transformed into social constructions and mindfulness into heartfulness. In his
transforming interpretations Maurits addsto the most recent developments of Dharma
practice,adjustedandadaptedtopostmodernity.
MauritsKweeisexemplaryasarepresentativeforanewkindofBuddhistresearcher,
thesocalledscientistpractitioner.Thisresearcherisnotadetachedinterpretativescholar
who strictly sticks to mere dry unembodied abstract concepts but connects, adjusts and
adaptsfindingstotheexperienceofthealiveandkicking.Howcantheresultbeappliedfor
the benefit of suffering fellow humanbeings? Buddhist studies, so far, have a tradition of
mutualsuspicionbetweentheovercriticalexpertofBuddhistcultureversusthe(assumed)
uncritical practitioner of Buddhist meditation who allegedly does not keep a scientific
distance between the personal and the subject under scrutiny. The scientistpractitioner
however combines both of these approaches. The distant scholar and the experiencing
meditatormaypointoutriskstoeachothersapproaches.Maurits,however,movesbeyond
delimitations and leaves both behind. The result is the present volume which is a
combinationofthetwoworldsbest.

ForewordbyMichaelM.DelMonte,PhD
ClinicalSeniorLecturer,DepartmentofPsychiatry
TrinityCollege,Dublin,Ireland

IhaveknownMauritspersonallyeversincewemetinTokyoin1990asfoundingmembers
of the Transnational Network for Physical, Psychological and Spiritual WellBeing, which
was an initiative of Professor Yutaka Haruki of Waseda University, Japan. We organised
conferencesabouteverytwoyearsandpublishedtheproceedingsinbookformwithEburon
AcademicPublishers,Delft,Netherlands.OvertheseyearsIhavebecomeveryfamiliarwith
Mauritssimpressivework.
As a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist, with a comprehensive knowledge of
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, Rational Emotive Therapy and Systemic Therapy as viewed
through the lens of Social Constructionism, Maurits has brought his extensive knowledge
andexperiencetohisothermajorinterestBuddhism.Theresultisaveritableeruditeand
indepth crossfertilisation of Western Psychology and Eastern Buddhism. Maurits is more
than wellplaced to accomplish this formidable task. Being born in Java, Indonesia, then
educated in the Netherlands, and being a welltravelled linguistic polyglot, he comfortably
stridestwoworldstoproduceanoriginalopusmagnumonpsychotherapy.Mauritsachieves
thiswithhistoricaldepth,globalspreadandhumour.Thereaderwillalsoenhancehisorher
vocabularyofSanskritandPalienroutethroughMauritssfactfilledpages!
Thisbookwillcertainlyappealtoanybodywithaninterestinsecularandrelational
Buddhism, Social Constructivism, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Rational Emotive
Therapy.TheWesternsystemicapproachmarrieswellwithrelationalBuddhism.Thewaywe
coconstructourinterpersonalmindsinthecontextofthefluxofrealityishighlightedin
Mauritss fascinating book. He also shows how the practical here and now aspect of
BuddhismiscompatiblewiththeCognitiveBehaviouralandRationalEmotiveTherapies.
Last,butnotleast,Mauritsscomprehensivebookappearsinthecontextofahuge
surge of interest in mindfulness in which Jon KabatZinnplayed a pioneering role. There
9

arenowseveralformsofpsychotherapywhicharelargelyorpartiallybasedonmindfulness,
such as MindfulnessBased Stress Reduction, MindfulnessBased Cognitive Therapy,
DialecticalBehaviourTherapy,AcceptanceandCommitmentTherapy,andsoforth.Maurits,
with his extensive expertise, reminds us of the Buddhist origins of much of what we now
refertoasmindfulnessinisolationandoftenwithoutanyreferencetoitsEasternorigins.
Heplacesmindfulnessinitsrelational,moralandBuddhistcontext.Forthisendeavouralone
heshouldbegratefullythanked.

10

Preface

In fact, Buddhism does not exist. An ism is a Eurocentric theoryladen/abstract notion

whichhasnoequivalentintheEasternBuddhistlanguages.Whatdoesexistinthepristine
teachingsisaconcreteguidetopractice,away(DharmaorDhamma)inordertoawaken
whichcouldbecalledbuddhingorbudding.Nevertheless,thetermBuddhismwillbe
maintained throughout this book because it is ingrained at large. However, it will be used
here in the original sense as a guide and pathfinder for daily problems of living and
dilemmas, and particularly as a vade mecum and manual for psychotherapists and clients
whosufferfrombeingemotionallydisturbed.Thus,onceoutoftheemotionalmudthereisa
soundbasistocontinuelifeasusualortoprosperthelotusflowertowardawakening.Thatis
achoice.ThisbookpresentspsychotherapyinaBuddhistway,calledKarmaTransformation,
organized in sevenchapters which cover the collaborative practice of therapy by changing
thecognitivestructureofKarmaaimingatametamorphosisofkarmicemotionalfate.The
sole meaning attributed to Karma here in this book is intentional action. Accordingly, the
adjective karmic means: intended, deliberate, wilful, purposeful and premeditated (as in
overtandcovertdeeds).Intentionisacognitiveexperienceandactionisevidentlymanifest
behaviour,conductordemeanour.PsychotherapybyKarmaTransformation (PKT)includes
ongoing assessment, which is a combined procedure of Narrative Rebiographing, and a
multimodalstrategicapproachbasedoncognitivebehaviouralaffectivetacticsofchange.
TransformationtakesplaceinthegreaterframeworkofRelationalBuddhismwhichis
amergerofviews,thepanBuddhistviewofrealityandthesocialconstructionistview.The
psychologyofSocialConstructionoffersametaviewofrealityassocialyconstructedandof
themindas located/extendedinbetweenpeople.Suchanotabletakeiscongruenttothe
Buddhistideaofrealityandmind.Thismonographreapsthebestofmywritingsonmerging
Buddhism,meditation,psychologyandpsychotherapyaspublishedearlierinthepastthree
decades in various articles (e.g. Kwee & Lazarus, 1986; Kwee & Ellis, 1996, 1998; Kwee
2012b)andanthologies(e.g.Kwee,1990,2010abc,2012ac,2013;Kwee&Holdstock,1996;
Haruki&Kaku,2000;Kwee&Taams,2003;Kwee,Gergen&Koshikawa,2006).
Psychologyasascienceemergedoutofreligionandphilosophyandwasboostedby
Descartesdualisticsplitofmindbodyinthe17th centuryenablingtheseparatestudyofthe
mind. Although the word psychology was first used by Goclenius in 1590, the science
formally started in 1879 when Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany (according to the European account). There is an interesting analogy with the
presentstatusoftheBuddhistDharma.Broadly,Buddhadharmaisregardedasareligionand
a metaphysical or ethical philosophy, and at best as a philosophical psychology. Many
psychologists are nowadays transforming the Dharma into a mainstrean psychology, quite
similartowhatpioneerpsychologistsdidpriortoWundtslandmarkmove.Transformingthe
Dharma into a contemporary psychology/psychotherapy is possible due to a Buddhist
principlecalledupayakaushalya,theskilfulmeanswhichenabletheDharmatoadjustitself
tochangingmentalitiesacrosstimesandcultures.Themeetingofmindsin2005,i.e.ofthe
14th Dalai Lama and Dr. Aaron T. Beck (founder of Cognitive Therapy) in Gothenburg,
Sweden,seemstobethelandmarkmoveformainstreamBuddhistpsychotherapy.

Howtoreadthisbook?Aseachofthesevenchaptersstandsonitsown,achapter
can be read asunder as a standalone without per se knowing the content of the other
chapters.Althoughkepttoaminimum,somedoublingofcontentoccursasadidacticservice
to the reader who is a neophyte in Buddhism. Whenever using Indian terms, Sanskrit, the
11

Mahayanalanguageofthesutrasispreferred;otherwisePalitermsareusediftheoriginal
source is the Theravada suttas. Sanskrit is preferred in case of doubt or equivalence. The
referredsuttasandsutrascanbefoundinvarioustranslationsontheinternetbygoogling.I
usuallycheckwww.metta.lk(suttas)andwww.esangha.com(sutras).AbbreviationslikeBCE
(Before Common Era), Buddhist Psychology and Psychotherapy (BPP), Karma Life History
Questionnaire(KLHQ)arespelledineachchapteranewwhenusedforthefirsttime.Reading
thisbookfallsshorttobecomeaBuddhistpsychotherapistandKarmatransformer;rigorous
training and life supervision are required. It is my hope that practicing this book may
contributetolessengrassrootkarmicgreed,hatredandignorancesothatwecanprosperin
spiteofeconomiccrisisandglobalterrorism.
Toclose:MyheartfeltthanksareduetoDr.KrishnaK.Mohanforhiscogentremarks
onanearlierdraftofthisbookandtoDawnDolewhowasproficient,asever,inrealizingthis
book.

Inheartfulness,

Maurits Kwee

12


ThisbookisdedicatedtomyclientsfromwhomIhavelearnedthe
craftofpsychotherapy

Dr. G.T.Maurits Kweeis Emeritus Honorary Professor at the University of Flores, Buenos
Aires and was a Visiting Professor at Waseda University, Tokyo. He earned a doctorate in
Medical Science at the Erasmus University Rotterdam. Past President of the Transcultural
Society for Clinical Meditation, he promulgates a cuttingedge Psychology of Relational
BuddhismthatmovesbeyondTheravadaandMahayana.Heisacliniciansincethe70sand
sincethe80shepropagatesBuddhistPsychology/Psychotherapyasamainstreamdiscipline.
Prof.KweeiscurrentlyaFacultyMemberandThesisAdvisoroftheTaosInstitute(USA)and
Tilburg University (Netherlands) PhDprogram. His latest book: New Horizons in Buddhist
Psychology (Taos Institute Publications). Contact: mauritskwee@gmail.com; Website:
@relationalbuddhism.org; Linkedin @Dr. G.T. Maurits Kwee, PhD; Facebook @Relational
Buddhismand@MauritsKwee;Twitter@relationalbuddhand@MauritsKweePhD.

13

Prologue
ContextualizingBuddhistPsychology

TheBuddha(awakenedone)wasbornaprincebythenameSiddhartha(havingallworldly
wishesfulfilled)Gautama(mostvictoriousonearth)some100generationsagointheclanof
theShakyas(kindness).AshismotherQueenMaya(illusion)diedaweekafterhisbirth,he
wasamotherlesschildwholivedatthefoothillsoftheHimalayasintheIronAgewhenthe
earthwasconsideredflat.Livingcomfortably,likemanyurbancitizensnowadays,Siddharta
waseagertouncoverlifesmeaningafterobservingduhkha:sufferingduethepredicament
ofbirth,illness,aginganddeath.Bycontendingneithertheism,noratheism,theBuddhas
teaching (Dhamma or Dharma) is about nontheistic emptiness, lovingkindness,
compassionandjoy.CounteringBrahmanism,metaphysicsandskygodreligiousthoughtthe
Buddhadidnotwanttobeworshipped.Nonetheless,hiswaywasexplaineddowntheages
as a religious quest, a cosmology, and an ethical system, and recently as a
psychology/psychotherapy.

The unadulterated message of the Buddhist teachings has survived the ravages of
timemostlikelybecauseofitsmultidimensionalandmultidisciplinarynatureanditsability
to flexibly adjust andadapt to thechanging needsand demands of various peoples, times
and environments. This notion suggests that the Dharma, which resembles a religion, a
philosophyorascience,isactuallyanopen,living,relationalsystemthatiseverlearningand
changingthroughfeedback/feedforwardprocesses.Inculcatedqualitieslikethesearelikely
tobethosewhichwarranttheDharmatobeintegratedintoandtakingrootinthevarious
cultureswhereithappenedtodwell,andtobetakenupwithconservationofthepeculiar
and undiluted characteristics of its teachings. While on the surface its form of expression
appearstobetotallydifferentandtovaryfromculturetoculture,itscoremessagedoesnot
seemtohavebeenalteredinprinciple:emptinessandinterconnectedness.1
Dharmaaspsychologyanditsprimeexponentpsychotherapyarecomplementaryto
Dharmaasreligionorphilosophyandmayserveasarationalalternativeforpeoplewhoare
allergictometaphysicsorskygodreligiousness.Havinggonethroughupsanddownsinthe
past2600years,theDharmawhichwasdisseminatedasareligionandaphilosophysurvived
successfullyandgrewexponentially.However,thelanguagesgamesofscience,religionand
metaphysicsmaylackafittingrelevanceinthepresentera.Forthisreasontheoldstream
Dharma may have outlived its usefulness. If the raison dtre of the Dharma is ceasing
existential emotional suffering (duhkha), through awakening and gaining insight in the
processeshowtheycomeaboutandcanbeextinguished,itseemstomethatthisDharmais
gristforthepsychotherapistsmill.Dharmaasatherapy,whichonthemetalevelconceives
mental life as relational, aims at helping people unchain themselves from being stuck in
unwholesomementalstates.Voil,themainthemeofthisbook.

ThisbookusesinsightsfromthemajorBuddhisttraditions,i.e.Theravada(teachingsoftheelders,theonly
extant school and denomination out of 18 of the vehicle of Early Buddhism) existing as from the Buddhas
st
lifetime2600yearsago)andMahayana(greatvehicle,asfromthe1 centuryBCE),developedasfromthestart
ofCommonEraandpracticedin12denominations.MahayanaincludesVajrayana(adamantinevehicle),also
calledTantrayana(vehicleofsacredtexts),developedfromthe4thuntilthe13thcenturyandpracticedinfour
denominations.TheravadaispracticedinKampuchea,Laos,Myanmar,SriLanka,Thailand),MahayanainChina,
Japan,Korea,VietnamandVajrayana/TantrayanainBhutan,Mongolia,Sikkim,SiberiaandTibet.

14

Most psychotherapists know little about the Dharma and look at it with mistrust
particularly when Buddhist scholars apply religious language they are unfamiliar with. In
order to reach as many readers as possible, this introduction aims to clarify the scope,
breadth and depth of the present overarching framework: psychology. The quest centres
round the question: What is Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation (PKT) based on
Buddhist Psychology and how is it practiced? The concept of Karma carries religious
meaningscausingaplethoraofmisunderstandings.InBrahmanismitisalawofcauseand
effect stretching across reincarnated lifetimes towards rejoining the Brahman. A judicial
account of retribution, this Karma determines fate, like ones caste. The Buddhist Karma
renders a completely different meaning. Its pristine interpretation is psychological, not
metaphysical. Action is a function of intention and conducive to its fruit:
feeling/affect/emotion.Afterall,badthingshappentogoodpeopleandgoodthingshappen
tobadpeople.Evilcanbedonewithoutanypurposefulintention.Withoutagodbanking
merit/demerit,PKTisapsychologicalsystemofkarmicchangethroughcollaborativepractice
ofdeconstructioning.
BoththeoldBuddhistPsychologyoftheAbhidhamma(the3rdcanonicalbookof
the Theravada school) and a new Buddhist Psychology adhere to the Buddhist
Body/Speech/Mindtriunionwhichcorrespondstoamainstreamhealthcareparadigm:the
Bio/Psycho/Socialsystemicmodel (Kwee&Holdstock,1996).Onthebasisofthiswholistic
tripartition, PKT is a subdivision of a socialclinicalneuropsychology which integrates
researchmethodsinacomplementarywayonthethird(Body/Bio),second(Speech/Social)
and first person (Mind/Psyche) levels of functioning. Leaving plenty of room for individual
interpretation of the reader and not acknowledging any absolute authority, Buddhist
Psychology/Psychotherapy (BPP) and its subsystem PKT are a postmodern proposition of
RelationalBuddhismwhichincludesSocialConstructionthatmovesawayfromreligionand
philosophytowardbecomingapracticeoftransformationalconversationanddialogue.
By doing so, this book breaks away from the tradition of Louis de Valle Poussin
(18691939), who contended that the Dharma is a religion, and of Fyodor Stcherbatsky
(18661942), who insisted that the Dharma is a philosophical system. While both scholars
werespecialistsintheMahayanasutras,thetraditionfollowedhereisthatofCarolineFoley
RhysDavids(18571942).SheworkedwithTheravadasuttasandwasthefirstscholarwho
recognizeditspsychologicalcontentandthefirstauthorwhosubsumedtheDharmaunder
the rubric of psychology. This is reflected in her landmark book Buddhist psychology An
inquiryintotheanalysisandtheoryofmindinPaliliterature(1914).Itisaprivilegetostand
onhergiantshouldersaswellason thoseofthreeSriLankanscholarsPadmasirideSilva,
DavidKalupahanaandPadmaldeSilvawhostudiedtheDharmaasapsychology.
ThepresentthisworldlyviewofKarmaendorsesthewritingsofDahlke(18651928),
a pioneer of a nonmetaphysical interpretation of Karma, the Skandhas (psychological
modalities), and dharmas (the smallest experiential units) <www.buddhistischeshaus.de>.
Buddhist and contemporary psychology/psychotherapy, having overlapping concerns and
being different in several respects, might learn from each other. PKT is a multiphase
approachinlinewiththe4EnnoblingRealitiesandthe8FoldBalancingPracticemeantto
lift emotional hurdles toward awakening. While the Dharma as such is concerned with
awakeningoftheArahant(someonewhohaseradicatedinnerenemies),PKTprimeconcern
is to lift clients emotional disorder. Getting enlightened (experiencing AHA and HAHA)
inheresinthetherapeuticprocessanddoesnotnecessarilyleadtoapursuitofawakening.
Thequestis:howtoridemotionalsufferingduetotheslingsandarrowsofexistentialmis
15

fortune and live in wholesomeness? This depends on the proficiency of gaining insight,
seeingandtransdormingdailyemotionalKarma.Thismightrequireexpertiseofaguide,i.e.
a professional psychotherapist. Wholesome Karma is free from ignorant craving, greedy
grasping and hateful clinging. Unwholesome Karma noticeable by emotional craving,
grasping thoughts and clinging behaviours is shackling. Wholesomeness is attained
wheneverignoranceisreplacedbywisdomandsavvy,whengenerosityresolvesgreedand
whenforgivenessdissolveshatred.
Althoughintentionistheseedforfutureactionanddeeds,itismanifest,observable
andwholesomeperformance,notwholesomeplanningandintending,whichwillextinguish
agony. Being mindfully attentiveconcentrative and vigilantly awareintrospective on
Karmas working likely increase the frequency of wholesome Karma and prevent the
occurrenceofunwholesomeKarma.ThecruxistokeepKarmaunafflictedbychoosingnot
tobecomeattachedtogreedyorhatefulfeelingthoughtactioninrelationships.Weareall
engagedinmeaningmakingthroughconversationanddialogue.Asmeaningisnotagiven
butacommunalactofdiscourseandnegotiation,itisofgreatimportancetoparticipatein
collaborativeactionandreflexivedeliberation,andtobeawareoftherelationaloriginand
impactofouractivity.Afterall,toberelatedtoeachotherisagivenasfromthefirstsmile
inthecradle;losingthisconnectionmightneedreinstallmentbyPKT.
IendorseKorzybskistobeistoberelated,GergensIamlinkedthereforeIam,
and add: to act means to interact and to be implies to interbe. This signifies that
therapy/coaching behooves looking for the conjoint meeting points enhancing the
participantsmotivationtoworkonasettaskofmeaningmakingandconduct.Espousinga
social constructionist position, i.e. viewing reality as a social construction and the mind as
locatedinbetweenpeopleandprotagonist,doesnotpersedisagreeswithexistingmodels
of psychology. Social Constructionism is a metaview which acknowledges multivocality in
reality construction. It therefore respects all voices and language games of various
psychologies.Psychoanalystsuseasharedjargontocommunicatewitheachotherwhichis
different from the jargon used by cognitivebehaviour therapists (cf. DelMonte, 2011). A
socialconstructioniststancerecognizesthatpsychologyisamultivocalendeavouranddoes
not a priori consider one model superior to the other. Models of the mind are narratives
usingmetaphorsforpsychologicalrealitieswhichareusuallyonlyvalidintheparticularlocal
communities.Althoughonemodelcanbemoreinfluentialthantheother,nomodelcanyet
claimuniversality.
MymodelofchoiceistheSORmodelwhichconcurswiththeBuddhistmodelofthe
mind.WhilethemetapsychologyofSocialConstructionprovidesBuddhistPsychologywith
a theoretical and interpersonal perspective for meaning and action, the next levels of
abstraction refer to the toolkit of PKT which is on the level of macroanalysis, when
strategies of intake (Narrative Rebiographing) assessment (Topographical/Functional
Analyses)andintervention(RationalEmotiveBehaviourTherapy)areconcerned,andonthe
level of microanalysis, when the minute to minute application of change techniques are
concerned.Psychologistswhosemainstayisinlogicalpositivismcontendthatpsychotherapy
is largely about the study and modification of mind and behaviour. Traditionally, the
psychologists project is to understand behaviour as a function of emotion, motivation,
perception, attention, cognition, learning, and the like. Oldstream psychology seeks to
account for behaviour as a function of individual agencies isolated minds. This book,
however, embraces a relational perspective: human mind is a social construction.

16

Individuality and all that we consider to be true, real and rational emerge out of
relationshipsinDependentOrigination(pratityasamutpada),henceRelationalBuddhism.
ThebasicideaofthisbookconcurswiththeBuddhistunderstandingthatmindisnot
selfcontainedbutoperatesinbetweenpeopleandprotagonistinDependentOrigination:
to be is to interbe and to act is to interact. This has ramifications for practice; if not for
practiceBuddhistPsychologyandPsychotherapy(BPP)havenoreasontoexist.TheBuddhist
caring for relationships is focused on cultivating the social meditations of lovingkindness,
compassion and joy. These are attitudes considered relevant as communicative
performances to create rationality which comes about by collaborative effort through
dialogueandconversationalexchange.Buddhistpracticeaimsatextinguishingtherelational
poisons(greed,hatredandignorance)hamperinghumaninterconnectedness.TheBuddhas
pivotalinsightisthatpsychologicalsufferingisrootedintheirrationalrelationalstancesof
greed and hatred due to ignorance on human interconnectedness. This understanding is
morevalidthanevertodayasitisundeniablethatgreedistherootcauseoftheeconomical
crisistheworldisfacingtodayandthathatredistherootcauseofterrorismthreateningus
on the planet. The end result is fear, anger, sadness, depression and premature death,
unlessweknowhowtoappropriatetheculturalscenariosofemotingandrelatingwithsavvy
andwisdom.
The Buddha practised wisdom by dealing with Karma, i.e. intentional action which
implies relational meaning and interpersonal activity. Karma is expressed through
Body/Speech/Mind (Kamma Sutta). The Buddhas causality hypothesis of Dependent
Origination necessitates a communal view of human life which considers self not as self
contained but as constituted in multiple relationships from the cradle to the grave. The
Buddhist vision concurs with a social constructionist perspective of collaborative practice
and reflective negotiation which culminates in a concatenated confluence of Interbeing
(Avatamsaka Sutra) and Relational Being (K.J. Gergen). The Gergenian adage I am linked
therefore I am serves as a purview that psychological processes are not so much
inbetween the ears as inbetween people. Focusing within by meditation we see the
relational everywhere. The self encountered inside is a social construction which is at
bottom empty. Mindfulness is not a matter of experimental control and empirical data,
but is rather a qualitative clinical N=1 study which allows repeated measuring for gaining
reliability and which might generate hypotheses grounded in relational experience. BPP is
notsomuchfocusedoncollectingknowledgeabledataonwhatrealityis(ontology),butis
rather about how to gather reliable knowledge about life as lived out of perception
(epistemology).Inotherwords,BPPisaboutwhatweperceive.Suchperceptualknowledge
isexperientialandnoteasilytransmittablebutitcanbesociallyconstructedandnegotiated.
Recognizable things must have been learned before and are thus necessarily social
constructions. From a social constructional perspective mind is a relational concept. The
other person and the self that we talk and think about are provisional linguistic creations.
Thesearedialogicalconversationalnarrativeconstructionswhichcanalsobedeconstructed
andreconstructedbycontinuousinteractionandmultiplerelationships.SuchImemine/self
isalwaysperforming;Iamasmanypotentialselvesasareembeddedwithinandconstructed
through conversation. Identity and continuity, or what I think of as selfhood, become
maintaining coherence and continuity in the stories I tell about myself. This self or self
narrative does not represent a single voice but is a multiauthored polyphonical self, a
multibeing(Gergen,2009a). SinceImemine/selfdoesnotexistoutsideoflanguageand
discourse, an innercore self and a fixed tangible self are illusory. Lacking
17

substantial/inherentself,theselfisempty.Atthispoint,theDharmaandSocialConstruction
areinaconcatenatedconfluence.
Doesthisviewabsolvetheindividualfromresponsibility?AsnonsolitaryInterbeing,
we are confronted more not less with issues of social responsibility in striving toward
emptiness, herenow. Thus, PKT emphasizes a spirit of collaborative practice which is
rooted in a relational orientation (Anderson, 2008; <www.taosinstitute.net>). This
correspondstotheBuddhistwayofbuildingrapport:

(1)Skepticism.TheBuddhawasanontheisticskepticalfreethinkerwhoranagainst
the institutionalized belief system of his time. He questioned ingrained traditions,
transcendentalknowledgeanduniversaltruths,noneofwhichweretobetakenfor
granted. Instead of blindly buying into the assumption and preunderstandings of a
teacher/therapist,prejudicedtheories,orsocietalcriteria,oneexaminesforoneself
what is wholesome or unwholesome in each particular situation. While thus
remaining humble about ones own knowledge, one stays open to selfcritique and
challenges ones own understandings in a changing world. Realizing that one can
never have absolute knowledge about anything, one is receptive to learning about
theuniquenessandnoveltyoflifethroughdialogue.

(2) Particularismrelativism. Avoiding overgeneralization, Buddhism espouses upaya

(Upayakaushalya Sutra) allowing the Dharma to be reinvented time and again by
disseminating it in tune with the particular people, local culture, specific language
andpeculiarcircumstanceswhichrequireuniqueinterpersonalskillsrelativetotime
and place. It is in this tradition that BPP/PKT come into being. The practitioner
preventsalimitingofotherspeoplespossibilities.Byengaginginadialogue,listening
and responding, one openly encounters other descriptions, meanings and
understandingsoflivedexperiences.Privileginglocal/homegrownknowledgeofthe
particularcommunityisimportantforacquiringrelationalexpertisewhichisrelevant,
pragmatic and sustainable. Each one contributes to the conversation and designs
meaning,activityanditsoutcome.

(3)Interactionism.Understandingandinsightarerelationalprocesses.Therelational
poisons, greed, hatred and ignorance, are engendered in an interpersonal context.
Existential suffering emerges out of lacking psychological insight and results in
illusions and delusions like seeing the devil and the divine outside ourselves.
Generated through language in social discourse, the Dharma became embedded in
various cultures and histories. The construction of Buddhist realities is an
interactiveprocessofinterpretationbycommunitymemberswhoconstantlycreate,
sustain and change form and content, and which are therefore fluid, not fixed,
definitive or final. The Dharma is not to be foisted upon another; it occurs in the
transformationalspacebetweenpeople,notlimitedlytransmittedfromoneheadto
another.

(4)Connectivism.Astobeistoberelatedandwearebecausewearelinked,weare
interconnected through verbal and nonverbal speech and selfspeech/selftalk.
Balanced Speech is a noteworthy part of the 8Fold Balancing Practice and is
consideredtoberelevantinconnectingBody/Mind.Languageistheproductofsocial
interaction, a complex process through which we communicate with ourselves
18

through selfdialogue and with others in dialogue and conversation. As a medium

within which we create knowledge, insight and understanding, words become
meaningfulaswespeakandin theway wespeak. Clientsengage inparlance when
encountering the psychotherapist who is a catalyst in a mutual transformational
partnership.Thesedynamicsofparticipantslikelygenerateachangeofmeaningand
actionthroughconstructionandreconstructioninthesemanticspaceofInterbeing.

Symbolising the merger of BPP/PKT and Social Construction, Interbeing also alludes
toametapsychologicalframeworkwhichtranscendstraditionalviewsofself.Theselfasa
common intersection of multiple relationships (multibeing) necessitates an empty self,
because this being is considered to be located inbetween interacting protagonist and
people.RelationalBuddhismisnotaclearcutproductbutaworkinprogress:aprocessthat
isconstantlyunderconstruction.
According to Wittgenstein, terms derive their meanings from the members of a
particularlanguage.Inturn,meaningisdeterminedbyitsplaceinthecontextofafamilyof
wordsaccordingtocoheringrulesofgrammarandsyntax.Thus,linguisticmeaningisnota
product of a single mind but comes into existence through communal action from Inter
being. Through speech and selfspeech/selftalk people narrate the wordless, express and
communicatewhatismindfullyconceptualizedandwhatissensory/emotionallybodilyfelt
in interpersonal/intrapersonal relationship. Buddhists are intrigued by the wholistic notion
ofBody/Mindanditsbridge,Speechandselfspeech/selftalk(verbalandnonverbal),used
to storytell the basically inexpressible and wordless emotions. Speech and self
speech/selftalk are seemingly the near equivalents of emotion, a concept that does not
exist in the Buddhist idiom and if alluded to, like in greed/hatred/ignorance and in
kindness/compassion/joy, it is something relational, not a solipsistic entity of an
independent agency. Thus, in BPP/PKT emotions as inner feelings are viewed in
relationship,inrelationshiptoothersaswellasinrelationshiptooneself.Inthelattercase
onemightconsideremotionstobridgeandconnectBody/Mind.
From an integrative stance, modifying intrapersonal stories through self
speech/selftalk and walking this talk on the affective/emotional level are therapeutic
healingsteps,whichmighteventuallyleadtoawakening.Thisisoftenengenderedthrougha
dialogueorconversationincoactiononmeaningfulviewsofrealityleadingtoawholesome
changeofmeaningfulactionwhichisrelational(tobefoundout).AccordingtotheBuddha
helpingtakesplaceinaconversationofennoblingfriendship(inkalyanamitta).Thisseems
to be a finger pointing at the talking cure, psychotherapy, to complement meditation.
Notably, guidance by a role model refers to dealing with and overcoming selftalk on
hindrances, stumbling blocks on the path like doubtfulness and lack of confidence in
progress. The Buddha admonished in his greater discourse on emptiness (Mahasunnata
Sutta),that:

Talk which is... leading [not] to... freedom from passion, not to cessation, not to
tranquillity,nottohigherknowledge,nottoawakening,nottoNibbana,namely,talk
aboutkings,robbersandministers,talkaboutarmies,dangersandwar,aboutfood
anddrink,clothes,couches,garlands,perfumes,relatives,cars,villages,towns,cities,
and provinces, about women and wine, gossip of the street and of the well, talk
abouttheancestors,aboutvarioustrifles,talesabouttheoriginoftheworldandthe
ocean, talk about what happened and what did not happen, such and similar talk I
shallnotentertainBut...talkwhichisconduciveto...Nibbana,namely,talkabouta
19

life of frugality, about contentedness, solitude, aloofness from society, about

arousingone'senergy,talkaboutvirtue,concentration,wisdom,deliverance,about
thevisionandknowledgeofdeliverance,suchtalkIshallentertain.

ThisalludestoavoidingwhatGergen(2009a)callsdeficitdiscoursewhich,centred
roundproblemthinking,issuppressionratherthanconstructionorappreciationofpositive
possibilities. A transformative dialogue dissolves the barriers of meaning separating
parties and promotes a conversation that nurtures and elevates relationships. BPP/PKT is
about transforming Karma based on an analysis of feelingthinkingdoingandemotions
whichallcomeaboutininterrelationship.KarmiccausalityishypothesizedbytheBuddhaas
Dependent Origination, an arisingpeakingsubsidingceasing of phenomena in non
independence,interdependenceorcodependence.Negativeemotionsaretobeeradicated
bynotclinginggraspingcravingtoImemine/selfandbyexperiencingemptinesswhichis
notagoalinitselfbutisaresetpointtostartthepromotionofpositiveemotions.
Evidently,psychotherapistandpsychologistdidnotexistasascienceorasatitle
intheBuddhastime.DuringhistimetheBuddhawasknownasakammavadin/karmavadin.
This was a selfproclaimed role as a wise teacher of Karma, one who uncovers Karmas
unwholesome root causes (hetu): greed, hatred and ignorance. The awakened one
revealed the conditional relations, causes/functions or reasons/motives of experiential
events in interpersonal contexts. He was a teacher of effective action (kiriya) devoted to
summoning up in others the strength (viriya) needed for action resulting in increasing
wholesomeness (Swaris, 1997). The heavy valorisation of karmic intentional/meaningful
feelingthinkingdoinginrelationship by the Buddha combined with the present clinical
practice of evidencebased interventions in coaction lead to coining Relational Buddhism
andPKT.TheminutiaeofPKTpracticeisultimatelybasedonthemergerofRationalEmotive
BehaviorTherapyandtheDharma(Kwee&Ellis,1998)aswillbepointedoutinthisbook.

Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation starts with two chapters on Relational

Buddhism.Thefirstchaptercoversrelationshipswithotherswhilethesecondchapterrefers
to ones relationship with oneself. Chapter three begs the question, because Buddhist
psychotherapy is feasible as Buddhism is a discipline meant to change intentional
action/behaviour/conduct/demeanor: Buddhist psychotherapy based on Buddhist
psychologyisenforceableandpracticable.Chapterfourhighlightsassessmentwhichfocuses
on the prime target of psychotherapy, feeling and emotion as disease or
psychopathology. It comprises Narrative Rebiographing (intake), topographical and
functional analyses (treatment plan) which lead to pinpointing a strategy, a roadmap for
change, and change tactics. Chapter five explains the how to of Karma transformation.
Karma as intentional action can be transformed effectively and efficiently by changing
cognitionandbehaviour.RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapyisparticularlyaptforchanging
goal,purpose,aim,plan,design,endandaccompanyingconductanddemeanoraswellas
fortransformingnegativeemotionstopositiveemotions.AspropoundedinChaptersix,the
heartoftherapeuticchangeisthesameasformeditation:mindfulness;i.e.topayattention
andtobeawareofwhatneedstobechanged,whyandhow.Buddhistlitemindfulness,like
in the mindfulnessbased approaches, is discarded in favour of pristine mindfulness, also
calledheartfulness,whichisbasedonTheravadaandMahayanatenets.Andasespousedin
the last Chapter seven, nothing can be achieved in psychotherapy if there is no
meaningfulness,tobefoundincoherentlifestories.TheKarmaLifeHistoryQuestionnaireis
a300itemtoolwhichaccompaniesanassessmentandtherapeuticprocedureofNarrative
Rebiographingwhichisacognitiverestructuringoftheclientslifehistory.
20

Chapter1
RelationalBuddhism:ConnectingtoOthers

Introduction
This chapter presents a social constructionist view of the Dharma, i.e. a comprehensive
account of Relational Buddhism and Buddhist Psychology as a basis for Psychotherapy by
Karma Transformation (PKT). Founded on unadulterated principles and core teachings of
panBuddhism,anewBuddhistPsychologygoesbeyondtheoldBuddhistpsychologyof
the Abhidhamma. This implies a downtoearth socialclinicalneuropsychology which
concurswiththeBuddhasBody/Speech/Mindparadigm.Byemphasizingthevoidnatureof
Transcendental Truth and expounding that corroborates notself and emptiness, the
metapsychology of Social Construction (or rather Social Constructioning) bears a striking
resemblancewithwhatismuchexhibitedintheAvatamsakaSutraanditsthesis:Interbeing.
Relational Buddhism underpins a decolonized revision of the traditional provisions of the
Dharmaasaskygodreligionandametaphysicalphilosophyregardingtheself.InBuddhist
Psychology/Psychotherapy (BPP) emptiness is not a goal in itself but a resetpoint for
meaningful action derived from compassion and care (through kindness and joy) for
harmonious relationships. While deeply respecting the Buddhist vehicles of the past, the
cosmologyofMahayana/VajrayanaTantrayanaisqualifiedashavingoutliveditsusefulness
forthosewhoembraceBuddhistPsychology/Psychotherapy(BPP).
The Buddhist tradition allows a cultural interpretation of its teachings on
emptiness. That is how metaphysical atavisms, e.g. the soul, its transmigration and
reincarnation and other nonBuddhist notions could have entered and contaminated the
Dharma via a back door in the Mahayana and Vajrayana/Tantrayana, and even in the
Theravada (Conze, 1980). Thus, a teaching of emptiness is able to cater the illiterate
masses,superstitiouspeoplewhoareusedtobelieveinmagic,miracles,metaphysics,rituals
and omniscience. The informed reader is aware of upayakaushalya (or in short: upaya),
skilful means of educating and disseminating which helped the Dharma blossom in many
eras and across cultures by accommodating and adapting it to local customs of numerous
audiences.TheseskillstomethodicallypresenttheDharmamadeitpossiblethatasfromthe
first encounters Western scholars saw an Abrahamic type of religion in the Vajrayana, a
philosophy in the Mahayana and a psychology in the Theravada. Ironically, none of these
cases of hineininterpretieren seem to be per se wrong. It seems to me that they need to
continuallyexistalongsideeachothertocaterdifferentstrokesfordifferentfolks.Thisholds
intheWestwherereligioussentimentsevenafterdecadesofsecularizationstillloomlarge
and are even regaining ground in postsecular societies as observed by Habermas
<www.signandsight.com/features/1714.html>.
Nevertheless, I submit from a nontheistic stance that religion and philosophy as a
paradigmfortheDharmahaveoutlivedtheirusefulnessandcontendthatpsychologyisthe
mostaptupayafor21stcenturypeoplewhoconsiderthemselvessecular.Thisassertiondoes
notmeanthatpsychologyistruerthanotherdisciplines:practicaloutcomeiswhatmatters.
ThepsychologythatinheresintheBuddhistteachings(Dharma)iscontainedintheBuddhas
discourses. According to the Kevatta Sutta the Buddha did not expound an other
21

worldliness, he expounded a thisworldliness, did not satisfy seekers of an eternalistic

alloranannihilisticnothing;insteadhekeptaMiddleWayaneitherallnornothing.
Herefusedtoformulateafinaltruthasthiswouldleadneithertoanunderstandinghowthe
mind works, nor to liberation from existential suffering (duhkha), the psychological agony
due to the emotional ramifications of birth, aging, illness and death. The Buddha is
renownedforhisclassicalunansweredquestions,like:Istheworld[thisuniverse]eternal
orfinite,orboth,orneither?,Aretheselfandthebodyidenticalordifferentorbothor
neither?andWillaBuddhaexistornotexistafterdeathorbothorneither?Accordingto
theBuddha,entertainingthesemetaphysicalquestionsleadstospeculationandgenerating
religious and metaphysical debates which are not conducive to liberation from duhkha
(Avyakata Sutta). Along this line of reasoning, dogma, creed, belief and miracles are
anathemaasarethesoul,transmigrationandreincarnation,sinceallofthesecanneitherbe
confirmednordenied(Kalupahana,2010).HereistheBuddhistcharteroffreeinquiry:

Donotbelieveonrumoursorhearsay,becauseitisreportedtobegood,ancientor
practicedbytraditionbecauseitisinthescripturesorbecauseoflogic,inferenceor
metaphysics... because the speaker appears believable or you are shown the
testimony of an old sage. Do not believe in what is fancied, because it is
extraordinary, it must have been inspired by a god or other fancy being... because
presumptionorcustomofmanyyearsinclinesyoutotakeitastrue...justbecauseof
someonesreputationandauthorityorbecauseheisaguru.(KalamaSutta)

Thus, the Dharma is an openminded discipline, a set of practices, which takes nothing on
blind faith and does not confess a personal holy figure or some godhead. If the Buddhas
wordsaretakenashypotheses,theDharmasuggestsanevidencebasedresearchasaction
method.TheBuddhistcommunityisstudious,notreligiousinaWesternsense.
LetuscalltomindthehistoricaldatumthattheDharmawasanontheisticreaction
to Brahmanism (better known by its colonial name: Hinduism), a dialectical antithesis
countering polytheism. Being nontheistic, the Dharma had no involvement in religious
practices in the usual sense: god is simply not an issue at all. Nontheistic means: neither
theistic,noratheisticandnotevensomethinginthemiddle.Instead,theDharmabringsthe
liberating experience of emptiness to the fore. Thus, the Dharma is neither gnostic (god
can be known), nor agnostic (god cannot be proven): god is none of our business. The
undilutedBuddhistteachingsacknowledgethattheBuddhadidnotestablishareligion,did
not declare himself to be a godly/omniscient manifestation (messiah, saviour or prophet)
anddidnotderiveinspirationfromanydeityorotherexternalpower.
InhiscriticismofBrahmanismtheBuddhawasquitehumorous.IntheTevijjaSuttaa
Brahman named Vasettha discussed with the Buddha on the union with Brahma, the
Creator.TheBuddhaaskedhimwhetherhe,orhisteacherorhisteachersteacheruptothe
seventh generation had ever seen Brahma. Vasetthas denial sparked the Buddhas
comment on the opponents logic by comparing his behaviour with that of a person who
decides to seek out and love the most beautiful girl without knowing her name, looks,
complexion, height, dwelling or descent. Furthermore, the Buddha discouraged religious
rituals.Neverdidheteachhisstudentstopray,nordidheeverwishtobeworshipped,nor
did he claim to be anything else than an awakened but fallible human being. The most
probableconjectureisthathelivedwithhumanuncertaintieslikeanyoneelse,notknowing
thathisteachingwouldeverbecomeBuddhismandextantinthe21stcentury.

22

Despite the metaphysical flirtations of Mahayana, the Buddha was not concerned
with the cosmological order of the universe. He was almost exclusively involved with the
impermanence of the human condition and with the quest to know how to come to grips
withthefringesofexistence.TheBuddhasdiscoursesbreatheathisworldlyspiritasinthe
followingquote:Inthisfathomlonglivingbodywithperceptionsandthoughtsliesthe
world,thearisingandcessationoftheworld(RohitassaSutta).Obviously,bytheworldis
notmeanttheworldoutthere(intheBuddhaseraoftheironageconceivedasflat)ora
worldsomewhereinthebeyond,buttheworldwithinthepsyche,withallitsdataentering
through the sense doors and which minutiae are observable in meditation. The Buddhas
rejectionofmetaphysics,cosmologyandontologyisclearwhenhecontended:

Theeyesandforms,theearsandsounds,thenoseandsmells,thetongueandtastes,
thebodyandtangiblethings,themindandmentalobjectsIfsomeoneshouldset
thisAllasideandproclaimanotherAll,itwouldbejusttalkBecausethiswould
bebeyondthelimitsofhisabilities.(SabbaSutta)

In the Brahmajala Sutta the Buddha contended the Brahmins, he renounced their god
delusionsandstraightenedoutaVedicmythontheoriginoftheworldbyrecontextualizing
the account and by explaining Brahmas impression of being the origin of all existences as
ignorance regarding the Dependent Origination (pratityasamutpada) of the divine.
Favouring free inquiry maximizes the probability of liberation. In this sutta and in the
MahakammaVibhangaSuttaitispointedoutthatthinkersusetoformulatetheirviewsand
theories by projecting experiences to the world and by elevating them to the status of
reality.ThischapteremphasizesInterbeing,therelationshipwithothers.

TheDharmaasaPsychologyofRelationalBuddhism
The psychological content of the Dharma inheres in various panBuddhist unadulterated
secular core concepts, terms and themes, grounded in the Buddhas discourses (as
registered/translated in the collection of Theravada suttas, the Nikayas) which are
unequivocallyacknowledgedbyallvehicles.

Table1:PanBuddhistCoreThemesandTermsinthePsychologyofRelationalBuddhism
===========================================================================
(1)TheFourNobleTruths,herecalled:the4EnnoblingRealities(associalconstructions)
(2)TheEightfoldPath,herecalled:the8FoldBalancingPractice(ofcollaboration)
(3)The3EmpiricalMarksofExistence:suffering,impermanenceandnotself(emptiness)
(4)TheultimatenotselfoftheBuddhasandtheprovisionalselfofthehouseholder
(5)The5Skandhas:psychologicalmodalitiesofmindandself:feelingthoughtaction
(6)ThenotionofKarma:intentional/meaningfulthoughtfeelingandconcomitantaction
(7)The3Poisons:karmicgreed,hatredandignoranceonselfillusionsandgoddelusions
(8)The4Immeasurables:socialmeditationsaugmentingkindness,compassionandjoy

(9)The12Meditationswithmindfulness(neutralwatching/observing)asthegeneralfactor
(10)The4FoundationsofMindfulness:fluctuationsofbody/feelingsandmind/thoughts
(11)Thedharmas:thesmallestunitsofexperience(perceivablesandthinkables)
(12)Themindseye:asixthsensethatperceivesdharmasduringmindfulawareness
(13)TheexperienceofNirvana:astate/traitofextinguishedunwholesomethoughtaffect
(14)TheDependentOrigination(ofSkandhasandinterbeing):apivotalcausalityhypothesis
23

(15)The24Patthanas:functionalconditionsandrelationslinkingtheSkandhasmodalities
(16)Thenonfoundational(empty)moralityofprosocialcollaborativepractice(K.J.Gergen)
===========================================================================

The Nikayas comprise commonly shared insights which anyone can acquire through
meditationandthestudyoftopicsaslistedinTable1(cf.theMilindapanha).Itselaboration
includesadivestmentofDharmasnonsecularattributesbyreinterpretingkeywords.While
itmaybearduoustounlearnoldvocabulariesofreligionandmetaphysicsandadoptanew
family of terms like a set of rules in a Wittgensteinian language game here is a fresh
recastofadozenkeyconcepts(thelistisnotexhaustive):FourNobleTruths,EightfoldPath,
Duhkha,Skandhas,Mara,Nirvana,Karma,sati,bodhi,arahantandbhikkhu.
(1) Dharma is a way or method rather than an ism. Here, it does not reflect a
religion alluding to the supernatural, nor is it a philosophy, metaphysics or ontology. It is
ratheranepistemologyandpsychology.Whencolonialscholarstriedtocatchitsmeaning,
they looked for a convenient category for the alien soteriology. The Eurocentric container
term Buddhism preserves Western overtones to the detriment of emptiness. Dharma
entailsthe4EnnoblingRealities(sacca),thusavoidingthetermtruthwhichcarriesthesmell
of transcendentalism and blind faith; Dharma breathes free inquiry. The concept of
TranscendentalTruthisanathemaastheaimisexperiencingemptinessviaadialecticsof
negation (neitherthisnorthat). Living in a provisional reality of meaning and values
emerging from culture/history constructed in relationships and concatenated to action,
ultimatetruth,ifany,isnondual:neithertruenorfalse.Thegerundennoblingispreferred
because one will not literally become a prince or princess: one strives at liberation by
traversinganinnerprocessoffacingadversities.Dharmaaspsychologyreferstoexperiential
practice centred round these four theses: (1) Existence inheres in disquieting disease:
mentalsufferingduetobirth,illness,aginganddeath(duhkha)(assessment);(2)Thereare
causes for this kind of suffering as well as ways to alleviate it (analysis); (3) Caught by
psychologicalsufferingthereisawayoutandtopreventit(prophylaxis);(4)Thecureforthis
agonyIcallthe8FoldBalancingPractice.Itsderivativeispsychotherapy.
(2) The 8Fold Balancing Practice refers to a balancing act in the process to end
mental suffering rather than to do what is absolutely right or wrong. Thus, instead of the
qualifier right for the entwined practices of the path, the term balancing is preferred. The
studentbalances1.viewsunderstanding,2.intentionsthoughts,3.speechcommunication,
4. actionsbehaviors, 5. livinghabitude, 6. effortcommitment, 7. awarenessintrospection,
and8.attentionconcentration (DhammacakkappavattanaSutta). BPPreferstocounselling
toward awakeningemptiness while journeying the path in mindfulness. Obviously, right
meanscorrect,notwrong.Becausethisisadualistic/lopsidedterm,balancingistheattitude
of choice while travelling the Middle Way as the Dharma was called by the Buddha.
Balancing reflects a relativistic spirit of the equanimous middle which wholistically unites
right/wrong and avoids dogmatic stances. Sin is anathema in BPP, because there is no
absolutewrongoratextualhellinthebeyondtogoto,ratheramentalprocesstakingplace
inthemindandininterpersonalrelationships.
(3) The 3Empirical Marks of Existence (Anattalakkhana Sutta) are about the non
existenceofsoulandthecharacteristicsofself.Themarksare:suffering,impermanenceand
notself/emptiness. There is suffering because of the proclivity to crave, grasp and cling
toward permanence and perfection while the perceivable and knowable world is
impermanent and imperfect. Neither body, nor mind, nor consciousness, nor feeling, nor
sensation,northoughtsarepermanent.NoneofthesemodalitiescanbeidentifiedasIme
24

mine/self, which are each and by themselves abstractions, i.e. empty semantic concepts.
Beingimpermanent,theylackinherentexistenceorsubstanceandarethereforeemptyof
self.Selfattachmentresultsinsuffering.
(4) The ultimate notself of the Buddhas is attained when emptiness is
experiencedandifliberatedfromoftheprovisionalselfofthehouseholder.Thisliberation
is relative because living necessitates a name for communication convenience and a
passport comprising an I.D. number for civil purposes. Liberation refers to the beautiful
insightthatoneisnotonesnameorbody/mindstateofthemoment.Itisafreedomfrom
being attached to Imemine/self through an ultimately experienced emptiness of all
conceptualizationsandtheirreferentswhilemaintainingathisworldlylifeofthesalaryman
who cooks and cleans, of the husband who washes dishes or of the father who changes
diapers. The Buddhist nonfoundational provisional self resembles the socially constructed
dialogicalnarrative self. This self is a linguistically constructed concept merely existing in
dialogicalrelationshipsandthusempty.
(5) The 5Skandhas are psychological modalities of the mind, usually translated as
aggregates or heaps. They refer to what could be called BASICI.D. modalities (Kwee &
Lazarus, 1986). These are: Behaviour (rupa, bodily), Affect (samskara, motivational),
Sensation(vedana,perceptual),Imagery/Cognition(samjna,conceptual),allofwhicharea
functionofneurogeneticDrivesandconsciousness(vijnana,mindfulawareness).Modalities
move in a flux of Dependent Origination in the context of the Interpersonal (I). They
constitute the provisional Imemine/self as above and are subject to attachment. Their
ultimateemptinessisobviousifitsnatureasareifiedabstractionisunderstood.BASICI
emptiness implies that there is no ghost in the machine, no soul to identify with and no
reincarnation, but only daily cyclical rebirths of emotional episodes. Based on the key
premise that knowledge and language are communalrelational and generative
transformative,emptinesspervadestheselfandisubiquitouslypresent.
(6)Karma,intentionalaction,ismeaningful.Manifestedinconjunctionwithimagery,
cognition, affect/emotion, it is generated in interaction and expressed in relational
performance. There is confusion with the Karma of Brahmanism, an account of good and
bad deeds reaping reward and punishment. A didactic anecdote clarifies: in 521
Bodhidharma visited the emperor Wu, a great patron of the Dharma who has built many
temples. Asked what merit his generosity had earned, the gurus answer was: "No merit".
Astonished,heaskedaboutDharmassupremeessence."Vastemptiness,nothingholy"was
the reply by which he referred to an extraordinary nondual/nondiscriminatory state of
mind.Finally,heasked,"Whoareyou?""Dontknow"saidBodhidharmaalludingtonotself
and emptiness. However, emptiness is not the end. Living in a multiverse of meaning,
emergingfromsharedcultureandpersonalhistories,weareabletoabandondysfunctional
lives and create alternatives. Our understanding of the world is intricately related to
interaction.Weactasafunctionofwhatweregardtobetrue,real,savvyandwise.These
valuationsareengenderedinrelationship,aconditiosinequanonformeaning.Bycaringfor
relationshipsthealienating,aggressiveanddestructivepotentialsofconflictcanbereduced
ortransformed.ThisdowntoearthunderstandingofKarmaisaliberatinglifeapproach.
(7) The 3Poisons refer to greed, hatred and ignorance on self illusions and on god
delusions (Adittapariyaya Sutta). The Buddha expounded that the tempting senses burn;
they are on fire from these poisons unless transformed into heartfelt generosity, loving
kindnessandwholesomewisdom.Discardingliteralexegesis,theseductivedemonMara
and the Six Realms are mental projections of inner states and relational stances. Mara
25

symbolizestheBuddhasovercominginnerfoes:thefearofdeath,theillusionsofself/soul,
the delusions of god and celestial beings. The realms are metaphors for blisspride (gods),
envystruggle (demigods), greedignorance (animals), hateanger (hell), cravinggrasping
(hungry ghosts) and doubtingclinging vs. awakeningNirvana (humans). Buddhist practice
extinguishes the fires of greed and its underlying emotional states (fear, sadness) and of
hatredanditsvariations(depression,anger)andlightensupthecandlesofjoyandserenity.
(8) The 4Immeasurables refer to the social meditations of action in equanimity
which augment lovingkindness, empathic compassion and shared joy. These categories
track a process of social deconstruction toward emptiness in order to start a process of
socialreconstructionbybuildingupthesegodlyqualities.
(9)The12Meditationswithmindfulness(neutralwatching/observing)asthegeneral
factor aim at tranquilizing serenity (samatha) and absorption or flow (samadhi) by
focusing on 1. Abdominal breathing: air passing the nostrils; 2. Behaviors: sitting, walking,
standing, lying and other activities; 3. Repulsiveness: the body as a bag of food/liquids
enveloped by the skin; 4. Elements (earth/water/fire/wind) to disidentify from body; 5.
Decomposing:visualizingonesowndeadbodyfromfleshtodust;6.Feelings:skindeepor
heartfelt pleasant, painful, or neither?; 7. Hindrances: pleasures/illwill/sloth
torpor/agitation/doubtworry; 8. Modalities: Body/Speech/Mind, sensing, thinking,
emoting/acting; 9. Sensebases: contact of the six senses with their focused objects; 10.
Awakening factors: analysis, forbearance, enthusiasm, serenity, focus, equanimity and
awareness; 11. 4Ennobling Realities: dukkha, its causes, way out and practice; 12. 8Fold
BalancingPractice:viewsintentionspeechactionlivingeffortawarenessattention.

(10)The4FoundationsofMindfulness(SatipatthanaSuta)focusonthefluctuations
ofbody/feelingsandmind/thoughts.Mindfulnesstakesonbothanarrowmeaningtobe
attentive, concentrative and alert and a generic meaning including a combination of
attention (sati), awareness (sampajanna), concentration (jhana) and vigilance (appamada)
(Appamada Sutta). The latter concept is also to be found in the Buddhas very last words
appamadena sampadetha: strive on with mindfulness, i.e. with mindful discernment of
what is wholesome (not defiled by the poisons). The mindfulnessbased approaches
ponder on a nonjudgmental attitude producing a lopsided/nonBuddhist explanation by
explicitly and purposefully excluding an inherent aspect of vigilant introspection of the
un/wholesomeness of meaningful intentional action (Karma) and its ramifications (vipaka)
(SabbasavaSutta).NonBuddhistpracticesofmindfulnessapparentlydeprivethemeditator
from the quintessential insight in Dependent Origination which is at the heart of the
Dharma. For the Buddhist practitioner this insight is a conditio sine qua non holding the
remedyforduhkhawhichistheexperienceofemptiness.
(11)DharmawithacapitalDmustbedifferentiatedfromdharmawithalowercased
whichdenotesthesmallestunitofexperience.Merelyimpossibletotranslatethesesmallest
experiential units are perceivables and thinkables which one might watch during
mindfulness;theyincludementalimages,memories,dreams,illusionsanddelusionsandare
social constructions manifesting in a protean versatility, changeable in form and content
continuously.Becauseoftheirchangingnaturetheylackinherentexistenceandarethus
emptyofself(svabhava).Theyareknownasnonselves(Nagarjuna),asSubject/Object
nondualities(Vasubandhu)andassocialconstructions(K.J.Gergen).
(12) The Buddha discerned a sixth sense, which I call the minds eye, which
ap/perceives dharmas during mindfulness (apperception is a preconceptual perception in
theabsenceofpreconceivedideas).Itisthebrainwireofmind,probablyplasticneuronal
26

circuits,capabletointegrateincomingstimulifromthefivesensesandasenseorganonits
own by its capacity to perceive internal space. Discovering the minds eye expands the
meaning of the empirical. The meditators world begins when one closes the eyes and
experiences the momenttomoment flux of Body/Speech/Mind, the BASICI. As soon as
experiencingisthoughtabout,asubjectobjectdualityoccurs.Reflectioneradicatesthenon
binary pure experience (James, 1902) of attending and noting awareness. The 6th sense
providesawideangleviewoftheempiricalandleadstotheobservationthatexperiencecan
besurfed and transcended.Theyin/yangsymbol depictsthefluxandaflow of dancing
movement.Thecurveswithinthecircleobliteratebinariesindicatedbyalittleblack/yangin
white/yinandalittlewhite/yininblack/yang.Theexperiencingindividualintrospectsminds
behavioursanobservationaltechniquefavouredbyWilhelmWundt(1874).Tomeditateis
toskilfullywatchexperiencinginchoicelessawareness(J.Krishnamurti)andtoseethings
astheyreallybecome.
(13)Nirvana,fromnir(un)andvana(binding),isnotaparadiseinthebeyond,buta
state or trait of mental coolness breaking Samsara, cyclical mental suffering. It is a
temporary or enduring condition of nonarousal as the outcome of extinguishing
unwholesome hot emotions. Nirvana comes about when the 3Poisons (ignorancecraving
and its cognitive/affectivebehavioural/interpersonal ramifications of greedgrasping and
hatredclinging) is resolved. While greed inheres in anxiety (fear of shortage) and sadness
(grief of loss), hatred inheres in anger (otherblame) and depression (selfblame). Nirvana
equals wholesomeness (smiling contentment and silent emptiness) and happiness as an
epiphenomenon. The latter is necessarily chaironic, i.e. occurring amidst adversity (Kwee,
2012a).InferringNirvanaasaparadiseintheafterlife,likeintheAbrahamicreligionsofthe
earlytranslators,iserroneous.
(14) The Dependent Origination (arising, peaking, subsiding and cessation) or
pratityasamutpadaoftheBASICImodalitiesandInterbeingisapivotalcausalityhypothesis
and,ifexperienced,thesummumbonumofwhatawakening(bodhi)entails.Asthepinnacle
oftheBuddhistexperienceawakeningentailsnotbeingasleepbutisusuallytranslatedas
enlightenment. This Eurocentric concept alludes to the 18th century western age of
enlightenment which marks the start of modernism characterized by an adamant belief in
the light of reason and in timeless truths. It upholds the Cartesian idea of supremacy of
positivist science. To be wakeful and aware is not to fall in the illusory/delusional trap of
TranscendentalTruths,soul/selfandgod(s).AlthoughtheDharmamayilluminate,elucidate
or enlighten by rationality, it does so through heartfelt understanding and outcome
evidence rather than through the thinking mind. The potential for awakening is for
everybodyandsimplyneedstobeuncoveredbyovercomingonesproverbialinnerenemies
(which is the meaning of arahant) and by understanding Dependent Origination. The
arahantisoftenerroneouslyequalledtoaWesternsaintwhichisanathemainBuddhism.
Inthesameveinabhikshu/bhikshuniis,unlikeaChristianmonkornun,someonewhobegs
inordertobefulltimeinvolvedinstudy,memorizingandmeditatingtoattainarahantship.
(15) The 24Patthanas: the word refers to foundation or cause and known in the
combination of satipatthana in the eponymous sutta (mindfulness is established by its
objects). Patthana is also a 6000 page book which is one of seven tomes on the deeper
reflections regarding the Buddhas discourses (the Abhidhamma). It covers functional
relationsandactivatingconditionslinkingtheBASICImodalities:howdodharmasmoveand
interact in Dependent Origination? For instance, on ignorance as the antecedent of
unwholesomenessandhowthoughtsproliferatinginloopsperpetuatesuffering.
27


(16)BuddhistethicssuggestsaWesternformalistictheory(Keown,2005).Relational
Buddhism endorses a morality without ethics. This concurs with a nonfoundational
morality of collaborative practice which is a social constructionist view expounded by
Gergen(2009b).Bothreconceptualizeethicsasbasedindifferinginterpersonalvaluesand
motivation, and variegated communal conduct. There is no morality outside relationship;
therefore the focus is on the relational process itself in reflective negotiation and
transformational dialogue. Obviously, Robin Hoods morality is different from the sheriffs.
As exemplified in a Jataka allegory, the Buddha allegedly lied and killed in his previous
lives.However,itisnotamoralnornihilistic.Creditingmoralactivism,Buddhistsavoidthe
relational nonvirtues of Body (killing, stealing, misconduct), Speech (lying,
divisive/harsh/idletalk)andMind(envy,harmfulintent,erroneousviews)whileembracing
therelationalperformancesofgenerosity,virtue,renunciation,insight,effort,forbearance,
honesty, resolution, kindness and equanimity. This understanding offers a morality
continuumrangingfromarigidtoatolerantsenseofwhatisright.Meaningaboutwhatone
caresaboutinlifegeneratedtogetherprovidesvalueinrelationship.Notwithstanding,what
is acceptable in one relationship, is not necessarily so in another relationship. Even within
one community there are multiple voices: various relationships generate different
moralities. The Buddhist moral stand is pragmatic and practical. It submits that a morality
claimingtobeTranscendentalTruthisinimicaltowellbeing.Asaquestoffreeinquiry,BPP
isapracticeaimingwholesomeness,not atheoryof moralvalues,norasetofrulesoran
absolutistsystemofdosanddonts.

TowardaBuddhistPsychologyandPsychotherapy
Thus,sinceencounteringWesterncivilization,theDharmahasbeenmouldedintocategories
to which they do not exactly belong: a religion and a philosophy. The Dharma has
subsequentlyevolvedfurtheramongstothersasasystemofethics,awayoflifephilosophy
and a cognitive behavioural clinical psychology (Kwee, 1990). To view the Dharma as a
modus vivendi based on psychological insights is not a matter of course. Adopting this
viewpointrequiresaparadigmshift(Kwee&Taams,2006).
BPP has a long past but a short history. Roughly four periods can be discerned: an
archaic, classical, modern and postmodern period. The archaic period is a stage of
philosophicalpsychologyduringwhichthetermpsychologywasunknown.Thisperiodstarts
withthediscoursesoftheBuddhaandcontinuesinthephilosophicalreflectionsaswritten
downposttheBuddhaintheAbhidhammawhichbecameoneofthethreecanonicalbooks
of Early Buddhism, i.e. the Theravada literature. These teachings are abstractions of the
Buddhas discourses and were written by anonymous scholars until the 4th century and
seeminglyleftwithanopenendtobeupdatedbysuccessors.
TheclassicalperiodislandmarkedbyWilliamJames(18421910)andCarolineRhys
Davids(18571942).ThefatherofAmericanpsychology,James(1890),wasoneofthefirst
who recognized that the Dharma inheres in a psychology (Guruge, 1965). Endorsing the
notion of Karma as the interplay of cognitiveaffective intentions and behavioural
(inter)action,hebroke newgroundforpsychology. ByinvitingDharmapalafrom SriLanka,
who later became a bhikkhu, to guestlecture in 1903 at Harvard and declaring that that
lecture,whichwasontheSkandhas,wouldbethepsychologyeverybodywouldbestudying
25yearshence,JameswasadumbratingthepresentZeitgeist.DrawingontheDharma,he
acknowledge that we are normally only half awake, wrote about the stream of
consciousness,pureexperienceandthebenefitsofmindfulness,i.e.beingawakeand
28

compossui(masterofoneself)andthusabletobringbackattentionoverandoveragain.In
ABuddhistmanualofpsychologicalethicsofthefourthcenturyB.C.,beingatranslation,now
made for the first time from the original Pali, of the first book in the Abhidhamma Pitaka,
entitled,Dhammasangani(compendiumofstates/phenomena)withintroductoryessayand
notes(1900),RhysDavidsalludedtothepsychologicalcontentoftheAbhidhammaonthe
enumerationsofdharmasqualifiedasadryvalleyofbones.ShecoinedthetermBuddhist
Psychology in 1914. The paradigm shift of Buddhism from an archaic psychology into a
science parallels psychologys development in the 19th century when it moved away from
religionandphilosophyasmarkedbytheformalstartofscientificpsychologywhenWundt,
theEuropeanfatherofpsychology,openedthefirstpsychologicallaboratoryin1879.
Thenextstepmarksthemovefromaclassical(1stgeneration)toamodernBuddhist
Psychology (2nd generation) as evidenced by numerous articles in psychology journals and
bookchaptersandfeaturedbytwolandmarkbooks:AnIntroductiontoBuddhistPsychology
(M.W.P.deSilva,1979/2005)andThePrinciplesofBuddhistPsychology(Kalupahana(1987).
These works refer to the Theravada Dhamma, the early Pali teachings of the elders. After
WWII other authorsstemming from the Mahayana tradition a variant with metaphysical
elements developed as from about the start of the Common Era started playing a
significant role. This current was championed by D.T. Suzuki (18701966; Zen perspective)
andChgyamTrungpaRinpoche(19391987;Tibetan/Vajrayanaperspective).Reachingout
from a psychotherapeutic point of view were Carl Jung (18751961), Abraham Maslow
(19081970), Alan Watts (19151973) and Erich Fromm (19001980). Although Maslow, in
the 1950s, valued the Dharmas positive psychology, Freud (18651939) viewed Buddhist
practices as pathological, i.e. a regression to narcissistic primitivism and infantile
helplessness;itwasevenreferredtoasaselfinducedcatatonia(Alexander,18911964).

ThepresentZeitgeistofthe3rdgenerationisinfavourofconnectingtheDharmaand
psychology/psychotherapy. The cognitive neuroscientist, Francisco Varela (19462001),
belonged to a large group of researchers spearheaded by the 14th Dalai Lama <
www.mindandlife.org > who indefatigably promotes: The creation of a contemplative,
compassionate,andrigorousexperimentalandexperientialscienceofthemindwhichcould
guideandinformmedicine,neuroscience,psychology,educationandhumandevelopment.
His Mind and Life Institute, regularly convening since 1987, is currently engaged in a
Cultivating Emotional Balance research program (P. Ekman et al.). Its board of directors
includesR.Davidson,D.GolemanandJ.KabatZinn.KabatZinn(2003a)devisedan8week
outpatienttrainingMindfulnessBased(MB)StressReductionwhichfrom1979onhadbeen
applied in thousands of patients with various chronic and debilitating maladies. It has
sparkedhypeamongstadherentstodevelopMBCognitiveTherapy,MBRelapsePrevention,
MB Eating Awareness Training, to mention a few programs. Others have also included
Buddhist mindfulness meditation in their approaches, likeM. Linehan (Dialectical Behavior
Therapy) and S. Hayes (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy). Still others (e.g.
psychoanalyst M. Epstein and neurologist J. Austin) and less wellknown groups are
committed to further BPP, e.g. the Transcultural Society for Clinical Meditation, founding
president:Y.Haruki<http://transcultural.meditation.googlepages.com>(seealso:Wallace
&Shapiro,2006;Sugamura,Haruki&Koshikawa,2007).
The latter group, to which the present authors belonged, promotes a postmodern
approachbyventuringanintegrationofallevidencebaseddataconnectingtheDharmaand
psychology/psychotherapy (Kwee, Gergen & Koshikawa, 2006; Kwee, 2010a; Marques &
Dhiman,2011).Inessence,thepresentchallengeistodevelopRelationalBuddhismandBPP
29

(a socialclinicalneuropsychology) according to the tradition of upaya. Buddhist

neuropsychologyoperatesona3rdpersonobjectiveleveltorewirethebrainforthegood.
The study implies to be on the lookout for neuroscientific correlates of Buddhist concepts
and practices. In a framework of erklaeren (explaining) one attempts to understand
neuroscientific knowledge from a Buddhist perspective as initiated by Japanese
neurophysiologistsinthe1950s(e.g.A.Kasamatsu,T.HiraiandY.Akishige).Notably,Austin
(2006;2010)scrutinizesneuroscientificstudiesfromaZenperspective.Neuropsychologyis
interested in the EEG study of free wont rather than free will in habitual responding
(Libet, 2004); neuroprosthetics (via implanted braincomputer interfaces) showing that
conation of the mind is able to manipulate a cursor to command action (e.g. drawing or
operatingaTVremotecontrol)(DonoghueinNature,442,2006,pp.109222);searchforthe
Buddhas 6th sense in terms of neuroplasticity and dynamic/integrative cortical circuitries
(e.g. Varela, Lachaux, Rodriguez & Martinerie, 2001); neuroimaging of medefiners, self
and notself (perceiving without perceiver; Malach, Harel, Chalamish & Fish, 2006
<www.weizman.ac.il>); correlates of awakening, supposedly the left prefrontal area
connected to the left amygdala, specialized in positive affect (Davidson, KabatZinn,
Schumacher,Rosenkranz,Muller,etal.,2003);offsettingagerelatedcorticalthinningdueto
meditation (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, Gray, et al., 2005). Studies have also been done on
compassion (DeLuca, 2005; <http://fearlessheart.com>). Particularly interesting is the
relationship between Dependent Origination and neuroscience: affective structures are
critical in the formation of microstates designing everyday experience (Kurak, 2003). For a
review of such topics: Lutz, Dunne and Davidson (2007). Notwithstanding the interesting
findings,thepresentRelationalBuddhistpurviewcautionsforanyclaimsoftruthbasedon
hardscience.Itisdoubtfulwhetherthecorticaldataaccruedbybrainscanningwillexceed
theusualspeculativeguessworkandcouldreallyopenuphumanmindtoinspection.
As a social psychology, on a 2nd person intersubjective level, we adopt a Social
ConstructionistviewpointwhichdiscardsTranscendentalTruths:realityandfactsaswellas
much of existentialsuffering are manmade ininterpersonal contexts.From a postmodern
attitudeweviewrealityasacommunityconsensusofalocalculture:scienceandallvarieties
ofauthorityareconsideredtoberelative.Inthisframeworkofverstehen(understanding),
thereisaneedtoeradicatetheoutdatedlinguisticsofWesternculturaldominanceshaping
the Dharma into a skygod religion and to reconceptualize key terms as above. As
proclaimed by Gergen (1999), Social Construction contends: I am networked, therefore I
am.Infull,humansarebiochemicalsensingmovingthinkingemotingrelationalconstructs
whose minds usually function at the prerational/childlike, irrational/foolish and
rational/scientific levels, but seldom at the postrational/wisdom level viewing science as
culture.Itisonthiswisdomlevelthatweareabletoseeandunderstandthattobemeansto
interbe and that to act is to interact; this implies discovering of what comes about in
Dependent Origination during transformative dialogues of people. Wisdom enables us to
understand the ubiquitous and pervasive interconnectedness of humanity. Thrown from
birthonwardsintoasocialweb,wecannotbeselfcontained.Thereisnothingthatwecan
conceive of that is not injected by interpersonal meaning. Ensued from a history of
interdependency, even private worlds are encapsulated in an inextricable relational web.
Althoughweoftentakeourbeingembeddedwithinbondsforgranted,interrelatednessisto
stayfromthecradletothegrave.Suchametavisionviewsrealityasajointventure,depicted
in the Dharma as Indras net (Avatamsaka Sutra), a matrix with at each juncture
mirrors/beings that reflect and interpenetrate each other immeasurably, ad infinitum
30

(Cleary,1993).Insuchavisiontruthisalwaysprovisional,linguisticallycoconstructedbya
groupandnegotiatedinadanceofmeanings.Inthesameveinrealityevenifunveiledby
science is intersubjective, relative, time and culture bound. They are conceivable as
narratives to be replaced by even better constructions going forward. Eventually, it is not
about discovering the truth/reality as revealed but the truth/reality as constructed and
imbuedwithmeaning:theBuddhistliberationisforemostarelationalevent.
As a 1st person subjective level of inquiry, clinical psychology, which includes
psychotherapy and assessment, necessitates an evidencebased approach, i.e. empirical
proof through outcome studies. To date, cognitivebehavioural interventions practiced by
mentalhealthcliniciansandcorporatewellbeingcoachesbelongtothemosteffectiveand
efficient group of therapies (Butler, Chapman, Forman & Beck, 2006). Their methods of
assessmentandinterventionuseconceptswhoserationaleisgroundedintheDharmaand
whose modus operandi of meditation coincide with cognitivebehavioural principles. This
notion, increasingly becoming commonplace, has been explored by frontrunners, notably:
Mikulas(1978),DeSilva(1984)andKwee(1990).Despitethemushroomingofpublications,
a systematic and parsimonious account of the Dharma as a cognitivebehaviour
psychology/therapy has only been presented recently (Kwee & Taams, 2006, 2010; Kwee,
2012ab,2013;De Silva,2010;Mikulas,2010;Rapgay,2010)sparkedbyMindfulnessBased
research(Segal,Williams&Teasdale,2002;Ma&Teasdale,2004;Kenny&Williams,2007;
Kuyken,Byford,Taylor,Watkins,Holden,etal.,2008).WhileintheWestthequantumleap
from philosophy to psychology took place 1979, when Wundt opened his lab, the Dharma
seems to have made a similar symbolical step only in 2005 when in Sweden A.T. Beck
(founding grandfather of Cognitive Therapy) had a historical dialogue with the 14th Dalai
Lamaatthe5thInternationalCongressofCognitivePsychotherapy(andthesimultaneously
heldIXWorldCongressonConstructivism);foratranscript,seeTaamsandKwee,2006.At
thisgroundbreakingsummitaparadigmaticconfluenceofthetwodisciplinestookplacein
an extensive series of symposia on BPP, convened by the present author, which was fully
embraced by mainstream clinicians. This landslide event took place 101 years later than
Jameshadpredicted.Itmay,however,notbeleftunnoticedthatadecadeearlieranother
grandfatherofCognitiveBehaviourTherapy,thelegendaryAlbertEllis(19132007)already
declared Rational Emotive Behavior Therapys allegiance with the Dharma (Kwee & Ellis,
1998; Christopher, 2003; Whitfield, 2006). The interface of the Dharma and cognitive
behaviour therapy is elaborated by Kwee and KweeTaams, 2010ab). A new current called
Positive Psychology is beginning to produce a number of studies on the outcome of
interventions of Buddhist practices, e.g. loving kindness (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek &
Finkel, 2008; Hutcherson, Seppala & Gross, 2008), compassion (Gilbert & Procter, 2006),
happinessandjoy(Lyubomirsky,2008).Notabletodelivertheultimatemapsoftheworld,
PositivePsychologyisviewedhereasoneofthemanytraditionsvoicingpragmaticpractical
approachestothepractitionersneedstoemphasizepositiveexperiencesnotasaparadigm
shift(Kwee&Taams,2006c).

KuhnianParadigmShifts
The magnificent move from religion and metaphysics to psychology is a major switch
warranting to be called a paradigm shift. To Kuhn (1962) a paradigm shift occurs when a
previousmetaviewistransformedintoanewone.BeforeKuhn,scholarssawthehistoryof
scientific thought as a slow, progressive, evolutionary accumulation of knowledge across
generations. Kuhn contends that the history of science is not a development of natural
31

progression,butreflectsalongseriesofclashesbetweencompetingmethodsofprocessing
data and explaining results along each other without really approaching Transcendental
Truth. Thus, Darwins theories grew naturally out of Lamarcks theories and Einsteins
relativistic physics were a natural extension of Newtons classical physics. In psychology,
therewerebonesofcontentionsinthe1950/60sregardingviewingobservablebehaviouras
centraltostudyingpsycheasopposedtononbehaviouralviewswhichplacecognitioninthe
centre.ThemetaviewofSocialConstructionisashiftwhichdoesnotsilencethecognitive
behaviouralviewbutseesitasanatomisticvantagepoint.Didrocketscienceorreligious
beliefsbringusclosertoTranscendentalTruth?IsthepoetryofBuddhistcosmologybogus
orbetterthanthemathematical/physicalrealityofatoms,neuronsandprotons?
Due to conflicting ways to attain emptiness several paradigm shifts have taken
place within the Dharma during its 2600 years of history. Upaya sanctioned Dharmas
transforming form and adopting habits from alien cultures. The intelligent/skilful use of
teaching methods to adjust the Dharma to diverse circumstances enabled its transfer in
various periods/cultures and to different audiences/individuals required specific capacities
and levels of understanding. To cater to a variety of peoples the Dharma needed to
accommodate with changing times and peoples by assimilating and adapting to the
environmentwithoutbeingdisloyaltoitscoremessage.Inthe6thcenturyBCEtheBuddha
started a meditative life of meaningful action to end duhkha, the raison dtre of his
Dharma. From the 4th century BCE until the 5th century, the Dharma developed into a
philosophicalpsychologyasexpoundedintheAbhidhammaofTheravada.Theircanon,the
Tipitaka(threebaskets),whichistentimesbiggerthantheBible,waswrittendowninthe1st
centuryBCEafterbeingtransmittedorally.Partlyoverlappingthisdevelopment,fromthe1st
century BCE on through the 7th century, the Pali Dhamma became a Sanskrit Dharma, a
metaphysicalteachingwithreligiouscharacteristics.Itsadherents,Mahayanists,whoexist
until today bashed the adherents of Early Buddhism as primitive and dwarfed them as
Hinayanists: small vehicle disciples. A great Mahayana subtradition, the Vajrayana, also
called Tantrayana emphasizes godlike figures, magical/devotional rituals and presumed
supernatural phenomena. These transformational steps are paradigm shifts la Kuhn and
tookplacedespitetheBuddhasadmonitionnottominglewithmetaphysics(SabbaSutta).
Underlying these shifts, even within one school of thought, are competing
intellectual ideas and disagreements about how to infer the Dharma and to attain total
emptiness. Within the Mahayana movement a titanic rivalry was sustained between
Nagarjuna(2ndcentury),calledthe2ndBuddha,andVasubandhu(4thcentury),knownasthe
3rd Buddha, and their proponents. They peacefully battled over their intellectual ideas for
centuriesbuthavenotyetsettledthebrawl.NagarjunaandhisMadhyamaka(MiddleWay)
school,whichfindsitselfinbetweentheAbhidhammaandVasubandhusYogacaraschool,is
based on the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, written by numerous anonymous Buddhist
authors in the 1st century BCE to the 4th century. These sutras, expound a thundering
emptinessonlyrationalteachingofnegationtoarriveatpointzerooftotalemptiness.
TheYogacaraschoolexpoundsthattheemptinessonlydoctrineleavesthestudentintoo
much of a void and teaches a mindonly doctrine based on the socalled Buddha Womb
Sutras,alsowrittenbyanonymousauthorsbetweenthe1stcenturyBCEandthe4thcentury.2

All Theravada Pali suttas and Mahayana Sanskrit sutras were written by anonymous authors living in
communesofbrotherhoodsasfromthe1stcenturyBCEuntilthe4th5thcentury.Suttasandsutrasnarratethe
Buddhas discourses. However, considering their date of appearance and the absence of prior oral
transmission, the sutras, although written in a discourse format, cannot possibly be the Buddhas historical

32

ThisisametaphoricapproachtoemptinesswhichelaboratesontheBuddhawomboutof
which emanates Buddhanature, Buddhabodies and celestial Buddhas in a cosmological
pantheon. Howeverthe Yogacarins,whoalsoemphasizemeditation(yoga) practice(cara),
never abandoned the panBuddhist basic emptiness. This approach is evident in the
Chan/Zen denomination which belongs to the Yogacara tradition. The number of sutras of
theMahayanaisimmenseandequalscirca50timesthesizeoftheBible. Accordingtothe
Buddhist traditional wisdom of the dharmachakra, there are three turnings of the wheel
which starts with the Buddhas Middle Way balancing all extremes, followed by a via
negativa of nonselfness, i.e. Nagarjunas systematization of the Perfection of Wisdom
Sutras eradicating all poisons. This may leave the student in a horror vacuum and a self
containedemptyNirvana,andbackedbytheBuddhaWombSutrastheYogacaraassertsa
via positiva by a cosmology wherein revered qualities like kindness, compassion and joy
became deities.3 In particular, Vasubandhus half brother Asanga (of the Yogacara
Cittamatra/Mindschool)wasaproponentof deifyingrituals. Allowingpeopletobelievein

words.Becausethesuttaspassedthroughfourcenturiesoforaltradition,thereisnoabsoluteevidencethat
suttasareindeedtheBuddhasspokenwords.
3
AcaseinpointisthefatlaughingBodhisattva(Buddhatobe)(nickname:BudaiorPotaiinChineseandHotei
in Japanese) radiating bliss and delight, a symbol of contentment and happiness depicted in numerous
folkloristicstatues.TherobewearingbaldmancanbefoundinmostChineserestaurantsallovertheworld.His
realnamewasprobablyChitze;heusedtowanderintheprovinceofFujien,China,inthetenthcentury.The
reveredmonkChiTzewaselevatedtobecomeareminderthatlifeistobeenjoyed.Fewpeoplearefamiliar
with thevalues herepresents. Buddhists in the Far East regard the cheerful Buddhist figurehead also asthe
future embodiment of lovingkindness (Maitreya) which stands for the ideal of a cordial humankind. In the
Sino/KoreanJapanese traditions happiness does not come from the head but from the belly. A big tummy
meanslivingahappy,joyfulandcompassionatelife.Alsoknownasthehempbagmonk,hecarriesonhisback
abeggarssackfulloftoysandsweets.Happilydistributingthesetochildren,heisoftendepictedsurrounded
byplayfulkidshavingfunlikeamerrySantaClaus.Thefullnessinonehandisbalancedbyagourdintheother
hand symbolizing emptiness. Being full of emptiness conveys a message of celebratinge life with a
beginners mind, i.e. fully enjoying playfulness in life in the emptiness of not worrying about winning or
losing.ChiTzeillustratestheideathatlifesadversitiesshouldbeaddressedwithhumourinsteadofgravity.If
thereisonlyseriousnessandnolaughter,besuspicious(FischerSchreiber,Erhard,Friedrichs&Diener,1989).
Therotundmanwaseccentric,aqualityconformtheChanloveforparadoxandawakeningabsurdity.When,
forexample,hewasaskedabouthisage,hisansweris:Iamasoldasspace."Hisreplyimpliesthatage,i.e.
time/space,isanillusion:timefliesifoneishappy;ifunhappy,timeandflowseemtogetstuck.Time/spaceis
a momenttomoment herenow experience. Mindfulness is the way toward experiencing life in full
emptiness.In another instance someone askedhim why hewas wastinghis time playingwithkids; a monk
dutyistoteach.Herespondedbysuddenlydroppinghisbagwithabang;andthepeoplewondered:"What
doeshemeanbythat?"Butthemessagewassimple:"Dropyourheavyburden!"Carryingonlylittlepresents,
ChiTzesbagwaslight;hewasnotburdenedbygreed,hatredorotherlifeswoes.Onedaysomebodyasked
him:"Showusawakening?"Thewiseresponsewasagesture:heimmediatelyswunghisbagontheshoulder
and walked away with a gusty laugh, leaving the crowd puzzled behind. The bag on his shoulders indicates
acceptanceoflifesinherentsuffering:nobodycanescapesuffering.However,onemaykeeplifesburdenlight
bynotallowingtheworldtoliveoninonesmind.Thekeytohappinessiscontentmentwhichisattainableby
givingupcraving,graspingandclinging.ChiTzescosmicchuckleisareminderthatordinarymanisunhappy
becausehedoesnotknowthatheisalreadyhappy.Chitzeisconsideredtobeapreincarnationofthefuture
Buddha(Maitreya),i.e.howmankindshouldbeinthefuture:happy(Kwee,1996).AninstructivepictureofChi
Tzecanbefoundintheoxherdingpictures,drawingsforexplainingmeditationstages.Heappearedtherein
the tenth image displaying the happyend of an awakening tale (Suzuki, 1956).3 Briefly, the story is about
seekingBuddhanatureinanallegoryofridingonanoxwhichstandsforcapriciousmind.Headinghomeonthe
oxinoblivion,heexperiencedthestateofemptiness.ThetenthpictureshowsChitzeminglinginthemarket
place:anawakenedpersonisnotanescapistbutlivesafullsociallifeinamundaneworld.Tamingthemind
enablesahappylife.Meditationtrainingisrequiredwhichincludeslearningtounderstandmindandinorder
tobecomealaughingandsmilingBuddha.

33

metaphysical transcendence due to a lack of differentiation with the prevailing

Brahmanisminordertolurethemeekamongstpotentialfollowershaslikelycontributed
tothedeclineoftheDharmain13thcenturyIndia.
NotonlyKuhnianparadigmshiftscanbediscernedinDharmashistory,butHegelian
dialecticaldynamicsaswell.IfNagarjunasvianegativaisthethesisandVasubandhusvia
positiva is the antithesis, what then is the synthesis? Vasubandhu through his Yogacara
Vijnavada/Consciousness school, to which belonged Dignaga (6th century) and Dhamakirti
(7thcentury),whoalsodealtwithinferentialknowledge,logicandvalid/invalid(resembling
ir/rational) conclusions, foreshadowed psychology as a science. He presented an
epistemologicalsynthesisregardingthenondualityofthesubject(theperceiver/conceiver)
andtheobject(theperceived/conceived);seeTable2.

Table2:QuadrantofNagarjunasMadhyamakaandVasubandhusYogacara

Madhyamaka

Yogacara
Subject:perceiver/conceiver
ofouterworldthrough6
senses
Object:perceived/conceived,
innerworldthroughthe6th
sense

Functional/provisoryreality
(verbalspace)

Ultimate/deathlessreality
(nonverbalspace)

1.Samathameditation
Tranquillity

3.Vipassanameditation
DependentOrigination

2.Samadhiexperience
Nirvana

4.Sunyataexperience
Emptiness

If Vasubandhus eight consciousness psychology is taken into account the 6

afflictedsensorial,a7thImemine/self(dualistic)andan8thmirror(nondual)awareness
and combined with Nagarjunas elaboration of the provisionalfunctional/conditioned and
the ultimatedeathless/unconditioned reality, a synthesis is possible. Craving/grasping
clinging to incoming stimuli can be extinguished by tranquilizing toward equanimity
(Samatha).Viathesurfingontheflowofthemomentfrommomenttomoment(Samadhi)
theresultisarousalextinctionandsilence(Nirvana).Thisnonverbalstateisaspringboard
toward the ultimate reality experience of a Buddha/arahant, attained through insight
meditation (Vipassana) allowing one to seethingsastheyreallybecome in Dependent
Originationwhichisaprocessconducivetoarrivingatdeconstructionandinsightregarding
theemptinessoftheBASICI(Sunyata).Thisemptinessexperienceisnotagoalinitself,
butaresetpointtoprosocialreconstructionofkindness,compassionandjoy.
TheBuddhistculturalscientificparadigmshifthasbegun;BPPisitsprimeexponent.
Muchcreditisduetothe14thDalaiLama.Thespiritofhisimmenseeffortscanbereadinhis
poignant assertion (The Boston Globe, 9/14/2003): If the words of the Buddha and the
findingsofmodernsciencecontradicteachother,thentheformerhavetogo.Nonetheless,
as M.W.P. de Silva (pers. comm., 2008) cogently remarked: science may enhance the
credibility and relevance of Buddhist concepts, but awakening may be achieved without
science.Knowledgeoftheworldisnotacquiredinapassivewaybutthroughcollaborative
engagingwiththeworldandascribingcommunalmeaningtoperceivingtheworld.

DharmaandSocialConstruction
RelationalBuddhismcompatiblymergesDharmaandSocialConstruction,botharenotabe
allandendall(cf.Gergen&Hosking,2006).Onaninterpersonalmetalevelofspeechthe
locus of study is not the individual but peoples interacting networks. As reality is not a
34

solipsistic matter but a narrative construction between communicating people, it may be

real in one community but unreal in another community. For instance, the scientific
accountsofpsychoanalysisorhumanisticpsychologydifferfromthatofCognitiveBehaviour
Therapybuttheyareconsideredtoberealwithintheirownparochialboundaries.Asocial
constructionistperspectiveasapracticaltheoryinusehasgivenbirthtorelationalbeing
(Gergen, 2009a). This was already known in the Buddhist lore of the Avatamsaka Sutra as
Interbeing (Thich, 1998). The terms refer to a conventional social self which on a meta
level necessitates the emptiness of individual selves. The selfs emptiness is the
Buddhaspsychologicalpropositionparexcellence.Todate,thereisnoevidencewhatsoever
tocorroboratetheexistenceofahomunculusselfresidinginthebrain.Apparentlythereis
aperceivingwithoutaperceiver,feelingwithoutafeeler,doingwithoutadoerandthinking
without a thinker, thus there is no ghost in the machine. Although Social Construction
stems from the specialty of social psychology, it can be viewed as a postmodern Buddhist
teachingduetoitsaccountonselfanditsdiscardingofTranscendentalTruth.Inaddition,by
contendingthatbeingprosocialisspiritualenoughathisworldlystanceisasserted.
Since Social Construction is conceptually dislocating few are prepared to go along
with such a wrenching view. However, the horizons are exciting to embark on the
postmodern venture for those who are resilient and seek new practices to come together
(Kwee, Gergen & Koshikawa, 2006). Social Construction deconstructs and reconstructs by
disidentifying and making the taken for granted illusions, mistaken as abiding truth,
transparent (like permanence or solitary self). This nonpermanence applies even to
scientific facts about which Giambattista Vico (16681744) said: they are manmade
(verumipsumfactum).Inordertodeconstructillusionstheillusionarycharacteroflanguage
hastobecriticallyexaminedandbroughttolight.Languagecreatesapictureofprovisional
reality but cannot ever fully represent/express the unspeakable ultimate emptiness.
Language is to be understood as a social construction, a means or map serving human
purpose.Althoughdeconstructionhasaliberatingeffect,itfreesfrom theautomatismsof
conditioning and literalization, reconstructive practices are still needed. Reconstruction
requires seeing how daily realities owe their existence to relational networks. From the
insights in the processes and potentials of Interbeing come forth the social constructionist
practicesofappreciatinghumansquabeingwhilstnotapprovingunwholesomebehaviours.
Considering care for relationships as the most worthy value, Buddhist caring is
operationalized in the social contemplations which aim at immeasurably multiplying
kindness,compassionandjoyinrelationalequanimity.
By incorporating Social Construction, BPP emphasizes the Avatamsaka Sutra, a
BuddhaWomb Sutrafromthe1st3rdcentury(Cleary,1993).Reverenceofthissutra which
beganinChinaandcontinuesuntiltodayisknowninJapanasKegon.Namedafterthesutra,
theHuayenorFlowerGarland,aMahayanadenominationinnovatedbyFatsanginthe7th
century, embraces notions resembling those of Social Construction. The last (39th)book of
thisvoluminoussutra,calledtheGandavyuhaSutra(onthepassagetotheDharmaRealmof
theCrownJewel),revealsthatthemetaphysicalrealmisemptythroughakindofLucyin
the sky with diamonds account of prince Sudhanas search for wisdom and illumination.4
TheprinceundertookadevelopmentaljourneytobecomeaBuddha,helpedby53teachers
friendssymbolizing phasesand principles, likesins and virtues. He discovered that life is a
teaching and learned from everyone he met, from a Brahmin, to a king, slave, merchant,

Thestorycanbefoundinthe39thandlastbookoftheAvatamsakaSutra(Cleary,1993).Itisalsodepictedon
mostofthepanelsoftheBorobudurontheislandofJavawherethisauthorwasborn.

35

fool, boatman, doctor, prostitute, child and animal. What he learned varied from
mindfulnesstocompassion,tokindness,joy,equanimity,purityofmind,andsoon.Finally,
hehadnomorestrivingseithertowardattainingornotattainingbodhiandendedupwitha
teacher,whopointedatajeweltower,highuponasteepmountain.Reachingthetower
afteradangerousjourney,hefoundaroomfullofgenerosity.Whilehisbodyradiatedbliss,
a vision of the interdependence of beings and events dawned. He experienced the
interpenetrationofallthingsintheuniverseandsawIndrasJewelNet.Thisisanetwherein
eachcrossingofthenetisinterpenetratedbyajewel,whosereflectingsurfacereciprocally
mirrors appearing images in the jewel at every crossing of the net, causing his light to be
partoftheothersandacceptingtheirlightaspartofhisown.ThusIndrasnetsymbolizes
the interconnectedness of all things ad infinitum. This nonobstructionofallphenomena
wastheentranceofoneintoallandallintoonetothehighestroominthetower,where
he found the ultimate wisdom that turned out to be an empty room. The universe is an
empty bubble! Sudhana ended his journey and devoted the rest of his life to
compassionate service of his fellow human beings (Cleary, 1993). For obvious reasons the
metaphorofIndrasnetasauniversalmatrixisappealingtosocialconstructionists.
The interdependence of existence was the Buddhas extraordinary vision when he
awakenedunderthebodhitree,allegedlyin528BCE.Itwasbasedonthisdeepinsightthat
he formulated as a causality hypothesis (pratityasamutpada) known as Dependent
Origination and which refers to the nonindependent, codependent or interdependent
originationarisingpeakingsubsidingandcessation of dharmas, the smallest discrete
experiences of feelingactingthinking and Interbeing. Buddhists and social constructionists
view the discernment of the psyche in modalities/Skandhas as atomistic and elemental if
these vicissitudes of functioning are not embedded in interpersonal relationships. By its
nature of co/interdependency, human action originates and arises by necessity in
interaction: to act is to interact. Like in the Buddhist vision, Gergen (1999) deconstructs
the binary innerouter/Iother and replaces it by a socially coconstructed self that
necessarilyrepudiatestheindividualselfundertheskinasanexplanatoryentity.Becauseof
unobstructed mutual identity penetration, each individual is interconnected in Dependent
Origination with other individuals. A change in one individual results in a change in all of
onesinterrelations.Individualscanonlyexistinthecontextofrelationships.Tolivemeans
beingsociallyentwinedandintertwined:tobeistointerbe.Thereisnootherway.Existing
inasocialweb,itisimpossibletobeselfcontained.Sinceconceptionisasocialconstruction
even in the absence of the other(s), anything conceivable is injected by interpersonal
meaning. Although we often take our bonding for granted, interrelatedness is ubiquitous
and pervasive. Ensued from a history of embeddedness, even the private realm is
encapsulatedinaninextricablerelationalnetwork.Lookingoutsidein thesocialrealm, we
see mirrors of our inner worlds, looking inside in the private realm (like in wall gazing
meditation),weseethesocialeverywhere.Andalthoughwearedancingaloneintheroom,
thesocialdimensionisstillomnipresent.Becauseweareintricatelyrelatedtoeachother,it
is safe to conclude that even the private is a social construction. Such a metavision
subsumes human beings under a sublime metaorder of the interpersonal necessitating a
view of reality as a joint venture of mutual responsibility. The Dharma and Social
Constructionarekissingcousins,hence:thepsychologyofRelationalBuddhism.
The love affair is centred round Interbeing that does not simply exist behind the
eyeballsbutalsoinbetweenpeople.Focusingoninteractions,youmebinarycollapsesand
crumblesinemptiness.Interbeingnecessitatestheemptinessofsolitaryselveswhichis
36

the Buddhas indispensable psychological proposition. Endorsing the view that individuals
aremanifestationsofrelationships,notindependentagents,RelationalBuddhismseesthat
personsareemptyofthepureprivate.Evenprivatethoughtscannotbesolipsisticasthey
emergefromahistoryoflanguageandlonglastingrelationships.Therelationalperspective
does not discard psychobiology, but completes the picture of the human being as
Body/Speech/MindastheBuddhaprofessed.Interbeingmanifestinginspeech/selfspeechis
neither within the body, nor within the mind, but in encounters and dialogues (Gergen &
Gergen, 2004). For Relational Interbeing to become, the members must necessarily move
togetherlikeinadance.Thus,notonlyInterbeingcomestobe,butrealityaswell.Bothare
definedbywhatthegroupbelievesitis.Inotherwords:realityisnotasolipsisticmatter.It
existsinthesocialexperience:2+2 =4orcanequal 5,ifwe agree itsso.What isrealis
constructed between communicating people and may thus be real in one community but
unrealinanotherone.Beyondcommunitythereisthunderingsilence.Realityisprovisional,
linguistically coconstructed by people and negotiated in a dance of meanings. Even if
unveiledbyscience,dataremainsgeneratedintogethernessandarethusmanmade,inter
subjective and relative. Even science and its artefacts are inextricably spacetimeand
culturebound.Conceivedbyscientists,theyarenarrativestobeamendedandreplacedby
betterconstructionsgoingforward.Andactually,thisisnowhappeningwiththeDharmain
itspresenttransitionontoacontemporarypsychology/psychotherapy.

LanguaginginBuddhistPsychologyandPsychotherapy
Ifyoucallthisastick,youaffirm,ifyoucallitnotastick,younegate:beyondaffirmation
andnegationwhatwouldyoucallit?(Tahui,12thcentury).ThisisafamousChankungan,
acaseofjurisprudencethathasprovenitsutilitytoawaken,betterknownbyitsZenname
Koan, a paradoxical riddle that cannot be solved by reason or language. Language and
speech/selfspeech are tools of mapping the world and a form of life within relationship
particularly in psychotherapy. Theories are not telling how the world really is; they are a
springboard for participation in relationships. Using language alone, we are unable to tell
about the Buddha, the Dharma, Social Construction, Relational Buddhism or BPP. What
matters is awareness of the constructional and gaming character of language (Gergen &
Hosking, 2006). Because we cannot escape the social predicament of the local culture we
live in, what we conceive is a polyvocal narrative as is also the case with the Dharma as
psychotherapy.

Wittgenstein(1953)onwhoseworkRelationalBuddhismdrawsheavilyclaimed
thatwordsderivemeaningfromtheiruseinlanguagegames.Wordsbythemselveshaveno
intrinsic meaning. Meanings are socially not privately constructed through their
interactive use by members of a community who develop ways of speaking to serve their
needs as a group. Thus, from a language game perspective meaning cannot be absolute.
Consequently,scienceitselfisasmuchscientificaslinguisticandsocial.Dharmaquareligion
appliesthelanguagegameofreligionandintrinsicrulesareappliedtoafamilyoftermsfrom
whicheachwordderivesitsmeaningandoutofwhichcorrespondingbeliefsandattitudes
emanate. In the same vein, Dharma qua philosophy uses philosophical terminology and
adherestotherulesofthelanguagegameofphilosophy,implyingthefabricofemotionand
action into which it is woven. The present proposition Dharma as a psychotherapy
applies the rules, affect and behaviours of a language game of psychology which utilises
words from that particular idiom. These words are tools which help to structure reality
conceptualisationsinapsychologicalway.Obviously,thisgamediffersfromotherlanguage
37

gamesoftheDharma.ADharmaquapsychologytriestobethetopgameintown.However,
atbottomnoessenceofmeaningisderivedfromlanguage.

What is the practical implication of this exposition? If we agree on the proposition

thatthelanguagegameofpsychologyisthemostapttoserve21stcenturysecularpeople,
thenitisimperativethatwetransformthereligiousandmetaphysicalidiomsoftheDharma
whichhamperitsdevelopmentasapsychology.However,thisisnottosilencereligiousor
metaphysicalinterpretationsortodeclarethatpsychologyorRelationalBuddhismissuperior
but to celebrate the creative construction of a new upaya. For instance the term spiritual,
frequently used in connection to the Dharma, is considered anathema. The concept of
spirituality implies a belief in a spirit, soul or self and in a transcendent reality of another
world,andalsoimpliesaseparationofmindandmatter.Oppositely,theDharmadiscardsa
selfandinsistsonawholisticviewofbodymind.Consequently,itisimperativetobeaware
and vigilant of languaging and wording; this implies avoiding religious/metaphysical terms.
Thereforethetermspirited,meaningenthused/inspired/zealous,ispreferred.
In trying to grasp the Dharma, the European pioneering interpreters forced it into
Western and Abrahamic casts and moulds. Colonial assumptions produced interpretations
whichrestoninfirmfoundationsandmeaningstwistedorlostintranslation.Lingeringonin
written texts, these inferences, inconsistencies and falsehoods persist to this day. The
preconceptiontoview theDharmaas akindofskygoddevotionalreligionisnowadeep
seated prejudice seemingly thoroughly ingrained in the public mind and causing cognitive
dissonanceinpeoplewhohaveheardthattheDharmaisaboutinnergrowth.Theconfusing
suggestionthatthedowntoearthBuddhaisaholybeinghoveringintheskywasimposed
byMahayana.FormorethantwomillenniaMahayaniststaughtaformofspiritualignition
by worshipping celestial Buddhas, an unfortunate development which led many to believe
thattheDharmaisadeifyingreligion.

Table3:MahayanaCosmologyofDivinityagainstaBackdropofEmptiness

Buddhanature: Vairocana
Akshobhya Ratnasambhava Amitabha
Amoghasiddhi
Meaning:
Illuminating
ImperturbableJewelborn
InfiniteLight
Invincible
Familyname: Dharma
Vajra
Ratna
Padma
Karma
Colour:
White
Blue
Yellow
Red
Green
Location:
Centre
East
South
West
North
Element:
Void
Water
Earth
Fire
Wind
Mantra:
Om
Hum
Tram
Hrih
Aah
Posture:
Teaching
Grounding
Giving
Meditating
Fearingnot
Symbol:
Chakra
Thunderbolt Gem
Lotus
Action
Aggregate:
Vijnana
Rupa
Vedana
Samjna
Samskara
Modality:
CsAwareness Body/Form Sensefeeling Imagery/CognitionAffect/Behaviour
Consciousness: BuddhaCs
MemoryCs SelfCs
6th SenseCs
5SensesCs
Awareness:
Emptying
Mirroring
Harmonising
Discriminating
Accomplishing
Affliction:
Ignorance
Hatred
Pride
Greed
Envy
Realm:
Animals
Hellbeings Gods
Hungryghosts
Demigods
Bodhisattva: Samantabhadra Vajrapani
Ratnapani
Avalokiteshvara Visvapani
Interbeing:
LovingKindness Joy
Equanimity
Compassion
Friendliness
Transportation:Lion
Elephant
Horse
Peacock
Garuda
Spouse:
Vajradhatvisvari Locana
Mamaki
Pandara
Syamatara

Flirtationwithreligiontolurethemasseswasagreatupayatrickwhichwasatone
pointintimefunctionalforreanimatingananaemicDharma.Tobetrickywassanctionedif
38

warrantedbykarmicwholesomeintentions.Forinstance,justlikeafatherwholureshiskids
outofaburninghousewithtoysandsweetsinordertorescuethem,theLotusSutraallows
tellingliesinordertoliberate.Thus,avehiclesustaininganinflatedcosmologyandanairy
pantheon to seduce and attract the devout, the meek and the illiterate into an empty
Dharmawasallowed.Mahayana,VajrayanaandTantrayanacatertothegulliblewholong
for a glimpse of the beyond. By incorporating atavistic beliefs in oracles, magic and
reincarnation, Mahyana while contending ubiquitous and pervasive emptiness found
itself in the treacherous situation of being trapped as a metaphysical doctrine. Tibetan
Vajrayana/Tantrayana with its many exotic rituals is conspicuously secretive. Wisdom is
hermeneuticallylockedinpuzzlingteachings;unlockingrequiresguruworship.Nonetheless,
itseemsthatBuddhistcosmologysatisfiesWesterncuriosityalthoughthereisnocompelling
reason to believe in superstition other than for its mnemonic function, poetry and
adventure. I am referring to the language game of the universe conveyed as a fivefold
mandala.AsampleoftopicsandthemesisdepictedinTable3.
EndorsedbyMahayanaYogacaraandVajrayana/Tantrayana,thesetraditionsrevere
five heavenly Buddhas (i.e. Buddhanatures) surrounded by five heavenly Bodhisattvas
(abstractedBuddhastobe)whicharemetaphorsforidealpsychologicaltraits.Tospeakofa
Buddhawomb giving birth to Buddhanature, pervading all sentient beings and of Buddha
bodies, ubiquitous in the universe, and so on, is no doubt mythology. As a vehicle for
explaining, this cosmology contains meaningful stories with an infinite beauty not to be
literallybelievedorreadilyusableinpsychotherapy.Aslongasoneisabletounveilitasan
empty fiction, dares to discard a divine house of cards and dissolves it back into
emptiness,thereishopeforonetoonlyuseitasaraft(thatoneputsawaywhenatthe
othershore).Theconcernisthatmostpeoplewillnotseetheforestforthetreesandmight
impute to it delusive inherent existences and get lost in the thicket. Intangible ideas have
gonefarbeyondthenotionoftheBuddhaasamortalman teachingaboutdowntoearth
awakeningattainablebyeveryoneinprinciple.CosmologyseemsincompatiblewithBPP.
Notwithstanding, to play the world as a mandala is analogous to believing that the
worldisroundwhichisneithertruenorfalseintermsofrepresentationalvalue:practicalto
playitroundwhenflyingfromKopenhagentoKotaKinabaluandusefultoplayitflatwhen
onTrafalgarSquare.Granted,psychologyandpsychotherapyareaWesternpigeonholeas
wellbutitisIMHOonewhichhastheintrinsiccapacitytohelpalleviatesuffering.BPP,the
latestgameintown,enlargesthenumberofdifferentstrokesfordifferentfolks.Respecting
traditionbutmovingbeyondit,muchworkisstilltobedonetoadequatelyequipclinicians
servingpsychotherapyclientsbyKarmaTransformation.

39


Chapter2
RelationalBuddhism:ConnectingtoOneself

Introduction
Relational Buddhism and its operationalization Buddhist Psychology and Psychotherapy by
KarmaTransformation(BPPandPKT)areacuttingedge practiceandunderstandingoflife
rooted in three paradigms: (1) mind is not gridlocked in the skull but spaced outside the
body inbetween peoples interactions, (2) all that is observed in science (and noted in
mindfulness) are conceptualizations which boil down to social constructions shaped as
perception,imageryorcognition,meaningfulintheinterpersonalcontext/milieuwherethey
occurand(3)Relationshipcanbeviewedasalsowithoneselfascovertselfdialogue(theself
referstotheprovisional/conventionalself,therealmwhereinpsychotherapytakesplace).
Aiming to provide a compendium of Relational Buddhism for psychologists and
psychotherapists, I stand on the shoulders of giants from the Buddha to Nagarjuna (2nd
century) to Vasubandhu (4th century) to K.J. Gergen, a champion of Social Construction,
seeminglyaBuddhistteachingindisguise.5Encounteringdharmasduringmindfulness,these
smallest experiential units are conceived as neitheremptynornotempty (the Buddha, 6th
centuryBCE),asemptyofemptiness(Nagarjuna)andasemptynonduality(Vasubandhu).It
is also fathomed as a socialconstructionemptyofTranscendentalTruth (Gergen). Human
beings live in an ocean of relationships from the cradle to the grave, thus everyone is
embeddedinanetworkofinterconnectedrelationships.Usingacompassmetaphor,there
are six relational types each of which requires specific responsibilities and complementary
conduct (kids/parentsEast, siblings/friendsNorth, partner/spouseWest, teacher/student
South,disciple/guruUpward,employer/employeeDownward).Idiscernaseventhrelational
type, relevant in psychotherapy: me/myselfCentre. This template offers guidance for
relationalstances(SigalovadaSutta).6
Relational harmony depends not on what you say but on how you say it and
eventually on how do I relate with myself? Mindfulness of Body/Speech/Mind includes
selftalk. Speech and selftalk form the basis of social life and are at the heart of
psychotherapy.Itisthereforepivotaltocultivategluingrelationshipsinbetweenselvesand
withinselvesbysoakingspeech/selftalkinvernacularreflectinginterpersonalsignificanceof
binding we in full understanding of Dependent Origination of the seven relational
positions. This tenet is basic to PKT and particularly relevant in its practice of
transformational dialogue between client and therapist as well as between the client and
herself/himself.

KennethJ.GergengraduatedfromYaleUniversityandreceivedhisPhDfromDukeUniversity.Afterteaching
at Harvard University, he joined Swarthmore College faculty as the Chair of the Psychology Department. He
remainsthereasaSeniorResearchProfessorandastheChairmanoftheBoardoftheTaosInstitute.Hiswork
hasreceivednumerousawardsthroughouttheworld.Inshort, Gergen boldlyrewrotepsychologyand made
greatstridestodemonstratethatwhatareconsideredmentalprocessesarenotsomuchintheheadaswithin
relationships.
6
This network of interlocking relationships brings about societal harmony if its members live in a balanced
spiritoflovingkindness,compassionandjoy.

40

SocialConstructionasaBuddhistteachingindisguisecanbeclarifiedbyplacingthe
postmodern current in the context of mainstream psychology and Mahayana, a Buddhist
traditionwhichstartedaboutacenturybeforeCommonEra(seeTable1).

Table1:APsychologicalApproachtoMahayanaThought

Applied
Psychology

Network
underStudy

Human
Functioning

Schoolof
Thought

Neuro
Psychology

NeuronsGenes Body/Mind
Kamadathu

Sunyavada

Clinical
Psychology

Skandhas
Modalities

Mind/Body
Arupadathu

Vijnavada

Social
Psychology

InBetween
Selves

Speech
Rupadathu

Soc.Con
struction

LeadingAuthor

Textual
Reference

Nagarjuna
(2ndcentury)

Perfectionof
Wisdom

Vasubandhu
(4thcentury)
KennethJ.
Gergen

BuddhaWomb
Sutras
Relational
Being(2009)

TheBuddhastriunionofhumanfunctioningasBody/Speech/Mindisusedheretoindicate
threemajorsubdivisionsinpsychology:clinical,socialandneuropsychology;psychotherapy
is included in clinical psychology. Subsequent to the embodiment of sensing
emoting/thinkingtalkingcapacities(kamadathu),speechisformedbythesyllable(mantra)
during meaningmaking exchange (rupadathu). As languaging progresses formless
thoughtstransformintoficklemind(arupadathu)andselforganizeanillusoryindependent
self that fails to see inseparable self spacedinbetweenpeopleembeddedinculture.
The EmptinessOnly/Sunyavada (Madhyamaka) school championed by Nagarjuna was
followedbytheMindOnly/YogacaraVijnavadaepistemologicalschoolofVasubandhu(and
hisYogacaracittamatra/ontologyorientedhalfbrotherAsanga).Yogacaradidnotrejectbut
include Sunyavada, just like Relational Buddhism does not oppose Sunyavada or Vijnavada
but incorporates both. Gergens (2009a) practical formulation how to go on together as
relationalbeingisalandmarktextforrelationalliving,whichinheresintheBuddhistspirit
without being explicit about it. In effect: Relational Buddhism which includes Social
Construction may be viewed as the fourth turning of the wheel since the Buddhas first
turning(dharmachakra).

If self/soul and solipsistic mind are fictions (though functional as index), singing
alone,dreamingintimatelyorretreatingsolitarilyissocialaffectiveexpression.Thuslivingin
an ocean of relationships, it is pivotal to drench views, speech and selftalk in vernacular
reflectinginterpersonalsignificance.Atbottom,toactistointeractandtobeistointerbe
and in effect, thinking is also relational activity executed as covert/private verbalized
visualizedspeech. Usually unbeknownst, intentional or premeditated action (Karma) arises
nonindependently through thinking/selftalk and if executed irrationally results in
psychological malaise. Emotions regarding birth, aging, illness and death are like
separation from loved ones, union with unloved ones and not attaining goals
performances of affect (creative scenarios expressing sociocultural meaning) which are
guided,precededandfollowedbythought/selftalk.Indeed,theemphasisofthischapteris
onhealingadisturbedrelationshipwithoneself,theprimetargetofPKT.

AMetacontextforKarmaTransformation
PKT targets the cocreation of interbeinginbetweenselves and balanced selves through
balanced speech/selftalk, thus rendering team spirit with congenial bonds. Imbibed in
depth, this mentality (in line with the Gandavyuha Sutra) will likely ennoble us, whenever
AHA(healinginsight)andHAHA(healingperformance)transformKarma.Insynergywiththe
41

adage think globally, act locally, we might want grassroot collaborative practice toward
bottomupindividual/societalharmonythroughmindfulnessofspeech/selftalkandtherapy.
Relational Buddhism is a rendering that takes a metapsychological view on the pan
BuddhistteachingsbyplacingDependentOriginationoffeeling,thoughtand(inter)actionin
its core. This enables an equilibrating of self and seeing through illusory boundaries
disconnecting people and alienating one from self. A handy provision to serve intelligible
communication and indexation, Imemine/self may become counterproductive when
egotism surfaces. How can societal harmony, based on relational practice and BPP, be
actually pursued and is it perhaps an ideal which pursuit is to be enjoyed without ever
reaching its noble goal? Fact is that there are numerous individuals who need
psychotherapy.
RelationalBuddhismanditsoffspringBPPandPKTarenotforthefainthearted.They
arebasedonapostmoderntakeofrealitywhichappreciatestherelationalasprecedingthe
singular,separateandboundedindividual(seeTable2).

Table2:Modernityvs.PostModernity

LogicalPositivismSocialConstructionism
Ontology:onwhatisofbeingEpistemology:onhowtoofknowing
Truth/realitycanbeknownTruth/realityisrelational
Timeless/TranscendentalTruthsNonfoundational/emptyconstructs

NaturalscientificCulturalhistorical
ExcludessubjectivityIncludesobjectivity
QuantitativeresearchQualitativeresearch
Erklrendeduction/explainingVersteheninduction/interpreting
Rationalempirical/isolatedfactsSociocultural/contextualnarrative
RealismabsolutisticScepticismrelativistic
DiscoveringvalidityCreatingviability
IndividualisticlifeorientationRelationallifeorientation
Language=mirrorofrealityLanguage=formoflife/game/dance

Relational Buddhism offers a postmodern, social constructionist and epistemological

perspective by considering reality as basically nonfoundational/empty and spawned in
relational/culturalhistorical contexts. It appreciates quantitative/objective as well as
qualitative/subjective research. Being sceptic and relativistic, it emphasizes the socio
cultural narrative and languaging of verstehen rather than erklren. Its relational life
orientationisfocussedoncreatingviabilityratherthandeterminingvalidity.Itspostmodern
outlook and social constructional basis do not exclude but include logical positivism and
naturalscientific/rationalempirical approaches and discourage the absolutism of ontology
andeternaltruths.Languageisnotanindividualisticmirrorofrealitybutaformoflifeand
subjecttotherapeuticchange.Mindisconsiderednotsolelywithinselvesbetweenearsbut
alsoinbetweenselves(seeFigure1,www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia).

42

Figure1:Themindasinbetweenselves

AccordingtoWittgenstein(1953)everylanguagegameintownisequallytrue.This
consideration discards the majority view that the language of positive science
mirrors/pictures reality as the only "truth. Adhering to the idea that what something is
depends on ones approach and to which social group one belongs, reality is constructed
together:inongoingdialogues,negotiations,agreements,comparisonsandsoon.Although
thepremiseissimpleandstraightforward,itsimpactisfarreaching.Itrequiresrethinking
of virtually everything that has been taken for granted. If reality is a social construction
nothing can be real in itself. This notion is in line with deconstructing during mindfulness
whichleadstotheinsightonthenonexistenceofinherentexistence(selfnature)ofthings
(svabhava), to the baffling Buddhist emptiness and to Dependent Origination of
feeling/thought/action.Touchingonlanguagegames,ifBuddhismisformulatedinwording
that mimics the Abrahamic religions, the logical fate is that Dharma will be interpreted as
religion. However, if Buddhism is conceptualized in psychological/psychotherapeutic
terms,itwillenableBPP.
RelationalBuddhismiscentredroundtheconceptofInterbeing(GandavyuhaSutra)
whichstrikinglycorrespondswithK.J.Gergensrelationalbeing(2009a).Interbeing,inter
mind,interselforinbetweenselvesisderivedfromtheawarenessthathumanbeingsare
intertwined implying that the real, the reasonable and the good are enshrined in socio
cultural networks.Allthatweknowisembedded,notinboundedmindsbut incommunal
cultures. Thus, the individual mind is an intersection of interconnected multiple
relationships,inshort:multibeing.Individualmindsaresocializedthroughparticipationin
thecultureonelivesby;theotherwayaroundwouldbeupstream.Theprivatemindinside
the skull full of selftalk and hidden meaning is not as intimate as one traditionally might
assume.Meaningdoesnotexistinasolipsisticmannerbutinanacculturatedwaythrough
the process of coaction. What is considered to be separate in the private mind (thought
feeling/affect) arises in interrelationships and is meaningless outside the context of
collaborative practice. In effect, private selftalk is only intelligible as socialized speech:
connecting with oneself is connecting to others. The intrapersonal is embedded in
interpersonalcontext.

43

Relational Buddhism transcends the vision of 18th century Enlightenment which

exclusively hails the ontological perspective of natural science. My adage we cant share
brain,butwecantbutshareminddiscouragesthehopethatbrainbasedindicatorsare
commanding.Emotions,primetargetintherapyandtheconnectingfactorofonewithself,
areacaseinpointastheyaregenerallyconsideredtobebiological.Thestancetakenhereis
thatemotionsareculturalperformancesweddedinrelationships,coactionandselftalk,not
byproducts of fixed neural structures (Gergen, 2010). Whereas neurology can tell much
aboutablink,neuralactivityhasnothingtosayaboutthemeaningofawink.Althoughbrain
carries out emotional performance, it is instrumental and correlational not causal to
karmic/intentionalaction.Bythemselvesbrainscansofmindfulnessdonotoffermeaning:
cortex does not determine culture, people do. In order to identify emotional states a
vocabulary of therapeutic terms must already be available. Thus, as we give meaning and
acculturate the brain, its change cannot be more than a byproduct of cultural process.
Emphasizing brain attribution to the detriment of meaning is disregarding the primacy of
culture which was before private grey matter came into play. This is not to belittle brain
studiesbuttorevaluatethathumanactionisunintelligibleintermsofneurons.Neuronsare
aconduitservingsocialpurposeofcommunicationincludingselfcommunication.
Relational Buddhism does not focus on causeeffect links between individuals as if
they were colliding billiard balls. It transcends the delimiting view that community is an
assemblage of disconnected selves. Individual acts carry relational meaning: distinctions
betweenselfandothersareartificialandonlyfunctionaltomaketheworldintelligible.Even
the most private instances, like meditating in a remote mountain cave, are done in the
company of multiple voices. Dancing alone is relational performance as well as karmic
intending,asselftalkemergesbythegraceoftheinterpersonal.Thus,Karmaisviewednot
asmuchasintheheaddisconnectedfromothersbutascreatedinDependentOriginationof
theinterpersonalandtheintrapersonal.Thechallengeisanewenlightenment,thevision
that we are all born in an ongoing process of embedded relationships/communications,
includingonewithself,fromwhichthereisnoescape.

ANonfoundationalMorality
TheBuddhistpractice(sikkha)isusuallypresentedasthreetrainings:concentration(jhana),
wisdom(panna)andmorality(sila).Thethirdpracticewillbediscussedfirst;thesecondand
firstpracticesarecoveredinthenextparagraph.WhattodowhenmeditatinginBodhGaya
underthebotreeat4AMthemoslimcalltoprayerimmoralybrutalizestheentireplaceina
perpetrating manner? How to uphold Buddhist ennobling qualities in extreme
circumstances? While nonharming/nonviolence (ahimsa) is the golden standard, might it
be productive to kindly voice democratic rights, appeal to mutual respect and call in
assertiveness? Psychotherapy might give a helping hand for ascertainingskills of relational
and moral responsibility. Dealing with suppressed anger bubbling into selftalk of karmic
hatefulintentionsandhostileactionisatherapeuticissue.Itseemspromisingtotakearms
againstaseaoftroublesbyassertingonesrightsinlovingkindnessandtoevenhavethe
menacing thieves carve you limb from limb with a doublehanded saw than paying the
priceofselfaffliction(KamcupamaSutta).
ThereisanabundanceofexampleswhereintheBuddhistmoralviewisatoddswith
other views, for instance with that of the Taliban who destroyed Buddhist Bamiyan art. It
couldtakedecadestoeducateeachotheranditlookslikethetwainshallnevermeetas
longasdogmaandcreedonholiness,beitabook,acityorapieceofdesert,prevail.The
44

mercilessdestructionofNalandain1193,quashingBuddhismfromtheIndiansubcontinent,
feels like a rippling echo of an immoral act. In order to practice societal harmony in
betweenselves,thespaceforsuchplayingfieldmustbecleared.Ifitsgroundissown by
seedsofconflict,theseneedtobedealtwithfirstasaconditiosinequanon.Rememberthe
BuddhasfrustrationwhenhedespisedhismaliciouscousinDevadattawhotriedtotopple
him. The Buddha called his cousin spitlicker. Can such scolding be done without anger?
Onastretchednote:doescompassionateangerorcompassionatekillingexist?Although
kindness, compassion, joy and relational equanimity are the prime Buddhist qualities,
mercykillingseemstoberesponsiblemoralityforMahayana.TheUpayakaushalyaSutra
contendsmoralitywhenkillingistosaveinnocentlives.Itcouldalsopreventthemurderer
from suffering. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha allegedly killed Brahmins in an
earlier life for slandering the Dharma to eventually save the offenders from karmic
retribution.
A Rajas son and a kshatriya (the caste of warriors) the Buddha was not only well
versedinaffairsofstate.Asalldoorswereopentohiminvariouscourts,hewasintouch
withthepowerfulandrichofhistime.Inhisinteractionswithkingsandqueenswhosought
councilnoinstancecanbefoundoftheBuddhapraisingwar.Hismoralspiritisreflectedin
theSangamaSutta:"Victorybringsforthhatred.Thedefeatedliesingrief.Theonewhois
calmputsasidebothvictoryanddefeatandliesincomfort."Aseverythingisinterrelated
andeveryinteractionaccrueskarmicfruit,theBuddhadidnotgiveanyopeningtothinkthat
physical clash is wholesome. In the Dhammapada we read: Not by enmity are enmities
quelled,whatevertheoccasionhere.Bytheabsenceofenmityaretheyquelled.Thisisan
ancienttruth.Moreover,theBuddhabelievedindemocracyasagreatmoralvalue.Inthe
Agganna Sutta, he designated that the king is a great elect because he is elected by his
people.Asakingspowerisvestedbythepeople,hisdutyistoservethepeople.Thushe
should be "indignant at that whereat one should rightly be indignant, censure that which
should rightly be censured, banish him who deserves to be banished." When the Buddha
foresawthedangerofleadershiptransmission,heestablishedademocraticinstitution,the
sangha.Bhikkhuschoosetheirheadbyvoteasdescribedinthebasketofrulesforcommune
living(VinayaPitaka).
In the space across the continuum of morality from the rigid to the flabby
antagonismsabound.BasedonthetenetsofSocialConstruction(Gergen,2009b),Relational
Buddhismembracestwodifferentordersofmorality.Thefirstordermoralityisomnipresent
inanycommunityofpeoplewhogeneratemeaningtogetheronwhatischerishedinlife,i.e.
through nations, religions, corporations, villages, schools and so on. We invest in value
formation and create custom (ethos or mores) of unwritten rules for what constitute the
goodinthecontextofcommunalsensibility.Thus,welivecomfortablyandsatisfactorilyin
harmony, trust and direction within the confines of how things are traditionally done in
family,friendshipandcommunity:withaplenitudeofvirtues.But,whilemoralityabounds,
evil is underway. Due to our multiple relationships, different meanings and values are
generatedwithindifferingrelationships:whatisvaluedasvirtuousinonerelationshipcould
beunacceptableinanotherone(e.g.buildingmosquesinHollandvs.churchesinTurkey).
Inwhatiscalledthevirtuousevil,theplenitudeofvirtueaccommodateseviltolurk
ineverycorner.Inapluralisticworldwithsuchmultitudeofgood,thecomfortoffirstorder
morality adumbrates repression of competing goods. Thus, the bad and the ugly could
becomeourdailycompaniontocausepositivevaluesclash.Firstordermoralityisnotonly
vulnerable of being jeopardized from within. More importantly, as firstorder morality
45

congeals,itcreatestheotherswhoarebad.Theseoutsiders,althoughlivinginthesame
multicultural society as our neighbors, are participants of other firstorder moralities (e.g.
moslimsinurbanEurope). Ifonegroupseesitself asgood,moralandjust,andjudgesthe
othergroup/sasbad,immoralandunjust,conflictisimminent.Incaseofsuicidebombingor
ritual murder (e.g. of Theo van Gogh; Amsterdam, 11/4/2004) the register shifts into the
evilvirtuous,i.e.eliminatingevildeemedvirtuousbytheminthenameofourvirtue,
eventuallyleadingtomutualdemolition.Livinginasocietyfullofunavoidableconflict,the
challengeistococreateteamspiritforhumanitytopreventreciprocaldestruction.

Wheneliminationistheaim,doorstoexplorearesealed(e.g.theUSgovernmentvs.
AlQaeda).BeforeslaughterisathandGergensproposalistoputasecondordermoralityin
placewhichfocusesoncoordinatingcoordination,i.e.theprocessoftherelationshipitself.
Thus,secondordermoralityiscollaborativeactionthatrestoresthepossibilityofgenerating
firstorder morality and of creating joint moral values for embattled groups. Grounded on
theideathatthereisnomoralitywithoutrelationship,thereisnootherwaythantocreate
new morality together through meaningmaking dialogue. The practice of reducing
antagonismsistoevadelanguagethatinvitesalienationorinflammationandretaliationby
notholdingboundedselvesresponsibleforuntowardactionthatemergedfromrelationship.
Secondorder morality practice, therefore, emphasizes relational responsibility which
honours the primacy of collective accountability and care for coactivity to cocreate
meaning. Unless executed in coaction, a persons relationship caring is void and useless.
Qua content, the cocreation of meaning in secondorder morality is rooted in a non
foundational foundation, which strikingly corresponds to the Buddhist emptiness. Its
resultsarenotuniversal,butprovisionalsowecangoontogether.

AssungbytheBeatles:Youseeityourway,Iseeitmyway...Wecanworkitout,we
can work it out... The question is how (Gergen, McNamee & Barett, 2001)? To cement
theory of secondorder morality to practice, transformative dialogue offers a promising
method to dissolve barriers of meaning which separate otherwise conflicting parties. The
transformation lies in holding back from deficit discourse through constructing the world,
and particularly bounded selves, not in terms of problems which would objectify
shortcomings and suppress positive possibilities but by using language which explores and
emphasizes the positive, the potential and the possible. Positive aging
<www.taosinstitute.net/positiveagingnewsletter> is illustrative: rather than blindly
following the pervasive view of aging as decline, it is possible to discover, generate and
construct potential ways of crating later life as a phase of unparalleled growth and
enrichment.
For secondorder morality and transformative dialogue to occur, collaborative
practice is conditional. Such relational orientation corresponds to the Buddhist way of
building rapport. In the Greater Discourse on Emptiness (Mahasunnata Sutta) the Buddha
admonishedthatoneneedstobemindfullyawareofmoralityinspeech/selftalk:Bystaying
away from deficit discourse, transformative conversations not only nurture and elevate
relationships but might dissolve walls of conflicting dialogues as well and thus eventually
prevent us (e.g. moslims vs. nonmoslims) from mutual annihilation and total abolition of
meaning. Never claiming to be a godly authority, the Buddha did not assign people to
worshiphim.Notwithstanding,heisusuallylistedalongsideMoses,JesusandMohammed.
CantheBuddhabelongtothisAbrahamicCompanywhenatbottomhisDharmaconsiders
godheadsasdelusional?Ratherthangodcreatedman,theadagefirstmancreatedgodand
then god created man is endorsed in Buddhism. Later adherents of the Chan/Zen
46

denominationevenadmonishedtokilltheBuddhaandadvisedtourinateonBuddhastatues
or to clean ass with scriptures, thus clarifying that concepts are empty. Phenotypical
similarities mask genotypical differences: vodka and water look the same but they taste
differently.
Morality(ascollaborativepracticeandsaneselftalk)goesbeyondmoralabsolutism
and relativism. It offers a morality continuum ranging from a rigid to a tolerant sense of
right.Meaningonwhatonecaresaboutinlifeisgeneratedintogethernessandprovides
value in relationships. However, there are multiple voices within one community. What is
acceptableinonerelationshipisnotnecessarilyacceptableinanotherrelationship.Various
relationshipsgeneratevariousmoralities.Ontheotherhand,congealingmoralitiescreatea
space of them and badness. If one group considers itself as morally just, others are
boundtobewrong.TheBuddhiststandispracticalandsubmitsthatamoralitythatclaims
tobeTranscendentalTruthisinimicaltohumanwellbeing.
BPP/PKTisnotasetofrules,thusmoralistictermslikeevilandgoodareavoidedin
favour of therapeutic terms like wholesomeness and unwholesomeness, and although
BPP/PKT is not an ethical system, it does not imply that the Buddhist roadmap does not
advancevalues.TheBuddhistwayoflifeembodieshealthandhealingbycultivatingvirtue
versus greedhatred and savvywisdom versus ignoranceunawareness. Greed, hatred and
ignorancearetobeeradicated.Continuouslyluredbyillusionsanddelusions,themind,once
awakened from enticing dreams and reconnected to self, is ready to cultivate the core
virtuesoftheImmeasurables(kindness,compassionandjoy).Thesearerelationalstancesto
be multiplied through contemplation, visualization and walking the talk. Teaching social
meditationstoasmanypeopleaspossibleistheBuddhistpracticetomakelovegoroundin
the world. In Karma, karmic selftalk, lies the opportunity for a turnaround despite an
unfortunatepast.

Heartfulness:ExercisingConcentrationandWisdom
Awareness and attention (mindfulness) is a function of consciousness which ranges from
deep sleep to full alertness. Consciousness is as life itself enigmatic. Comparable to
electricity,consciousnesscannotbeseen.Nonethelessweknowitexiststhroughitsworking
likebyourcapacitytorespond.Clarityofmindcanbeenhancedbycultivatingmindfulness.
The Mahasatipatthana Sutta refers to cultivating mindful awarenesswithin four frames of
reference: the bodys activities (feelings/sensation: perceptions and emotions) and the
minds activities (thoughts/selftalk: images and concepts). Mindfulness offers an
overarching process to clear the mind and is a skill to accompany exercising toward
emptiness. It is the general factor of the the Buddhas 12Meditations and all other
meditations/contemplations. The Buddhas sixth sense plays a significant role in
mindfulness;Icallthisthemindseyewhichenablesperceivingandintegratingincoming
sense data. Impartial observing is relevant in mindfulness whose first step is to tame the
restlessmindandstressfullselftalkbydhyana:onepointedconcentration.Usingthebreath
as an anchor, it leads to contentment, equanimity and stillness. Formal meditation is
generallypracticedinasittingpositionwiththebackheldupright(andifonachairwiththe
feet flat on the ground). Studies suggest that holding the back straight strengthens
confidence and boosts positive mood, whereas a slouched posture invites or worsens
dejection(Haruki,Homma,Umezawa&Masaoka,2001).
The twelve meditations/contemplations refer to the body (breathing, behaviours,
repulsiveness, elements, decomposing and feelings) and to the mind (hindrances,
47

modalities,senses,motivation,4EnnoblingRealities7and8FoldBalancingPractice8).These
exercisesaremeanttosupporttheforbearingeffortofabsolutebodhicitta(heartfeltself
commitment to awaken) as to arrive at ultimate emptiness. Next to these twelve which
areonconnectingwithoneself,therearefoursocialmeditations,whichareonconnecting
with others, to be practiced in relative bodhicitta (heartfelt commitment to accomplish
Interbeing).Theseentailthecultivationofrelationalbalanceregardingkindness,compassion
and joy. In the wake of joy there are other meditations with regards to laughing, smiling,
dancing andsinging.Ineffect,meditation isamodusvivenditobeappliedthroughoutthe
daywhileinaction:sitting,lying,standingorwalking.
Basedonalmostahalfcenturyofpracticeandpsychologicalunderstanding,Icame
tothefollowingfourbasicstagesofmindfulness.Thesestagesarenotstaticbutfluidcyclical
processesofdiscernablestatesandphasesandincludeselfcommunication/selfspeech/self
talk.AsinTable3,mindfulnessaimsatilluminatingconsciousnessandconsistsofattention
concentration/awarenessintrospection. Onepointedness is a runup to mindfulness,
encompassing: Samatha/tranquilizing leading to Samadhi/stabilizing and Vipassana/insight
leading to Sunyata/emptiness. While Samatha/Samadhi9, comprising means and goals,
operates like a metonym (there is no way to mindfulness, mindfulness is the way),
Vipassana/Sunyataispurposefulbyintendingtofurtherwisereflection.

Table3:MindfulnessMeditationQuadrant

MINDFULNESS:remember
balancingBody/Speech/Mind
toawakenfromignorance&to
dissolveexistential/emotional
suffering
Relaxed/gentle/focusedone
pointedconcentrationon
object,i.e.process(fromnow
tonow)
Vigilant/alertobservation
introspectiontodiscern
un/wholesomeKarmabywise
consideration

Bareattention:perceptionof
thesmallestunitsofexperience
(knowledgebydescription),in
attentiveness

Impartialawareness:the
mindseyeseeingthoughts
(wisdombyacquaintance),in
luminouscomprehension

1.Samatha/Calming
(Body/Mind),composure/
quiescence/equanimity:
Tranquility
3.Vipassana/Insight
(Mind/Body):understanding
thingsastheybecomein
DependentOrigination

2.Samadhi/Firming
(Body/Mind),receptive
absorption/flowstabilization:
Nirvana(arousalextinction)
4.Sunyata/Emptiness
(Mind/Body),liberatingnotself
orsuchness,blankmindasa
resetpoint:(0)

The quadrant clarifies that mindfulness starts by cultivating composure, tranquility and
equanimity of Body/Mind (including inner Speech) due to relaxed concentration and bare
attention by neutrally observing perceptual stimuli. Further practice shifts this quiescence
into a nonsuppressing state of stable flow in absorption due to gentle concentration on

The4EnnoblingRealitiesare:thereisexistentialsuffering,forwhichtherearepsychologicalcausesandthere
isawayoutofmentalsuffering;thiswayiscalledheretheennobling8FoldBalancingPractice.
8
Theeightpracticesrefertobalancingviews,intentions,speech,action,living,effort,awarenessandattention.
9
Csikszentmihalyi's "flow" (1990) could be seen as a rediscovery of samadhi because descriptions of their
essentialfeaturesoverlap.Bothareconsideredtobeanoptimalexperiencewhileperformingaskilledtask(like
painting or meditating) characterized by intense concentration, energized focus, complete absorption, total
involvement,nosenseoftimeorself,enjoyableandgratifyingforitsownsake,whilenodistractingthoughts
enterthemindduetoasinglemindedimmersion.ZenBuddhistsrefertothestateofspontaneousraptureas
going with the flow while nothing remains undone which is typified by oneness or nondual experiencing
where there is neitherperceptionnornonperception and neitherthinkingnornonthinking, an effortless
effortandnoncontrollingcontrolduetoamergingofactionandawareness.

48

occurring smallest experiential units resulting in the extinction of emotional arousal

(Nirvana). The transitional state of Nirvana can transform over time into a relative stable
trait. Having thus healed afflictions one advances onto cultivating Mind/Body (including
innerSpeech)bycleansingthedoorsofperceptioninalertness,fullpresenceandluminous
introspection(monitoring)towardclearcomprehension(sampajana)inordertoseethings
astheyreallybecome (in Dependent Origination). This insightful understanding comes
about by discerning un/wholesomeness and foremost by wise consideration (yoniso
manasikara).
Thus, mindfulness offers a scaffold for a meditative way of life comprising the
balancing of attentionconcentration (to discipline a wandering mind) and awareness
introspection(tounderstandKarmaandnotself).Stayingheedfulinwiseintrospectionand
unclouded luminosity, the mind gradually shifts to drop toward a bottomless
selflessness/emptiness,alsocalledsuchnessorzeroness.Emptinessisnotagoalin
itself. A blank mind is a resetting point for electrifying the collaborative practice of social
reconstructionbycontemplatingandembodyingkindness,compassionandjoy,andrealizing
whatwealreadyare.

The present view of mindfulness is not bounded to the individual self and selftalk
butadoptsarelationalperspectivetotheseeminglysolipsisticexercise.Inmyownpersonal
familytraditionthefirstencounterwithmeditationistheassignmenttositinfrontofawall,
theBodhidharmawaysotosay.Eversince,Ihavegrappledwiththemeaningofsitting.Does
this suggest that one cuts oneself off from the world in solitary confinement? Is total
isolationattainable?Wouldperhapsprosocialactionbeabetterfittomyprofile?Froma
Chinese Mahayana perspective the term mindfulness, coined by Caroline Rhys Davids in
1881,feelslikeamisnomerasthestrifelessstrivingistowardbeingmindemptyandfull
ofheartwhilerememberingtobeconstantlywatchfulonwhateverappearsinthestream
ofconsciousnessinmomentaryawarenessandattention.AlthoughthePaliwordsatiorits
Sanskritequivalentsmritiispreferred,thetermmindfulnesswillbemaintainedbecauseof
itsvesteduse.Butforthosewhoprefertoseethemindlocatedintheinterconnectedheart
(likeintheChinesetermnian)heartfulnessisanappealingalternativeifthepracticerefers
to cultivate (affective) memory not to forget to neutrally focus, observe or note every
moment to guard or protect against unwholesomeness, to introspect and inquire
intelligently, and to form wholesome Karma in relational (intrapersonal and interpersonal)
context(cf.Kuan,2008).

As aptly ascertained by Kuan (2008) mindfulness refers to simple awareness,

protectiveawareness,introspectiveawarenessanddeliberatelyformingconceptions.Inthe
present terminology simple awareness is covered in the first and second quadrant by
SamathaleadingtoNirvana.Protectiveandintrospectiveawarenessarecoveredinthethird
andfourthquadrantbyVipassanaleadingtoSunyata.BecausetheMBapproachesisabout
nonjudgemental observation, they do not evaluate the object or the subject or their
interaction during meditation. However protective awareness and introspective awareness
are not objective; they include judging whether the object/subject is wholesome or
unwholesome and inhere in guarding against unwholesomeness (Milindapanha; Kwee,
2010b, 2012b; Dreyfus, 2011). Kuans latter category of deliberately forming concepts
alludes to changing thoughts of unwholesomeness into thoughts of wholesomeness as in
psychotherapy. Depicting the mindfulness meditation process, the following diagram is
devisedinordertocontextualizepsychotherapy(cf.Kuan,2012).

49


Attention/Awareness (Mindfulness)
SAMATHA:







1
Jhana Concentration (Samadhi/trance)




External World of the 5 senses


Sensorium





2



Internal World of the Minds Eye



Apperception/Perception Papanca
3








Cognitions (Sanna)
VIPASSANA: Insight in Conceiving




4






Imagery (Nimitta)






Dependent Origination & Emptiness
Wisdom (re Karma)




5

Impermanence/Suffering/NotSelf

Figure2:TheProcessofSamathaandVipassana

The process entails tranquilizing through Samatha, mindfulness by focussed

concentration and maintaining attention to a selected object drawn to the foreground.
This eventually leads to a trancelike state of flow (Samadhi). During this state
external/internalstimulienterthesenses.Thisenteringmightbecalledapperceptionwhich
is postsensory but preperceptual, i.e. the sense data have not yet been organized or
integrated nor have they been given meaning by perception of sensed reality. Perceived
reality is rendered construction evoking (linguistic/social) meaning and proliferation of
thinking/selfspeechselftalk (papanca) including karmic intentionality. Observing this
thinking of the monkey mind insight could be gained on conceptualizations: cognitions
(sanna)andimagery(nimitta).Thismightresultinthesummumbonumofmindfulness:the
understanding of psychological suffering due to impermanence in Dependent Origination
and insight in notself and emptiness. This wisdom includes being savvy on Karma
(intentionalaction).10Suchunderstandingiscalledmetacognition(e.g.Teasdale,1999),i.e.
the cognition of cognition: the knowledge on and process (appraising, monitoring and
control)ofcognitivefunctioning.LikeVipassanapsychotherapyaddressesthinking:changing
thoughtandrealityrepresentationwiththeaimofgainingmetacognitiveinsight.Vipassana
and therapy come in after the forming of papanca. Both are meant to deal with the
(re)construction of reality which according to Einstein (18791955) is merely an illusion,
albeitapersistentone.

10

Refering to intention, Karma is linked to will. According to Libet (1985) free will is an illusion because
volition defined as the brains readiness to act takes place in a flash: 350 ms postperception. Perception
precedeselectricalcorrelatesofcognitionby100200ms(Edelman,1987).However,thereisarealityoffree
wont,asecondthought,awilltocorrectthefirstthought.ThusKarmaanddysfunctional/irrationalthinking
canbechangedintorationalcognitionandaction.

50

ProliferatingSelftalk:CognitionandImagery
LeaningonSocialConstruction,RelationalBuddhismandBPP/PKTincludelogicopositivism,
empiricismandrationality.Perceptionandrealityrepresentationscouldleadtoknowledge
fromrocketsciencetomethodsofcopingwithdailyhassles.Thus,theproliferatingmindof
papancacanalsobefunctional,usefulandaccruewholesometherapeuticresults:realisticor
rational selftalk. Representational conceptualizations and views are largely influenced by
inner urges, memories and mental projections, thus almost impossible to be purely
objective. By their abstract nature concepts and views as selftalk are incapable to
completely represent things as they are; but they can indeed be observed through
mindfulnessininnersilenceandstillnessofmind.11
ApartfromPKTsrelationalstance,themaintechniqueofPKTconcurslargelywitha
school of psychotherapy called CognitiveBehaviour Therapy (CBT), particularly Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). This approach outlines that, though we cannot control
birds flying over our heads, we can prevent them from building nests in our minds. The
SallathaSuttapointsatwholesomethinkingasthekeynexusforovercomingpsychological
disturbance:hitbyanarrowtheunskilledmindgrievesandlaments,whiletheskilledmindis
notdistraught;itgrievesandlamentsnot.Whilethetrainedmindonlyfeelsbodilypain,the
untrainedmindfeelsbodilyandmentalpainasifhitbytwoarrows.InCBTwholesomeness
is inferred as cognitions, conceptions which are functional, realistic and rational, i.e.
logical/empirical, goaloriented and conflictavoiding. The Brahmajala Sutta is about
conceiving,howitcomesaboutandwhatitentails.Buddhistanalysisofknowledgeoffersa
particular insight in the genesis of conceiving abstract/analytic cognitions and imagery,
analogues/metaphors. It recognizes the selftalk of proliferating mind which leads the
perceiver to construct sensory experience in idiosyncratic ways. Thus, conceiving (forming
concepts out of perceptionvisualization) is basic for postulating and constructing ideas
about reality. By the cyclical nature of perceiving, sensory input and perception undergo
cognitive/imaginative and affective/emotive personal influences. Emotions condition
cognitions/imagesoftheperceivedworldandviceversa.Sensorycontact(phassa)withthe
perceived object is the prime ground upon which concepts, cognitions and images,
proliferate.Correctionofmisguidedunwholesome/unrealisticirrationalthinkingbeginswith
observing/recognizingthispointinthechainofevents.
The Brahmajala Sutta discusses 62 irrational beliefs (ditthi), 18 on the past (re:
eternalism, the universe, absolutism, causality) and 44 attitudes toward the future (re:
perceivingafterdeath,annihilationism,Nirvana).Believersarelikefishinapondswimming
in the (irrational) trap of a fishermans net of beliefs (Pemarathana, 2010). Beliefs and

11

Interestingly,Buddhistmeditatorsaremorerationaldecisionmakersthannonmeditators.Decisionmaking
isacompetitionbetweencognitiveandemotionalprocessesinthebrain.InanexperimentKirk,Downarand
Montague(2011)compared40controlsubjectsand26longtimemindfulnesspractitioners.Theyparticipated
inanUltimatumGameknownfortheoutcomeformanypeople:emotiontrumpsreason.Subjectshadtosplit
$20:keeping$19foroneselfandoffering$1totheother.Theresults:72%ofthecontrolsrefusedthemoney
(meaningbothpartiesleftemptyhanded),while46%ofthemeditatorsrejectedtheunfairoffer.Morethan
half accepted $1 and did not begrudge $19 to the other. All played the game while lying inside a functional
magnetic resonance imaging scanner. This enables the researchers to see brain area activation when
respondingtothemonetaryoffers.AsinearlierexperimentswiththeUltimatumGame,thecontrolsshowed
increased activity in the anterior insula, an area linked to disgust. The meditators brains activated areas of
interoception,representingthebodysinternalstate.Therewasverylittleoverlapbetweenthegroupsneural
responses. It seems that when assessing unfairness, meditators activate a neural network enabling them to
uncouplenegativeemotionalreactionsfromtheirbehaviour.

51

attitudesareabbreviatedemotions:habitualreactionsofselftalkwhich,ifirrational,spur
unwholesomeKarma.
Abeliefcomesintobeingfromsensorycontact:onceanobjectisperceived,itevokes
feeling, affect/emotion. Seemingly without selftalk a belief leads to the proliferation of
conceptsandviews.Inthecourseoftime,beliefsareevokedbyeventsintheinternalworld
through cognition and imagery, habitual evaluating thoughts. Beliefs might also be called
uponbymemory.Clingingtobeliefsresultintheviciouscyclingofemotionalsuffering,i.e.in
rebirthsofcraving,graspingandclinging,whichcanbedispelledbytransformingKarma.
Cessationoftheserebirthsdependsonunderstandingthehabitsofperceiving,thinkingand
behaving.Anattitudecauseshabitualaffective/emotionalfeelingsjustbytheperceptionof
eventsintheexternalworldwithoutbeingawareofevaluatingselftalk.Thisresultsinthe
impressionthatexternalthingsarethecauseofemotion.Attitudesautomaticallyarouse
fixedaffectandemotionwhichcanbeverystrongandintenseanddifficulttoextinguishlike
fear (bhaya). Due to their habitual nature one is unaware of attitudes. Unless one dispels
ignorance by being aware of the habits of affective thought and emotional action, one
remainscaughtinselfperpetuatingcycles.
BPPhighlightstheroleofperceptioninorganizingandintegratingsensoryexperience
and the proliferating tendency of the mind once the sensed object is perceived. Mind is
capable of multiplying concepts/thoughts, cognitions/images, beliefs/attitudes. Buddhist
analysis of sensory processes points out how raw sensory data go through various mental
discernmentsandconceptualcategorizationsinadualisticmodeofthinking.Thisanalysisof
sensory/perceptualprocesses,calledvitakkaandpapanca,alludetothemindscomplexity.
While vitakka refers to the initial conceptualization about the perceived object, the
subsequent papanca refers to the minds tendency of proliferating conceptions: cognitive
reasoning(sanna)andvisualimagining(nimitta).Selftalkarisesspontaneouslyinthestream
of consciousness, proliferates during the ongoing process and might lead a life of its own.
Thefollowinganecdoteillustratestheproliferationofmentalprojection:

A man wants to hang a painting in his room. He has a nail but no hammer. The
neighbourhasone,sohedecidestoborrowit.Butthendoubtsetdin:Whatifhe
refuses?Yesterdayhedidnotsayhello.Heseemedtobeinahurryormaybeonly
pretended.Whatifhedislikesme?Ihaventdoneanythingwrongtohim.Ifsomeone
wantstoborrowatoolfromme,Iwouldgiveitimmediately.Whywouldnthe?How
canafellowhumanbeingrefusesuchasimplerequest?Peoplelikehimareapublic
pest.HethinksIdependonhim,justbecausehehasahammer.Iamfedup!The
mangetsmad,rushesnextdoorandrings.Whentheneighbouropensthedoor,he
screams:Keepyourrottenhammer!(Anonymous)

AccordingtoKorzybski(1933)weshouldbeawareoftheverbalandnonverballevels
ofselfcommunicationandofnotionthatperceivedrealityisamapandabstraction,notthe
everchangingworldofmatteritself.Mindtendstoproliferateduetotheselfreflexiveness
of thinking and selfspeech. Language about language breeds irrational selftalk. But, the
mapisnottheterritory;thewordisnotthething.Sanityisbasedontheawarenessofthe
naturalorderofabstractionwhichstartsatthenonverbal(unspeakable)levelthatrefersto
impermanence.Theotherlevelisverbalandreflectsanabstractionofthedynamicnever
ending processes of microscopic and macroscopic matter ranging from molecules to milky
ways. This level discerns a ladder of abstraction from low to high, i.e. from a descriptive

52

reporttoinferencetoevaluationtomeaningwhichresultsinsemanticreactionsoffeeling,
thoughtandaction.

Theanecdoteofthelecturingprofessoreatingcookiesisillustrative.Heofferedhis
studentssittingnearhimacookieandtheylikedittoo.Whenshowedthecookies
wrap it displayed dog cookies. One student vomited and another one ran to the
WC.Thiscouldbecalledneurosemanticsuffering.

Whenareportoffactsismixedupwiththemeaningandthejudgementofthefactsthen
emotionaltroubleisahead.Iftheworldisrelational,functionalandflexible,astatic,linear
and dualistic representation of the world would be erroneous and likely produce negative
affect and emotion (Kwee, 1982). Language is imbibed in dualism of blackandwhite to
whichvalidityisthusascribed.Whenthereismuch,thereislittle;thelongexistsforthereis
short. Right is because of left. Dualisms are frozen identities which fabricate dichotomous
reasoning, absolutistisms and rigidities. If attached to identifications in a reality of
impermanence,theresultissuffering.
Experiencing as conceived rather than as freshly and neutrally perceived, and
declaringtheconceptualization/visuallizationasrealityistoclimbtheladderofabstraction
fromwhichonecouldfall.Thus,abstractingmightdistortrealityandcreateillusionslikeof
theselfanddelusionsofdeities.Ifthereisnostaticandpermanentselftoidentifywith,itis
foolish to attach to Imemine/self as this will produce unnecessary fear, anger and
depression. I consistsof many iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii. For example, the Buddhist way is notto say:
heisathief,buttosay:heisafalliblehumanbeing,whostolealoafofbreadyesterday.
Thelatterexpressioninvitescompassionateselftalk:andasweareallfallible,letusbe
forgiving. By its abstract nature thinking/selftalk could be flawed by pars pro toto
proclaimingthatthepart(I)isthewhole(I).Suchdistortedabstactionisalsoillustrated
in Buddhism in the parable of the blind men who take their own limited experience of an
elephanttoadequatelyrepresenttheelephant(TitthaSutta).Variousotherdistortionsdue
tofaultyabstractingcanbediscerned;e.g.selectiveabstracting(hedidntsayhello,hehates
me),personifying(successisluck,failureduetome),overgeneralizing(onceathief,alwaysa
thief), other irrationalities: arbitrary inference, misattribution, inexact labeling, magnifying,
minimizing,catastrophizinganddichotomousreasoning.

InClosing
TheBrahmajalaSuttaandtheMahakammaVibhangaSuttapointoutthattrainedthinkers
might even elevate their experiences to the status of absolute reality. Knowing renders
habits of intellectualizing which ties to the level of ideation, that is, to selftalk of overly
reasoning. Prioritizing reasoning produces complacency which obstructs practical
engagement in downtoearth affairs. This is narrated in the Buddhas following parable
(CulamalunkyaSutta):

amanwashitbyapoisonarrowandasurgeoncametotreathim.Ifthemanwould
saythathewillnotletthearrowpulledoutuntilheknewthenameandclanofthe
attacker,hisheight,skincolourandwherehelives,whetherthebowstringwasmade
offiber,reed,sinew,hemporbark,whetherthebowwaslongorotherwise,whether
thearrowwashooftipped,curvedorbarbedhewouldmeanwhiledie.Likewise,if
someonewouldsaythathewillnotpracticeBuddhismuntilheknowswhetherthe
world is eternal or finite, whether the soul and body are the same or different,
53

whether or not the Buddha exists or not after death, he would still remain
uninformedandwouldmeanwhiledie.

Thewoundedmancravesforknowledge;heprobablyquestionedoutofthirst(tanha)and
acovetingurge,forrevenge.Urgesarevarietiesofcravingandliterallycravingisfuelledby
materialormentalneeds.Itispersonal,comesfromwithinandincludeskarmicintending.It
could be sensory (e.g. craving due to hunger or thirst), cognitive (e.g. craving for being a
millionaire) or affective (e.g. craving for love and attention). Reality perception could be
steered by urges, for example if hungry one might see food everywhere and if angry one
usuallyfeelspoisonous.Thismechanismiscalledprojection:readingonesownneedsinto
theworld.Itissafetostatethatknowingincludestheprojectionofinnerurges.
Thoughinnocentlystatedasadescriptionofempiricalfacts,anypsychologicaltheory
remains a sociocultural evaluation of things and a prescription to look at them in a
particularway.TheBuddhaadmonishednottobecomeattachedtoanyviewincludingthe
Buddhistoneandinsteadtoratherfindoutwhatiswholesomeorunwholesomeinorderto
end duhkha. There was an instance when a person named Dandapani questioned the
Buddhainordertoknowhisproclaimedviews.TheBuddhadecisivereplywasthathehad
noviewtodeclareotherthanthathehadputanendtoallviews(MadhupindikaSutta).The
emphasis in Buddhist analysis is not on pointing to errors or imperfections in views but
ratheronrevealingdeeperlevelsofthemind.Thiswayoftreatingviewsisconsideredtobe
peaceful (aranapatipada). Words comprise merely socially constructed empty common
conventionswhichtheBuddhauseswithoutclingingtothem.Itwouldbeunwisetobecome
attached to the Buddhas discourses without pursuing the quest in daily life and practice.
The mind tends to hang on to delightful views. Next, there is greed for these views and
hatredmayprevailtowardotherviews.TheBuddhistadviceistorecognizetheseasmere
views,provisionalvarietiesofrealityrepresentationsandnottoseethemasTranscendental
Truth. To ward off papanca and to secure wholesome psyche, mindfulness is prescribed.
Awarenessofviewstamesthemind,preparesforpsychotherapyandconnectswithoneself.
Speech/selfspeechandselftalk,languaging,conceptualizing,viewing,reasoningand
knowing are at bottom cognitions and images. They are maps, for the wise to disidentify
frominordertodisillusionreality.Clientswhosufferadvisablydistancefromanddissolve
theirinadequate/unrealisticmaps.Thisisinlinewiththepracticeofthecognitivebehaviour
therapies which decondition behavioural habits (WolpeLazarus), deautomatize
dysfunctional thoughts (Beck) and demusturbate irrational shoulds (Ellis). Relational
Buddhism,includingBPP/PKT,takesaradicalstance;pressingontoemptinessitdoesallof
this dissing. It is an exercise toward distancing/disowning, unclinging, ungrasping, un
craving and eventually deconstructioning Relational Buddhism itself. This puts away the
raft;ithasoutliveditsusefulnessbecausetheothershoreisreached.

54

Chapter3
CanThereBeBuddhistPsychotherapy?
Introduction
Contemplating the title question for a few decades as a psychotherapist and a clinical
psychologistofBuddhistdescentintheNetherlands,myanswerisyesandno.No,as
there is no Buddhist equivalent term for psychotherapy or for its methodological basis:
psychology. However, there are many terms, crucial to Buddhism, which are connected to
mind (nama), like cognition (citta), hypermentation (papanca) and mental action (Karma),
apttolaythefoundationsforapsychology.Hence,onecansayYes,becauseof(1)the3
Poisons targeted in Buddhism, i.e. ignorance on the functioning of mind resulting in the
irrationalities of greed (including fear of loss and sadness of loss) and hatred (including
anger/otherblame and depression/selfblame) are equivalent to the basic emotions, the
prime targets in psychotherapy, (2) the psychological modalities or Skandhas to work with
(which refer to: rupanama/BodySpeech/Mind, vedana/sensingfeeling, samjna/thinking
emoting, samskara/intendingacting and vijnana/consciousnessawareness), and (3) the
centralplaceofalludedtosufferingorduhkhainthecontextofthe4EnnoblingRealitiesand
thewayoutofsuchpsychologicalmalaisebythe8FoldBalancingPractice(attuningviews,
intentions,speech,action,living,effort,awarenessandattention).
Furthermore, the Buddha seemed to have alluded to psychology when stating: In
thisonefathomlonglivingbody withperceptionsandthoughtslaystheworld, the arising
and cessation of the world (Rohitassa Sutta). Thereby, he also endorsed ennobling
friendship (kalyanamitra), which parallels the therapists unique collaborative practice, in
pursuing his balancing Middle Way. Buddhist guidance takes place in the framework of
Body/Speech/Mind (kaya/vak/citta) which goes significantly beyond the Cartesian mind
body paradigm. This implies a relational perspective that is keen on the mindfulness of
karmic speech when targeting views, living and effort in the framework of transforming
karmicintentionandaction.Callinghimselfakammavadinorkarmavadinonemayassume
that the Buddhas main practice was transforming Karma, implying that he dealt with
changingactionandmotivation(hetu).ForBuddhistPsychologyandPsychotherapy(BPP)to
be,acallismadetostripmetaphysicalmeaningsfromKarma.
Thus, the Buddha, who made great strides toward transforming feelings, could be
qualified as the first psychotherapist ever. This thesis is corroborated by his 3Empirical
Marks of Existence: (1) there is psychological suffering due to birth, aging, illness, death,
separation from loved ones, union with unloved ones and (social) failure, (2) this mental
malaiseisaconsequenceofemotionalcraving,cognitivegraspingandbehaviouralclinging
topermanence whilethenatureofexistenceisimpermanence(anitya)and(3)becausein
life everything is ever changing and nothing remains the same, things lack inherent
existenceandcouldbecalledempty;thisincludestheself(atman).TheBuddhasteachingof
notself/emptiness (anatman) is the first and foremost and only one in the world. By
discarding Transcendental Truth, being nonfoundational and declaring that reality is a
social constructioning, Social Constructionism and Buddhism are kissing cousins, hence
RelationalBuddhism.

55

BuddhistKeyTerms
Whentwocenturiesagocuriouscolonialscholarsbegantotrytocatchthemeaningofthe
Buddhist teachings (Dharma/Dhamma) into convenient categories, this Eastern mode of
understanding and dealing with human experience was molded to fit Eurocentric pigeon
holes.Thus,thewordingindicatingtheteachingswastwistedbytheisticmetaphysicaland
philosophicalethical meanings. This unfortunate development led to the present situation
wherein Buddhists find themselves as pseudoAbrahamic religionists worshipping Lord
Buddhaandasquasiphilosophers.Thecauseofthisendresultisthattherewasnofitting
category for the Dharma and that the principle of logical fate determines that once the
wording was chosen, the repercussions are inescapable. Thus, using words like evil and
deitylikelyleadstointerpretingtheDharmaasareligion,andusingwordslikeimmoral
orunethicallikelyleadstointerpretingtheDharmaasaphilosophy.Thisiscalledlogical
fate.Itisthemoreunfortunatebecausethesewouldbeidentificationsduetotranslation
distorttheDharmaintheirveryveins.Thequestionis,iftheteachingsareneitherreligion,
nor philosophy: what are they? This chapter reinterprets and reformulates the Buddhas
teachingsasaBPPaimedathealingsuffering,distressandagony,andascoachingaimedat
breedingfertilegroundforawakeningandemptinessbymeansofmeditation.Thepresent
endeavour is a social constructioning project of designing a Buddhist Psychotherapy by
Karma Transformation (PKT) in hoping to revitalize the Buddhist teachings with all its
ramifications.
Table 1 (3rd column) lists formulations of a dozen key terms which make the
Dharmas rebirth as psychotherapy possible. Many of these terms were originally
borrowedfromBrahmanismwheretheybeardifferentmeanings.

Table1:LogicalFateDuetoInterpretationsofSelectedBuddhistKeyTerms

Buddhistkeyterms
Dharma
Catvariaryasatyani
Astangikamarga
Bodhi
Duhkha(dukkha/P)
Nirvana(nibbana/P)
Samsara
Mara
Skandhas(khandhas/P)
Smriti/S(sati/P)
Karma/S(kamma/P)
Bhikshu/ni(bhikkhu/ni/P)
Arahant

Religious/philosophical
Buddhism
FourNobleTruths
NobleEightfoldPath
Enlightenment
Suffering
Paradiseorheaven
Cycleofreincarnations
Devil/Satan
Aggregatesorheaps
Mindfulness
Destinyorfate
Monk/priest
Saint

Revitalized/psychological
Teachings,MiddleWay
4EnnoblingRealities
8FoldBalancingPractice
Awakening
Mentaldistress/agony
Extinctionofdistress/agony
Dailyrebirthsofemotions
Unwholesomeprojections
Psychologicalmodalities
Awarenessandattention
(Intentional)action
Almsmanafflictioncutter
Accomplished3Peradicator

RevitalizingtheDharmaboilsdowntore/formulatingitasapsychologybasedon4
EnnoblingRealities:(1)Thereissufferingwhichismentaldistress/agony,(2)Thisiscausedin
DependentOriginationand(3)Thereisawaytodis/solvesuffering,(4)ThisisbyaMiddle
Way, a balancing practice of (1) a vision regarding (2) intention, (3) speech, (4) action, (5)
life, (6) effort to cultivate wholesomeness in mindfulness which comprises: (7) awareness
and(8)attention.PKTattunestothesefactorswhichaimsatsignificantcalmingtranquility
andtheextinctionofdistress/agonybasedonadeepunderstandingofthemindandmental
56

mechanisms(likee.g.projectionordenial),andtheirimpactonkarmicactivity.Eventually,
posttherapy, insights accumulated along the way could lead to experiencing nonduality,
awakening and emptiness. Moving in a flux, there is no self in the nonindependent
modalities of Body/Speech/Mind operating as sensingfeeling (vedana), thinkingemoting
(sanna)andintendingbehaving(sankhara).PKTisaprocessoferadicatinginnerfoes,the
daily rebirths of recurrent suffering due to disturbing emotions of distress and agony.
Disturbanceiscenteredinthe3Poisons:greed,hatredandignoranceontheillusionofself
and the delusion of (Brahmanistic) god/s.12 Based on the Buddhas Dependent Origination
thatnothingandnooneexistinisolation,thepresentaccountiswrittenfromameta
perspective of Relational Buddhism. This is a vision that invites an interdependent view
which,ontheinterpersonallevel,reflectstheinterrelatednessofselflessnessandonthe
intrapersonal level, reflects selfcommunication and selftalk. Boundaries between self
andothersserveanempirical,conventional,indexical,relativeorprovisionalfunctionforthe
householder, but are illusory down to the marrow. As a scaffold for awakening, PKT
operates in the realm of the provisional self. As long as the ultimate notself and
emptinessarebeyondthescopeoftherapy,nonBuddhistclientscanalsoprofitfromBPP.
ThattheBuddhaandlateradherents(e.g.asintheMilindapanha)appliedsimilesto
elucidatetheDharmaisagiven.Particularly,theBuddhauseddoubleentendrestorealize
a shift from Brahmanisitic meanings of terms into Buddhist meanings which boil down to
leapingfromtheliteral(religious/philosophical)tothefigurative(metaphoric/psychological).
Thisjumptopsychologyisdramaticallyelucidatedinhisdealingwiththequestionwhether
anotherworldwithoutdistressoragonycouldexistsomewhere(RohitassaSutta).The
sageRohitassadeclaredthatevenbytravellingtotheendoftheworldforacentury,he
couldnotfindaworldwithoutthebirth,aging,illness,deathandrebirthoflifessuffering.
The Buddha agreed fully and explained that this is because the world is located within
onesveryownonefathom(183cm)longbody.Thisbodyisendowedwiththefacultiesof
senseperceptionandthoughtconception,andissubjecttoimpermanenceanddecay.Inthis
bodytheworldhasitsorigin,causeandmaking;henceitisalsotherethatonewillfindthe
cessationofsufferingandthewayleadingtotheendofsuffering.Oneneedstoreachthe
endofthisworldtofindthepracticeofextinguishingdistressandagony.Ineffect,thiswas
a proclamation that the Dhamma is about a psychological world conditioned by
Body/Speech/Mind. Another double entendre connected to the world is when the
Buddhaexpounded(LokantaGamanaSutta)thattheendoftheworldcannotbeknown,
seenorreachedbygoing.Yet,Ialsosaythatwithoutreachingtheendoftheworldthereis
no making an end to suffering... With this paradox, the Buddha left his audience puzzled
behind(http://dharmafarer.org).
ItisaHerculeantasktoawakenthespiritofBPPandPKT,andtoconsequentlyapply
arevitalizingterminologyinordertorealizetheDharmasquantumleapawayfromreligion
and philosophy. Some words are so ingrained in Weatern brain that it appears to be a
hopelesstasktoeventrytochangetheirmeanings,theseinclude:Buddhism,sufferingand
mindfulness.AlthoughtheMiddleWayisfirstandforemosta(guidetoa)balancingpractice
(majjhima patipada) and not a blind faith, a theory, or an ism, Buddhism can be

12

Greed,hatredandignorancearepreferredabovepassion,aversionanddelusion.Althoughpassionrefersto
the Nirvana metaphor of extinguishable fire, it is not per se poisonous and might even connote something
positivelikehavingapassionratherthandispassionforBuddhism.Psychologically,aversionreferstoastrong
dislikeordisgust,butlacksarelationaldimension.Delusionhasaspecialmeaningasitreferstoapsychiatric
symptomofpsychosis,henceunfittomatchtherunofthemillneuroticsattendedinBuddhisttexts.

57

safeguardedasacontainerconcept.Sufferingassociateswiththeismandmightcarryan
ethicalconnotationlikehavingtorepentforasinduetoguiltofinfringingaruleofagod.
However,thisdoesnotexcludeaseculartypeofsufferingwhichispsychological,sothatthe
word can be preserved here. Coined by Caroline Rhys Davids in 1881, mindfulness feels
likeamisnomerastheexerciseisaimedatmindemptiness.Itsstrifelessstrivingistoward
beingfullofheartwhilerememberingtobeconstantlywatchfulonwhateverappearsin
thestreamofconsciousnessinmomentaryawarenessandattention.AlthoughthePalisati
or its Sanskrit equivalent smriti is preferred, the term mindfulness will be maintained
because of its vested use. For those who prefer to see the mind located in the
interconnectedheart(likeintheChinesenian)heartfulnessisanappealingalternativeasit
alludestomindasresonatingbetweenpeople(VimalakirtinirdesaSutra).
The Zeitgeist seems ripe to socially construct a PKT based on evidencebased data
and which operates in mainstream clinical psychology (Kwee, Gergen & Koshikawa, 2006;
Kwee,2010ab,2012abc,2013).
NontheismandNonphilosophy
Didalmighty god createhuman beingsordidhumblehumanbeingscreate almightygod
Satan,devil,demigods,deities,nymphs,andsoon?Dependingononessocialconstruction
thisquestioncanbeinterpretedasblasphemyoraspuzzling,leadingtoaquest.Ifreligionis
aworldviewbasedonabeliefinasupernaturalpowerwhoisthecreatoroftheuniverseand
therulerwhomustbeobeyedandworshipped,thenDharmaisnotareligion.Eventhough
the application of skilful means (upayakaushalya) permits the presentation of deities as in
Vajrayana Buddhism, the Dharma could even by doing so still not become a skygod
religion. It will not be able to quench the thirst of seekers of eternalism or
annihilationism, because the Dharma proposes a neitherallnornothing stance. This
cancelsouttheexistenceandthenonexistenceofagod,whichisapositionthatleavesthe
seekerbehindinnontheisticemptiness.Nontheisticmeansneithertheisticnoratheistic
whichimpliesthatgodissimplynotanissue(PatikaSutta).AtbottomtheDharmaconsiders
godheadsasdelusional.13AlthoughtheBuddhacateredteachingswhicharediametrically
opposedto theAbrahamicdoctrines,heisneverthelessfrequentlylistedalongsideMoses,
JesusandMohammed.TheBuddhaneverclaimedtobeagodoranintermediaryofagod
and never suggested people who followed in his footsteps to worship him
(Mahaparinibbana Sutta). Adherents of Chan Buddhism even admonished to kill the
Buddha, advised to burn or urinate on Buddha statues and even to clean arse with
scriptures if needed. Channists express an anarchistic spirit to clarify the emptiness of
concepts, thus securing that the last hindrance to awakening, the Buddha, will be
overcome.Itissafetoconcludethatphenotypicalsimilaritiesmaskgenotypicaldifferences:
ginandwaterlookthesamebuttheytastedifferently.
TheDharmassoleaimistoendduhkhathroughdirectexperientialunderstanding
andapersonalexperimentalquestonthefunctioningofmindandsensesandthecoming
about of karmic action. This is a downtoearth approach which rules out nonsensical
doctrines like metaphysics, omniscience, miracles, belief, dogma and creed, as they are

13

FromapsychologicalpointofviewtheAbrahamictypereligionsareapsychiatricdisorder,akintopsychosis.
AccordingtoSigmundFreud(18561939)religionisthecollectiveobsessivecompulsivedisorderofhumanity
duetoaninfantilewishforaparentandtoAlbertEllis(19132007),afoundingfatherofCognitiveBehaviour
Therapy, religion is mental illness characterized by infantilism, masochism, authoritarianism, totalitarianism,
perfectionism,obsessionality,rigidity,grandiosityanddependencywhicharedehumanizingandfalse.

58

impossibletoconfirmordeny(BrahmajalaSutta).Mostimportantly,theyarenotconducive
tofreedomfromexistentialrelational/psychologicalsuffering.TheBuddhaisrenownedfor
his classicalunansweredquestions(AggiVacchagotta Sutta).Procrastinatingonwhether
the universe is eternal or not is not walking the talk toward awakening and the end of
suffering.ThatiswhytheBuddharefusedtotakeapositionontheeternality,finitenessor
infinitenessoftheuniverse,onthesamenessordistinctnessofthesoulandthebody,ona
Tathagatasexistenceornonexistenceafterdeath,bothexistenceandnonexistenceafter
death,orneitherexistencenornonexistenceafterdeath.14Havingextinguisheddisputable
positions and philosophical musings, the Buddha mindfully observed the Dependent
Origination(arising,peaking,subsidingandceasing)ofappearancesregardingbody,feeling,
sensing,thinkingandmindsfunctioning.Thusrelinquishingallcraving,graspingandclinging
to concepts of Imemine/self, he was liberated. The Buddhas rejection of philosophy is
most clearly stated in the Dighanakha Sutta, conveyed by Thich (1991, pp. 211216) as
follows:

Myteachingisnotadoctrineoraphilosophy.Itisnottheresultofdiscursivethought
ormentalconjecturelikevariousphilosophieswhichcontendthatthefundamental
essence of the universe is fire, water, earth, wind or spirit, or that the universe is
eitherfiniteorinfinite,temporaloreternaltheynevergetanywhereIteachthat
allthingsareimpermanentandwithoutaseparateselfthatallthingsdependonall
other things to arise, develop, and pass away. Nothing is created from a single
originalsourceMygoalisnottoexplaintheuniverse,buttohelpguideothersto
have a direct experience of reality. Words cannot describe reality. Only direct
experienceenablesustoseethetruefaceofrealityMyteachingisnotadogma
[but]amethodtoexperiencerealityandnotrealityitself,justasafingerpointingat
themoonisnotthemoonitself[It]isameansofpractice,notsomethingtohold
ontoorworship...[and]islikearaftOnlyafoolwouldcarrytheraftaroundafterhe
hadalreadyreachedtheothershore

Despite the nonphilosophical nature of the Dharma, philosophy entered the

backdoorundertherubricofethicsasexemplifiedbytheJournalofBuddhistEthics(founded
in1994byD.KeownandC.S.Prebish).Why,intheabsenceofethicsinBuddhism,doesan
armyofBuddhistscholarsbothertosquarethecircleandpush,againstalltheodds,anon
philosophical practice of emptiness into a philosophy? Buddhist ethics suggests a
Westerntypeofformalistictheoryandanalysisofmoralconductandthewaypeopletreat
each other, which, considering the lack of a corresponding category in Buddhism itself,
impresses as an oxymoron that seems to be opium for the philosophers. In light of the
background of most scholars involved in Buddhist ethics and with due great respect for
these scholars, a tentative conclusion is that if ones only tool is a hammer one will treat
everything like a nail? The consequence of Buddhist scholars being almost exclusively
employed by university departments of religion or philosophy is that Buddhism will likely
perpetuate its status as a religion and a philosophy. Were a journals editors and editorial
boardmembersallpsychologists,thereislittledoubtabouttheoutcome.Thebookisaplea
toinviteBuddhistscholarshiptoadvanceBPP.
Interestingly, psychology as a science emerged out of religion and philosophy after
thetermwasusedforthefirsttimein1590byGoclenius.Thescience,boostedbyDescartes

14

Tathagatameansliterallythethuscome/goneoneandisanicknamefortheBuddha.

59

artificial split of bodymind in the 17th century, started formally in 1879 when Wilhelm
WundtopenedthefirstpsychologicallaboratoryinLeipzig,Germany.Sinceabouttheendof
the19thcenturyBuddhismtriedtoalignwithmainstreampsychologybutishamperedbythe
deeprooted prejudice that it is a religion and/or a philosophy. This is in spite of the
discourse on the All (Sabba Sutta) where the Buddha pointed at 12 perceptual categories
comprisingtheAll:theeyesandforms,theearsandsounds,thenoseandsmells,thetongue
and tastes, the skin and tangible objects, and the (brainy) mind and mental objects. If
someonewouldproclaimanotherAll,itwouldbemeretalkandnonsenseasthatwouldgo
beyond the limits of explanatory abilities.15 Thus again, the Buddhas view of men is this
worldly and psychological: one is a perceiver (through the sense organs) and conceiver
(throughthemindseye)oftheworldherenow.

PsychotherapyandKarmaTransformation
Having discarded religion and philosophy as the only truthful interpretations of the
Dharma,theairisclearedforpresentingPKT,aBuddhistpsychotherapybasedonBuddhist
psychology and a fullfledged variation of Buddhist practice. The subsequent passage, also
derived from the Dighanakha Sutta, adumbrates PKT by elucidating how to cease
psychologicalsuffering(Thich,1991;pp.211216):

Therearethreekindsoffeelingspleasant,unpleasantandneutral.Allthreehave
roots in the perceptions of mind and body. Feelings arise and pass away like any
othermentalormaterialphenomena.Iteachthemethodoflookingdeeplyinorder
to illuminate the nature and source of feelings, whether they are pleasant,
unpleasant or neutral. When you can see the source of your feelings, you will
understand their nature. You will see that feelings are impermanent, and gradually
you will remain undisturbed by their arising and passing away. Almost all painful
feelingshavetheirsourceinanincorrectwayoflookingatreality.Whenyouuproot
erroneous views, suffering ceases. Erroneous views cause people to consider the
impermanenttobepermanent.Ignoranceisthesourceofallsuffering.Wepractice
the way of awareness in order to overcome ignorance. One must look deeply into
things in order to penetrate their true nature. One cannot overcome ignorance
throughprayersandofferings.

Obviously,psychologyandpsychotherapydidnotexistintheBuddhastime,nor
do they exist in the Buddhist languages of Asia. Nonetheless, Buddhism contains a rich
vocabulary of mind and its entangled derivatives, suggesting that the Buddha alluded to
what we call psyche. However, psyche is not equivalent to the Buddhist meaning of mind
becauseBuddhistsdonotrecognizetheconceptofsoul whichisimpliedinpsyche.Unlike
Descartesmindbodydualism,theBuddhaviewedthemindasatriuneofdistinguishable
butinseparableBody/Speech/MindwhichiscauseandeffectofKarma.Combiningtheterms
andnuancedmeaningsformindinBuddhismandthedefinitionofpsychology,itleaveslittle
doubtthattheDharmawasmeantaspsychology.TheOxfordDictionarydefinespsychology
as the scientific study of the human mind and its functions especially those affecting
behaviour in a given context (as well as of) the mental characteristics or attitude of a
person or group and the mental factors governing a situation or activity

15

Notethatforms,sounds,smells,tastesandobjectsarerecognizedassuchifculturallyagreedupon;theyare
thus by necessity social constructions. Things are only recognizable communitywise. The question remains
whetherimmaculateperceptionexists.

60

(http://oxforddictionaries.com).Thisdefinitionaccommodatesthetablesdozenterms(see
Table2).

Tabel2:SelectedBuddhistTerms(Pali)DenotingMindandItsConcomitants

Nama
Vinnana
Sati
Mana
Citta
Cetasika
Papanca
Vikappa
Anusaya
Moha
Vitakka
Vimutti
Kamma

Mind(vs.body),acontainerforallmentalaffairs:sensing,feeling,thinking,etc
Consciousness:notingawarenessofsensorystimuliincludingthoughtsandideas
Awarenessandattentiontoappearancesinconsciousness,knownasmindfulness
Brainasperceptualorganforthemindseyethatseesdharmasandintentions
Stateofheart/thoughtswhichincludesemotionandconation/motivationtoact
The(52)colors/qualitiesofcitta:universal,particular,unwholesomeorbeautiful
Theobsessiveproliferationofirrationalideationmakingillusionsanddelusions
Irrational/defiledthoughts/interpretationsrethedataofsensoryawareness
Ruminatingaboutsex,grudge,opinions,doubts,conceit,youthandignorance
Ignoranceasselfillusionandgoddelusions,differentfromnonawareness(avijja)
Reasoningorrationalthinking,i.e.cognitionsonearlyincomingperceptualdata
Freedfromsufferingattainedthroughinsight/wisdomand/orcalmingmeditation
Intentionalaction/behaviour;itstemsfromandaffects Body/Speech/Mind

With regard to psychotherapy, there is an appealing phrase cittabhavana which

means the cultivation or development of mind/heart. The mind is in the pristine Buddhist
languages felt as inhabiting the heart which accounts for the emotional realm much like
infatuation/loveinEuropeanculture.Suchisappealingbecauseitseemsthatcittabhavana
is more or less equivalent to selftherapy which is often included in the pursuit of
psychotherapy. PKT is usually a twosome performance of social constructioning aimed at
transforming cognition, emotion and intentional action through releasing speech in the
largercontextofBuddhistpractice(patipatti).Thenotionthatmindislocatedintheheart
implies it is neither within nor without, nor is it to be apprehended between the two
(VimalakirtinirdesaSutra).AsalsoexpoundedintheGandhavyuhaSutra,itmeansthatmind
isnotlockedupbehindtheeyeballsbutoperatesinbetweenpeople.Thismetavisionsets
thestageforcittabhavanaandthepsychotherapeuticsetting.
Aconsensusbasedworkingdefinitionofpsychotherapyreadsasfollows(cf.Norcross
&Goldfried,2005):aprocessofsystematictreatment/coachingandplannedinterventionby
anexpertwhomethodicallyestablishesstructuresandhandlesahelpingrelationshipinorder
toeradicateemotionalsufferingandreducementalproblemsofdailylivingbywelldefined
psychologicalmethodsandevidencebasedtechniques.PKTfitswiththisdefinitionwhichis
delimited and delimiting if the goal is awakening; however psychotherapy even by
transformation of Karma aims at alleviating emotional disorder not at awakening which
needs a fullfledged Buddhist way of life. To be sure, unlike the Dharma which eventually
aimsatawakeningthroughmeditativeliving,PKTpursuesaquitecontainedgoal.Thisgoalis
to get rid of disordered emotions as to clear the air and pave the way toward the
subsequentoptionalphasethroughaBuddhist:awakeningandemptiness.Eradicatingthe
psychological suffering of distress runs parallel with calming and tranquilizing meditation
(Samatha).
Nonetheless, there are some peculiarities, not so much in the method but in the
qualificationBuddhistindicatingthatthistherapyisrootedinBuddhismanditsvaluesand
terminology.Likeotherformsofpsychotherapy,PKThasajargonofidiosyncraticterms,i.e.

61

notself, karmic behaviour, defiled cognitions, emotional affliction, 3Poisons, nirvana and
theBrahmaviharas.16
WastheBuddhathefirstpsychologistever?Surely,hedealtwithselforrathernot
self,acoresubjectofpsychology.WhatwenowcallBuddhistPsychologyistheonlynotself
psychology to date. This could well be the foundation for a unified science of psychology,
similar to what has been established in the exact sciences, where there is one science of
physics,onescienceofchemistry,onescienceofbiology,andsoon.Inhisdiscourseonthe
3Empirical Marks of Existence, on impermanence, suffering and notself (Anattalakkhana
Sutta), theBuddhas second teaching after the 4Ennobling Realities, it was explained that
suffering develops on the soil of impermanence and imperfection. Psychological suffering,
he observed, comes about when craving, grasping and clinging incite the illusion of
permanence with regard to Imemine/self. Thus, the advice is to deconstruct erroneous
viewsonthenonexistingprovisionalself.However,becausewedonotliveinasocialvoid
asweareborninrelationshipwecouldwelluseprovisionalmeansonthesurfaceofnot
selftosurvivedailycommunitylife,likeanameora passport,whileawakenedtonotself
andemptiness.Thereisno ultimateself, because(1)whateverone saysaboutself,that
selfcannoteverbethesameinthenextmomentoftheflux,(2)selfcannotbesomething
else but a reified concept or abstraction that does not tangibly exists and (3), self is a
narrowlycontainedatomisticentity,segregatedandalienatedfromtheprofoundrealityof
relationalinterbeing(www.icundv.com/vesak2011/panel2/09MGTKweeFINAL.pdf).
Table 3 presents a summary of PKTs highlights which will be discussed in the
remainderofthischapter.
Table3:BuddhistPsychotherapy:CourseofTreatmentinCollaborativePractice

COMPONENT
(A)Assessment
(staticrepresentation:
likeaphoto)
(B)Therapy
(processrepresentation:
likeafilm)
(C)Commonfactors(A/B)
(theseareallrelational
bynature)

SPECIFICACTIVITY
1.BASICIModalities(Skandhas)
2.BasicEmotions
3.OutcomeRatings
1.KarmaTransformation
2.12MindfulnessBasedMeditations
3.LifeHi/storyEmotionalEvents
1.Kalyanamitta(advisoryfriendship)
2.Brahmaviharas(socialmeditations)
3.Therapeuticappreciativedialogues

FACTOR
Technical
Technical
Technical
Technical/Remedy
Technical/Remedy
Nonspecific
Nonspecific
Nonspecific
Nonspecific

CommonFactorsinPsychotherapy
Hundreds of studies suggest that 3070% of successful outcome is accrued regardless of
theoretical orientation, problem type, professional discipline, mode or dosage of
sessions (Sparks, Duncan & Miller, 2008). Psychotherapeutic success is attributable to

16

The Brahmaviharas, also known as the immeasurables, comprise social meditations creating and
maintainingsublimestates:lovingkindness,empathiccompassion,sympatheticjoyandrelationalequanimity.
These qualities are considered to be godly, hence the metaphor of the abodes (viharas) of the gods
(Brahma). As a reaction of Brahmanism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism uses many Brahmanistic words but
attach a different meaning to them. In various discourses (Tevijja Sutta, Brahmajala Sutta, or Canki Sutta),
BrahmaandtheBrahmanisticgodsarenotviewedasomnipotenteverlastingcreatorsbutascreationslinked
tokammaintheBuddhistsense.LearnedBrahminsareridiculedsatirically;theirillfoundedgodwhohadlittle
todoafterhavingcreatedtheworld,camedowntoearthtolearnfromtheBuddha.

62

relationalnonspecificsorcommonfactorsratherthantospecificfactorsorcomponents
which are unique to the different approaches. Likely, a therapy is effective because of a
combination of common and specific procedures, specifiable as techniques of assessment
andremedywhichtakeplaceduringacourseoftherapy.Beforegoingintotheseissues,let
meexplainhowcommonfactorsapplytoPKT,anewcomerinthefield.
Numerous reliable outcome studies showed that there is no significant difference
betweenthemajorapproaches.ThisfindingleadtoquotingfromAliceinWonderland:when
after a race no one has lost, the Dodo bird verdicts, "everyone has won, so all must have
prizes.Itistheclientsabilitytopickupwhatwasofferedratherthanthetherapistorthe
techniquethatmakestherapywork.Substantialevidenceinsupportofthegeneralefficacy
ofpsychotherapypointsatfouringredientsofchange(Lambert,1992):

40%: client and extratherapeutic factors, such as openness, ego strength,

motivation,persistence,socialnetwork,supportivefamilyand/orcommunity.
30%: therapeutic relationship or working alliance on goals and tasks: clients'
ratingsofrapport,thetherapistspartnershipwiththeclient,arepredictiveof
outcome, more than approach, diagnosis, or therapists genuineness, warmth,
empathy,oranythingelse.
15%: expectancy and placebo factors: clients' belief of being helped and hopeful
expectations regarding the method, i.e. faith, optimism, or confidence in
capacities.
15%: structure, model and/or techniques unique to specific treatments applied
skillfully(thiswouldincludeCognitiveBehaviourTherapyandmindfulness).

Notably,differencesinapproach,diagnosisandlengthoftreatmentaccountforlessthan5%
of the variance. If the client contributes half to rapport and placebo includes selfhealing
factors,these figuresimplythatclientsareresponsiblefor70% of the variance.Itappears
thattheclientisthemostimportantcontributortosuccessandthattherapyisforemost
selftherapy.
Although it is eventually selfhealing that works, the need for guidance and
educationinthecontextofcollaborativepracticewithatherapistwilllikelyremain.Itis
the unique therapeutic encounter that unleashes the natural healing potential of the
client, facilitated by the therapists support and resources. Thus, helping is not fixing but
ratherfacilitatingtheclientsselfhealingcapacitythroughthetherapistsgeneralcaring
attitudes like concern, affirmation and understanding. Caring optimizes safety during
themeetingofmindsandmaximizestheprobabilitythatthetherapistsrenderingsfall
on fertile ground (Imel & Wampold, 2008). The Buddhist therapist/counselor renders
lovingkindness, empathic compassion, sympathetic joy and relational equanimity and
bydoingsomobilizestheclientsselfhealingpossibilities.IntheBuddhistlorethistakes
place in the context of the miracle of education, the only miracle the Buddha ever
believed in and worked with. This wonder points at the importance of the unique
helpingrelationship(KevaddhaSutta,SangaravaSuttaandSamannaphalaSutta).
Howclientsexperiencethetherapistasapersonappearstobemoreimportantthan
thetherapiststechnicalofferings. Thetherapeuticrelationshiprequiresattentionbecause
clients perception of this wellstudied nonspecific factor is consistently correlated with
outcome.Itisevidentlynotcoincidentalthattheclientstreatmentresponseinthefirstfew
sessions is highly predictive to outcome. Attending the working alliance requires
collaborativepracticeandtheabilityofthetherapisttobeanauthenticchameleon(Kwee
63

&Lazarus,1986).Thetherapistneedstobetremendouslyflexibleandwillingtoadapttothe
clientscharacteristics.17Undisputedly,thisisexactlywhattheBuddhadidwhendelivering
hisdiscourses.Heattunedtothelevel,needs,capacitiesandterminologyofthepeoplehe
communicated with and did so by disseminating the Dharma in the Magadhi language (a
variant of Pali) instead of in highbrow Sanskrit. Using local language secures penetration
intothelistenershearts.Thishasbecometheprincipleofskilfulmeansmentionedearlier.
Upayakusala (Kusala Sutta) is the principle which was widely applied by Mahayanists as a
springboardtoreformEarlyBuddhism.
Most importantly, the Buddha seemed to have worked out rapport through the
concept of kalyanamittata (Kalyanamitta Sutta) which models a relationship of anyone in
need of counsel with a virtuous, admirable, or eminent fellowtraveler, friend, colleague,
advisor,mentororteacher.Apparently,therapistcouldbeaddedtothislist.Accordingto
theBuddha,suchcompanionshiporcamaraderieisthewholeofthewholesomelifeinthe
pursuitoftheDharma;agoodmanywasliberatedfromsufferingthroughgoodfriendship
withhim(UpaddhaSutta).Thereisnostrongerexternalfactorleadingtoharm(Dighajanu
Sutta)orhelp(MeghiyaSutta)thanfriendship.AproficientfriendandaBuddhisttherapist
for that matter, emits five abilities (Udayi Sutta), s/he speaks stepbystep (1), explains
kamma (2), talks compassionately (3), teaches not for material reward (4) and expounds
withoutexaltingselfordowngradingothers(5).Suchfriendshipislikedawn,theharbinger
of the rising sun, as it will lead to liberation from suffering through wise counsel
(PathamamittaSuttaandDutiyamittaSutta).Itwillcontributetodevelopingwingstoself
awakening (Sambodhi Sutta). Good friendship is more than personality compatibility. The
Dhammapada contends: One should follow a man of wisdom who rebukes faults, as if
followingaguidetoahiddentreasure.Followingsuchanadvisorwillbeadvantageous,not
disadvantageous. (cf. W. Rahula; www.tipitaka.net). In a first century work (Upatissas
Vimuttimagga), the kalyanamitta is a sagacious counselor and patient listener who is
loveable, estimable, venerable, able to deliver wise discourses and not involved in useless
ends.Thekalyanamitataconceptseemstoliveuptoanidealtherapeuticrelationship.Such
avoidswhatGergen(2009b)calleddeficitdiscoursewhich,centeredinproblemthinking,
is suppression rather than an appreciative inquiry and social constructioning of positivity
potentialitypossibility. A transformative dialogue dissolves the barriers of separated
meaningsandpromotesaconversationthatnurturesandelevatesrelationships.
Whetherarelationshipishelpfuldependsontheclient,notonconditionspresented
in a package. Feeding the working alliance is not a decision to be empathic and
compassionate. Effective responses and interventions need tailoring to the individual in a
genuine and authentic manner. A study on empathy shows that 26% of clients appreciate
nurturingmessagesandthetherapistssharingofpersonalinformation,30%likesaffective
tonedrepliesand44%preferscognitivetyperesponses(Bachelor,1988).

BuddhistPsychotherapy:Assessment
Thenumberofpsychotherapiesinactionismorethan250.Theoutcomeabovereferstothe
majorbonafidesystems:(1)psychodynamic,(2)experiential,(3)cognitivebehaviouraland
(4) eclecticintegrative. The last two systems comprise 60% of the total amount of

17

Surprisingly Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994) wrote something similar: In this early phase our mind resembles a
chameleon,whichaltersitscoloraccordingtoitsbackground.Justasthisremarkablelizardturnsgreenwhen
inthegrassandbrownwhenontheground,sowebecomefoolswhenweassociatewithfoolsandsageswhen
weassociatewithsages(www.vipassana.com).

64

practitioners in the USA (Norcross & Goldfried, 2005). Bona fide treatments contain four
chapters:(1)awelldevelopedmodelofpersonality,(2)acategorizationofpsychopathology,
(3) a description of therapyprocess and (4) an evidencebased outcome.18 Psychotherapy
stretchesduringatreatmentcoursewhichcoversatherapyprocesscomprisingtechniques
ofassessmentandremedy.Assessmentofpersonalityandpsychopathologywhichincludes
the clients hindrances to progress is reviewed below. Severe psychopathology, like
psychosis, is a contraindication for psychotherapy. The Buddhist therapyprocess contains
sessions of dialogues on the clients life hi/story and on narratives of problematic events
whicharecomplementedbyvariousmeditationsbasedonmindfulness.Theconversations
willchangeintothepositiveduringapplicationoftechnicalprocedures.Remedyconsists
ofKarmaTransformationandmindfulnessmeditation,twoparallelrunningprocesses.
ThecourseofPKTstartswithassessmentwhichrequirestechnicalskills.Buddhism
inheres in the first personality typology ever and the first psychopathology classification
ever.ThesewereoriginatedbytheBuddha,elaboratedbyBuddhagoshainhiscompendium,
theVisuddhimagga(5thcentury),updatedhere.Personalityisdefinedassomeoneshabitual
proclivities which can be relatively stable traits or relatively unstable states.
Psychopathology is the classification of psychological conditions, usually anomalies, which
might be considered undesirable by the client. Based on the Buddhas 3Poisons,
Buddhagoshadiscernedsixpersonalitytemperamentswhicharegroupedintothreepairsof
unwholesome (pathological) and wholesome (nonpathological) personality types: (1)
Greed/NonGreed (e.g. generosity), (2) Hate/NonHate (e.g. kindness) and (3)
Ignorance/NonIgnorance (e.g. wisdom). The present practiceoriented revitalization
outlinestheremedyforignoranceandunveilstheemotionalbasesofgreedandhatred.
In PKT ignorance refers to the lack of insight in the minds functioning and
understanding of modalities (5Skandhas). To be sure, we are perceiver and conceiver
through modalities, processes which come about in Dependent Origination. This can be
insightfully telescoped and understood in mindfulness that observes the modalities
concurrentoperatingastheyarise,peak,subsideandcease.Themodalitiesare:Behaviour
(intentional action), Affect (feeling, emoting), Sensation (sensing, perceiving), Imagery
(thinking, visualizing) and Cognition (thinking, conceptualizing). Thus, we assess the BASIC
modalities or the BASICI, if we add Interpersonal action which is contextual to BASICs
occurrence(Kwee&Lazarus,1986).Themodalitiesinterlinkandoverlaptoacertainextent.
TheMultimodalProclivityScanisapersonalityscalerangingfrom6(high)to0(low).
It rates responses to these questions: Behaviour How much of a doer am I? Affect How
deeplyemotionalamI?SensationHowfartunedamIintomysenses?ImageryHowvivid
doIvisualize(thinkinpictures)?CognitionHowmuchofathinker(analystandplanner)am
I?InterpersonalactionHowmuchengagedamIinsocialactivities?Theresults,plottedona
histogram, will give an idea on whether one is a thinker (vedanatype), feeler (sanna
type), or doer (sankharatype). Thus, the therapist will find a clue to match working
alliance,attunetherapytechniquesandpersonalizemeditations.
Greed and hatred conceal basic emotions which can be assessed during interview.
Greedisfeaturedbydemandingmusts/shoulds(e.g.Imust/shouldhaveit)whichmask
anxiety/fearoffuturelossandsadness/griefofpastloss.Hatredisfeaturedbydemanding

18

To secure outcome psychometrics, paperandpencil rating scales pre, post and inbetween during the
therapyprocess are advisably administered. Monitoring feedback exchanges will keep therapyprocess and
technical interventions in check. Thus, Buddhist Psychotherapy requires continuous status assessment to be
interwovenduringthewholetreatmentcourseandatanyrelevantmoment.

65

some must not/should not (e.g. S/he, they, or I must/should not have done it) which
masksangerleadingtoaggression/otherhateanddepression/selfhate.ABuddhistinspired
workingdefinitionofbasicemotionsreads:thesocioculturalscenariosofhumanexperience
discernable as depression, anxiety, anger, sadness, joy, love, silence or tranquility and
Nirvana.Thesestatescanbevisualizedasanonionthatonecanpeel(seeFigure1).

Figure1:GraphicDepictionofBasicEmotions

Progress hampering hurdles are a topic that belongs to assessment which requires
special attention. Defense mechanisms are a phenomenon uncovered by Freud in his
psychoanalytic work with clients. Defenses operate in unawareness and have become
relevantintheassessmentoftheunconscious.Theunderstandingofthesemechanismsis
indispensablewhencultivatingmindfulnessandsharpeningawareness.Cognitivedistortions
due to defensiveness lead people to avoid or escape the reality of sorrow, lamentation,
pain, grief and despair (to use a Buddhist phrase). They take place beyond attention in a
mechanisticway.Thismovingawayfromwhatisgoingoninthought,feeling,orconductis
called repression and is detectable by for instance selective perception or slips of the
tongue.Defensemechanismsare nowaninherentpartof psychopathologyandarehence
incorporated intheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualof MentalDisordersoftheAmerican
Psychiatric Association (2000). It is a highly interesting and a onetime curious thing,
corroboratingtheDharmaasapsychology,thattheBuddhahasalreadydescribedsomeof
these defenses. He compared them humorously with the shaky behaviour of recalcitrant
horsesandcalledthemthebhikshusabreactions(KhalunkaSutta).
The Buddha discussed the bhikshus eight defenses against frustration as obstinate
conductin relationtotheircoach,asiftheywerebeaten.Iffaultyconductlikebreaking a
ruleisfedback,theyabreact.Afraidofmakingmistakes,theydischargediscontentmentor
defend themselves and create duhkhaduhkha which is an extra suffering on top of the
originalsuffering which was then mitigated by the selfbeguiling defense. The mindfulness
practitioner needs to be aware of these intrapersonal selfdistortions. Here are the
Buddhasawarenesstruncatingvariants,presentedinparallelwithFreudsmechanisms:(1)
Makinganexcuseofoblivion,notrememberinghavingbreakingarule(unawareofthedeed
66

duetorepression),(2)Criticizinginturntheotherscriticismasfoolish(attributingones
own thoughts to another due to projection), (3) Accusing others or something else
(diverting attention away from the original source by displacement), (4) Dodging by
evading the issue at hand and being aggrieved (acting as if the issue does not exist by
undoing),(5)Deliveringanimpressivespeechbygesticulatingwitharms(compensatinga
shortcoming with a strength: sublimation), (6) Ignoring everybody and everything, and
walking around as an offender (withdrawing socially and from oneself: isolation), (7)
Strongly refuting the offense but not explaining why and acting stubbornly by being silent
(mentallyblindtoown mistakesbecauseofdenial)and(8)Quittingandabandoningthe
Dhamma,andreturningtoanonBuddhistlife(revertingtoimmaturebehaviouralpatterns
becauseofregression).

As a neophyte PKT cannot show statistical outcome results yet. However, Buddhist
training and coaching are so old that their very survival as a discipline of change can be
viewed as research in action or qualitative inquiry which warrants effectiveness.
Buddhismsrichhistoryofteachingmeditationpractice,whichequalsselftherapy,promises
afavourableprognosisforfuturestudies.

BuddhistPsychotherapy:Remedy
Considering the above, PKT might well emulate its Western peers and entirely so if our
unshakableconfidenceintheproposedremedyisalsotakenintoaccount.Adheringtothe
canon of scientific specificity: What works for whom, when and under which
circumstances? and in light of the many specific meditations, it is not surprising that PKT
favours evidencebased remedies. Remedy complements the necessary but insufficient
nonspecific conditions and primarily aims at calming toward PKT. This verbally counters
distress and agony by dispelling specific disturbing emotions. PKT, further outlined below,
runsparalleltotranquilizingmeditations(Samatha).Thesemindfulnessbasedmeditations
alsoworkatextinguishingdistressandagony,calledNirvana,by12specificmeditationsand
completetheremedypartofthetherapyprocess.Theseare:1.Focusedbreathing:noticing
air passing the nostrils; 2. Behavioural dignities: sitting, walking, standing, lying and other
activities;3.Bodyrepulsiveness:thebodyasabagoffood/liquidsenvelopedbytheskin;4.
Natural elements: earth/water/fire/wind to disidentify from body; 5. Decomposing body:
visualizingonesowndeadbodyfromfleshtodust;6.Sensedfeelings:skindeeporheartfelt
pleasant, painful, or neither?; 7. Progress hindrances: pleasures/illwill/sloth
torpor/agitation/doubtworry; 8. Psychological modalities: Body/Speech/Mind, sensing,
thinking,emoting/acting;9.Sensebases:contactofthesixsenseswiththeirfocusedobjects;
10. Awakening factors: analytic/forbearing/enthused/serene/focused/evenminded/aware;
11.4EnnoblingRealities:duhkha,causingtrouble,containmentandpractice;and12.8Fold
BalancingPracticeonviewsintentionspeechactionlivingeffortsawarenessattention.
PKThasacognitivebehaviouraloutlookconformtowhattheBuddhatoldusinthe
firstversesoftheDhammapada(myownrendering):

Mindisaforerunnerwhichleadsandmakesallexperience
Speakoractwithdefiledthoughtsandsufferingwillafflict
Likeawagonwheelthatfollowsthehoofsofadrawingox

Mindisaforerunnerwhichleadsandmakesallexperience
Speakoractwithserenethoughtsandhappinesswillensue
Likeashadowthatalwaysfollowsandneverleavesyou
67

Accordingtothespiritofthesestanzasthinkingmakesupexperiencefromcontentmentand
delighttodistressandagony.Cognitiveintention/motivationandbehaviouralaction/Karma
playacentralroleintheBuddhistanalysisandpracticeofchangewhichsuggestthatthereis
overlap between PKT and CognitiveBehaviour Therapy (CBT). It seems that they come
togetherinBASICI,whoseprocessestakeplaceinDependentOrigination.
Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppadavibhanga Sutta) is the summum bonum
oftheBuddhasandanyonesawakening.Itisaboutthecomingabout,appearing,topping,
anddisappearingofKarmaasactionwhichincludesintentionandmotivation.Ratherthan
law, principle, or doctrine, concepts incompatible with the spirit of free inquiry and of
emptiness,DependentOriginationpointsatacausalityhypothesisoftheontologically
mute(K.J.Gergenssocialconstructionistdescriptionwhichpointsatthenonfoundational
ultimate of all beliefs, which parallels the Buddhist emptiness). If we adhere to the
Buddhas admonition, in matters of un/wholesomeness only our own observation and
reasoning are our guru (Kalama Sutta). Dependent Origination is also known as the co
dependent, interdependent, nonindependent, or conditioned coarising, emergence or
mutual origination, whose relevance is emphasized by the Buddhas contention that the
understanding of Dependent Origination of Karma is the understanding of Dhamma.
Becauseofhisanalysisofthesetwoexperiences,theBuddhawasknownasananalystor
vibhajjavadin(SubhaSutta).
The causality hypothesis of Dependent Origination is also known as the this/that
fourfoldconditionality:(1)Whenthisis,thatis,(2)Fromthearisingofthiscomesthe
arisingofthat,(3)Whenthisisnt,thatisntand(4)Fromthecessationofthiscomes
thecessationofthat.Notethatthereisasuccessive/linearinputofthepast(2/4)anda
simultaneous/synchronicinputofthepresent(1/3).Takentogether,thetwocombineintoa
nonlinear or functional multicausality. Using the pronouns this/that emphasizes
transitoryrelativismofanactualpsychologicalevent.This/thatconditionalityimpliesthat
an experience arises because of other specific experiences and subsides because of the
arising of yet other specific experiences, and so on. Specific conditional patterns originate
sufferingandexperiencesarisepeaksubsideceasedependingontheconditionsofchange
processeswhichcanbesetintherapy.Thus,thereisDependentOriginationandeventually
cessation of BASICI suffering. Mostly, we feel, think and act habitually (asif on automatic
pilot),implyingthatexperienceisconditionedconformlearningpsychology,i.e.functionally
governedbyantecedentandconsequentfactors(MahakammavibhangaSutta).19
TheBuddhassequelaeofKarmacanbedescribedasamacroanalysisof12links
(nidanas) of Dependent Origination which, from a therapeutic point of view, refer to the
birth, death and rebirth of daily events of suffering due to emotional poisoning. Figure 3
(www.hgposthuma.nl/downloads/bijlagen.pdf) depicts the traditional display of these links
which serves the purpose of recognizing and will thus only be briefly outlined in a note.20
ThistraditionaldisplayisreformulatedandexplainedinpsychologicaltermsinFigure4.

19

Therefore, principles of classical conditioning (Pavlov), operant conditioning (Skinner) and vicarious
conditioning(Bandura),onwhichCBTrests,likelyapplytoKarmaaswell(e.g.Kwee&Ellis,1997).
20
The Wheel is a metaphorical cycle of suffering (Samsara) and liberation (Nirvana) with at the hub the 3
Poisons:arooster(greed),snake(hatred)andpig(ignorance)bitingineachotherstail.Turningarounditisa
circle depicting six variations of existence and rebirth, i.e. in the higher nirvanic realms (feeling
humane/achievemntfrustration, heavenly/pridedownfall and titanic/envyconflict, the upper part) and in the
lower samsaric realms (feeling hungry/greedkindness, hellish/hatredcompassion and animallike/ignorance
wisdom,thelowerpart).Emotionalrebirthineachoftheserealmsisaneffectofakarmiccause.Theoutercircle

68

Figure3:TraditionalDisplayofthe12LinksofKarma

consists of 12 links which refer to Dependent Origination of emotional poisoning (Culakammavibhanga Sutta).
They are: 1. ignorance, 2. Karma, 3. awareness, 4. Body/Speech/Mind, 5. six senses, 6. contact, 7. sensory
experience,8.craving,9.grasping/clinging,10.becoming,11.birthand12.oldageanddeathofkarmiccycle.
Yama,holdingtheWheel,symbolizestheeverpresenceofdeathandtheendofsamsariccycling.Betweenthe
poisons and the realms a circle with a white and a black half is depicted representing the possibility to rise
towardhappinessduetowholesomeKarmaandtofalltowardunhappinessduetounwholesomeKarma.

69

Figure4:APsychologicalInterpretationofthe12LinksoftheWheelofLife

Thispoisoningisselfinflicted:howdidwegethere,sittingonselfcreateddebris?Analysis
beginsintherightupperpartquadrantwithdistressandagonyduetoignoranceonhowthe
mind works. This is when the damage was done and we are left in sufferance. The two
quadrants below schedule our herenow mindfulness and are aimed at transforming
unwholesome/irrational BASICI into wholesome/rational BASICI in order to cease
emotional suffering and feel contentment. Eventually, once emotional arousal is
extinguished Nirvana is attained as a combined result of Karma Transformation and
meditation. The last quadrant predicts future karmic cycles which can be nirvanic
(continuouscontentment)orsamsaric(continuoussuffering)dependingonlessonslearned
ondealingwiththe3Poisons.

BuddhistPsychotherapy:KarmaandHetu
ItseemsthatthereisnootherwordinBuddhismwithamorecentralrole,amorecomplex
interpretation and a more controversial status than Karma (Mahakammavibhanga Sutta).
Karmas meaning is the Achilles heel of Buddhism and needs to be revised to evolve
BPP/PKT.WhateverKarmamightmean,itisinanycaseasocialconstructionwhosemeaning
does not exist in a cultural vacuum and could only be intelligible in relational context.
CentraltotheBuddhistKarmaisintention(sankappa)whichiscloselyrelatedtomotivation
(hetu).WhiletheliteralmeaningofKarmaissimplyact,action,deed,performance,conduct,
orbehaviour,itcanbeanythingthatonedoes(Body),says(Speech),orthinks(Mind)which
waspremeditated,plannedorintended.Thisappearsasantecedentsofdoing,talkingand
thinking,denotedas intention with connotationsofconation,volitionandmotivation,and
havetheirconsequentsderivedfromwhathasbeenthought,saidanddonepreviously(Hetu
Sutta).Action,intentionandmotivationdonotoperateinavoid;theycannotbutarisefrom
and impact relationship. Karma comes in the picture when problematic consequences
present themselves and found expression through Body/Speech/Mind (Kiriya Sutta). In
principle,therearenineKarmamanifestations(seeTable4).
70

Table4:NineVariationsofKarmaManifestation


Karma
KarmicAntecedents
KarmicBehaviourItself
KarmicConsequents

Body
4
1
7

Speech
5
2
8

Mind
6
3
9

TheimportanceofKarmaisfurtheremphasizedbytheBuddhastitlesinaccordance
tothesethreevariations:kammavadin(counselor/guruofKarma),hetuvadin(guruofKarma
motivation), or kiriyavadin (guru of Karma effects). Here is a downtoearth/thisworldly
proposition:ifarebirthisarebirthofstatesofemotionalpoisoningleadingtodistressand
agony,thisrebirthcouldbecalledanemotionalepisodeofanevent.Asamultiplicityof
causesisinvolvedwithrebirth,Karmadoesnotfollowthelinearcausalityofnaturalscience
andisasMiddleWaywhichisnondeterministic,nonfatalisticandnonaccidental.Helpfulin
order to understand clearly, despite the complication to see the forest for the trees of so
many roving interpretations, Karmas working mechanisms could be called feedback
functionality.Functionsuggestsalinkrangingfromcorrelationtocausationandfeedback
point at a dynamic handling of emotionally resonant karmic antecedent factors through
loopsleadingtothepresentact.Thiskarmicactistheresultofun/wholesomenesschoices
which are based on pinpointed/calculated consequences of karmic paths going forward.
After measuring the act, the feedback loops can run oncemore whereby every karmic act
stimulates new activity inching closer to un/wholesome goals. Functionality (patthana)
impliesthattheredoesnotneedtobeanimmediatetemporallinkbetweenrebirths.Other
rebirthsmaycomeinbetweenaparticularstrandofrebirths.

Obviously,itisnottheoutwardshowoffactionofKarma,butthequalityofprivate
intention/sankappa that counts, captured by motivation, which is critical for
wholesomeness. The Buddha reasoned according to the principle of logical fate when
stating that genuine un/wholesome action will accrue un/wholesome results.
Un/wholesomeness refers to an inner state of calm/tranquility and does not target a
externalgoalslikewealth,sex,drugs,orrocknroll(cf.SannogaSutta).Aterminflatedby
erroneousmeaningsismerit(punna)which,influencedbypreBuddhistthoughtandsky
god religions, has become a concept pointing at the hope that good deeds will produce
credit to carry over to a next life in the beyond. This is as if the present moment is not
precious enough to cherish and notwithstanding the Buddhas admonition not to get
involved in metaphysics. Incurred Karma is necessarily entangled in past Karma and hopes
forthefuture,butthepastandthefuture,ifmetaphysicsarediscounted,cannotbutrefer
to thisworldly life. To be sure, a psychological approach necessitates upayakaushalya/S
whichrevitalizesthemeaningofrebirthandKarmabyenvisioningtherebirthofemotional
episodestoceasekarmicdistressandagonyherenow.
Peopleseekcounselwhenintroubleandstuckintheconsequencesofresultantfruit
(vipakaphala).Hence,clientandtherapistanalyzethesituationbygoingbacktothekarmic
act itself and eventually to what motivated the act causing the result (vipakahetu). It is
thereby important to responsibly own Karma instead of blaming others or circumstances.
Karmaisinherited,thusinescapableoncetheconditionswereputinplace(Upajjhatthana
Sutta).BecauseBuddhismleavesroomforchoice,onecanalwaysimproveKarma.Thisstarts
withbalancedviews(thefirststepofthe8FoldBalancingPractice)whichdeterminehetu:
motivation(NibbedhikaSutta).Likeindetectiveplots,PKTisallaboutsearchingmotivesto
71

understandwhyoneactedasonedidwithsufferingasaresultandmoreimportantly:how
to change it. To leave no stone unturned, Vasubandhu (4th century), an epistemologist
psychologist of the Mahayana/Yogacara school and the last of the great innovators of
Buddhism, emphasized motivational causes/hetu and conditions/pratyaya. These will
accruefruitaccordingtoacyclicalspiralliketheyearlyseasons,wherebyKarmaiscauseand
effectaswellaseffectandcause.Amotivationalcausefollowsthetrajectoryfromseedto
sprouttotree;amotivationalconditionisforinstancefavourableweather(Anacker,2005).
Karma is ripening nonstop; we are always in some Body/Speech/Mind activity which is
functionaltothefuture.Thereforeitispossibletoexercisefreewillorratherfreewontto
curbunwholesomenessandshapeKarma.21

Obviously,forPKTKarmaandhetuareofutmostimportant.Nonetheless,howKarma
exactly comes to fruition and bears fruit is, according to the Buddha, unfathomable. It is
incomprehensibleandimpenetrable,andtranscendsthelimitsoftheconceivable(Acinteyya
Sutta).22Becausetheydonotleadtotheendofsuffering,itissenselesstospeculateabout
it. This futility is elucidated in the simile about the man shot by a poison arrow (Sallatha
Sutta). Hit by greed, hatred and ignorance, the untrained mind feels bodily and mental
distress.Itfeelspainasifhitbytwoarrows.However,ifaskilful/mindfulmindisstruckbya
poisonarrow,itisnotdistraught.Thepersonwillonlyfeelbodilypainasifhitbyjustone
arrow.Thesecondarrowofmentalpainistheselfcausedemotionalsuffering,whichmight
aggravatethroughviciouscycling,apsychologicalprocessturningeffectintocauseorwhich
might be curbed. All of us can be hit by a poison arrow any time of the day and if that
happens, whats next? Suppose, as the Buddha narrated (Culamalunkya Sutta), the man
allowedremovalofthearrowonlyifheknewwhoshothim,hisname,clan,age,birthplace,
occupation,heightandallaboutthematerialshewasshotwith.Thatmanwoulddiebefore
knowing all of this. In other words, to change Karma is to focus on healing psychological
pain.Howtotransformrevengeintoforgivenessherenow?
The present reformative/secular/nonconfessional view might be disillusioning to
Buddhist fundamentalists (Loy, 2008) who prefer supernatural interpretations of Karma,
but it opens new avenues for improvement. The social construction of PKT endorses the
adage:Sowathought,reapanact;sowanact,reapahabit;sowahabit,reapacharacter;
sow a character, reap a destiny. As in the Gospel According to Pogo (a longrunning
Americandailycomicstrip),wehavemettheenemyandheisus.

PsychotherapybyKarmaTransformation
WhileBuddhismandpsychotherapymayhavelookedlikestrangebedfellows,habituation
mighthavegrownatthisjuncture.AttractiveisthecoupleBuddhismandCBT,whosewed
was celebrated in two anthologies (Kwee, Gergen & Koshikawa, 2006; Kwee 2010a) and
whoseoffspringisthepresentPKT.PsychotherapybyKarmaTransformationaimsatceasing
distress and agony by a system of helping based on the nonspecific factors of loving
kindness,empathiccompassion,sympatheticjoyand relationalequanimity,andonspecific

21

The reality of a free wont rather than free will was shown experimentally (Libet, 1985): preparatory
brain activity occurs hundreds of milliseconds prior to the choice to move a finger. This finding was also
corroborated by brain imaging methods (Soon, Brass, Heinze & Haynes, 2008). The delay likely reflects a
networkof cortical control areas preparing an imminent decision beforeitenters consciousnessand fitsthe
Buddhistneither/nor.
22
Karma is one of the 4Unthinkables; the others are: the potential range of a Buddha, the limits of
concentrative (jhana) meditation and the speculation on the worlds beginning/end and its spacetime
in/finiteness.

72

factors, technical procedures administered during a process of ongoing assessment and

remedy,whichincludesmindfulnessbasedmeditations, toaccruewholesomekarmiceffect
ofBody/Speech/Mindinthelargercontextofseekingawakening.Thequintessenceofthe
enemyisusisthatperniciousnessissneakinginsidelikeacankeringprocess,unnoticedby
awarenessand hittingby surprise. This habitual process is known as papanca which is the
obsessive elaboration and proliferation of distortions and falsifications through emotional
craving, cognitive grasping and behavioural clinging. These can be designated as irrational
hypermentationwhichperpetuatedistressandagony.Their/rationalperspective,linkedto
the CBTschool of RationalEmotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) founded in 1958, was so
appealingtomytakeofBuddhism(Kwee&Holdstock,1996)thatitsfounder,thelegendary
AlbertEllis,andIdecidedtopublishaboutitsconfluence(Kwee&Ellis,1998).
According to the Buddha (Akasa Sutta), emotional sequelae occur amidst a flux of
freeassociativethoughtsandfeelingstobemindfulof,

Just as various winds blow in the sky... so, various feelings arise in this very body
[which are] pleasant, unpleasant and neutral... having fully understood the
complexityof]feelings[thepractitionerofmindfulness]isfreedinthisverylife

PKT taps from and intervenes in gusty winds by transforming what one papancizes into
reasonableness but not before one is aware of and pays attention to what needs to be
improved through mindfulness. The racing of papanca is the opposite of herenow
mindfulness of sense experiencing. It draws away from the actual situation. Thus,
mindfulnesscomesfirsttomaketheclientawarethats/hefeelsandthinksinaprolificway.
PKTs centerpiece is the Karma Sequence which is a working device to structurecognitive
behavioural change during therapy sessions. Wholesomeness is pursued by a technical
procedure along the 5Skandhas in an ABCformat meant to change distress and agony
throughrationalthinking.
Intheframeworkofaregrettablekarmicact(conformtheprevioustable),thereare
Antecedents(senseevents:vedana),Beliefs(irrationalcognitions:sanna)andConsequences
(conatingemotions:sankhara).ThisfiringorderiscorroboratedintheMadhupindikaSutta:

Dependentontheeyeandforms,eyeconsciousnessarises.Themeetingofthethree
iscontact.Withcontactasaconditionthereissensefeeling.Whatonefeels[vedeti]
that one perceives [sanjana]. What one perceives [A] that one reasons [vitakka]
about.Whatonecognizes[B]thatonementallyproliferates[papanca:C].

Aspointedoutbefore,thesequenceofDependentOriginationofKarmafollowsacircular,
cyclical, functional and nonlinear scheme with variegating feedback links. Considering
therebytheoverlapbetweenmodalities,otherfiringordersarepossible(SakkaPanhaSutta
andtheKalahaVivadaSutta).Thekeyisobsessiveproliferating(papanca),whichisongoing
andusuallywardoffbymindfulnessbutcouldalsobecounteredinadialogueofrational
reasoning (vitakka) by a specific procedure which could be designated as REBTbased
Karma Transformation. This procedure enables the analysis of papancizing to determine
thetargetcognitions.
Papancizinginvolvesselfsabotagingbyselfinflictedselfdefilingthoughtsandself
afflictingemotions.Centraltothisnotionistheirrationalselftalkregardingcraving,grasping
andclingingwhicharefeaturedbyirrationalmusts/shouldsandmustnots/shouldnots.
Taking the five hindrances as an example, progress could be hampered by pleasure/ill
will/slothtorpor/agitation/doubtworry whose irrational selftalk sounds like (1) I
73

must/shouldhaveit(sensepleasure),(2)S/hemust/shouldnothavedonethat(illwill),
(3) Life must/should be easy (slothtorpor), (4) What if that happens? Awful!, it
must/shouldnotbe(agitation)and(5)HowterriblethatIvedoneit,Imafailure,Idont
deserveawakening(doubtworry).Theselamentingphraseswouldintherapybecountered
byquestioning:(1)Whereistheevidence(doesthisselftalkcorrespondtoknownfacts)?(2)
WillIreachmygoalofserenity/contentmentbytalkingthiswaytomyself?(3)DoIprevent
conflicts with myself and others by telling myself these things? Skilfully answering these
queriesconstructsrationalcognitionsofwholesomeaffectasseedforfutureKarma.

AthisworldlylifeisnotalifeofbeyondismwithprojectionsofBrahma,devasand
hellbeings,butisalifeincommunalcontextwhichadherestothesoberingadage:tobe
social is spiritual enough. The Buddhas explanations of Karma have made this relational
spiritquiteclear,notonlybyaddingspeechinhisparadigm,butalsobyexcludingKarmas
allinclusive causality. Karmic outcome is not exclusively conditioned by the conduct itself,
butalsobywhom,whereandwhen.Thisconditionalitytiesintopsychotherapyscanonof
scientificspecificityonwhatdeterminesoutcome:who,what,where,whenandunderwhat
circumstances?Knowingaboutthesespecificities,astreamentererontheBuddhistpath
will be able to correct, amend and improve unwholesomeness because s/he is aware and
attentive incontrasttosomeonewholivesinunmindfulness. Advisably,oneismindfulof
the Buddhas rejection of metaphysics when dealing with Karma. In the Tevijja Sutta the
Brahmin Vasettha discussed with the Buddha on the union with Brahma, the creator. The
Buddha asked him whether he or his teacher, or his teachers teacher up to the seventh
generation had ever seen Brahma. Vasetthas denial sparked the Buddhas humorous
comment on the opponents logic by comparing his behaviour with that of a person who
decided to love the most beautiful girl in the world without knowing her name, looks,
complexion, height, dwelling, or descent. Furthermore, the Buddha discouraged religious
ritualstoenforcegoodKarma.Ontop,neverdidheinstructhisstudentstoprayordidhe
ever wish to be worshipped, or did he claim to be anything else than awakened (Dona
Sutta).

InClosing
Personal contact and discussion with P.M.W. de Silva (2011), philosopher, counselor and
pioneerofBuddhistPsychology, highlighted three perspectivesstandingoutasrelevantto
discussing Karma: (1) In the background of the Buddha's presentation of Karma and
Dependent Origination (the dynamic interactivity of Body/Speech/Mind through sensing
thinkingemotingbehaving),therearedifferenttraditionsandtheoriesofdeterminismand
indeterminism. The Buddha struck Middle Way by stating that Karma is neither
deterministicnorindeterministic,thusdefinitelyleavingroomforfreewillandtherapeutic
interventionwhereonehasthepotentialtoactwithimpactonthetransformationofKarma
intheimmediatepresent.(2)TherearethreepointsonKarma:i.e.theBuddha'sknowledge
of (a) his own past lives, (b) others past lives and (c) an experiential dimension. To my
knowledge,(a)and(b)havebecomedeviatedfromtheBuddhasnonmetaphysicaltakeof
life;followingOccamsrazorthereisnoneedforapsychotherapisttobecomemetaphysical.
Itis(c)whichisrelevanttoalleviatesuffering.(3)WhyisKarmareferredtoasthe"Lawof
MoralCausation"?Thisissuebegsthequestion.

IMHOBuddhismcanatbestbedescribedasmoralitywithoutethicswhichisbased
on what could be called a nonfoundational morality of collaborative practice (like e.g.
illustratedintheSigalovadaSuttawhichisacodeofconducttowardparents,teachers,wife,
74

friends, servants and sages, and in the pancasila: no killing, stealing, lies, aberrations, or
drugs).Preceptsarenotmeantaspunitiveimperativesbutasrulestofacilitatepractice,
justlikeinpsychotherapy.Conceptualizingmoralityisrootedintheemptinessofdiffering
interpersonal values. Considering that musts/shoulds are anathema in the Buddhist
pursuitoffreeinquiry,Buddhistmoralityisbasedonrelationalmotivation.Viewedfromthis
perspective there is no morality without relationship. Therefore, the focus is not on
individual moral agency, but on the relational process itself through reflective
negotiationandtransformationaldialogue.23SuchisexemplifiedintheJatakaallegories
andsomeMahayanatexts(UpayakaushalyaSutraandMahaparinirvanaSutra)wherelying
and killing by the Bodhisattva (Buddhatobe) are allowed in certain life circumstances.
Notably, Buddhism lacks the term sin. It filters karmic action by assessing its
un/wholesomeness, not by determining what is absolute evil or wrong. An act is
rejected not because of its intrinsic unwholesomeness, but because of its unwholesome
effectasagreedincommunalcontext.ThisimpliesthatBuddhismisnonethicalbutnota
moral (e.g. by rejecting the caste system). After all Buddhisms prime interest is to end
suffering.Itsinterestliesinhowpeoplebehavetowardeachotherindailypractice,notin
ethicaltheories:apreoccupationofWesternphilosophers?
AsKarunadasa(2001)elucidated,humaneffort(viriyavada)isinthekarmicprocessa
factor offreewilltoactwhichis,astheBuddhasaid,like walkingupanddown with our
owneffort.Buddhistmoralityisnotimposedbyagod,norisittheBuddhasinvention.As
intheDhammapada,theBuddhas positionis basedoneffort:Weourselves oughttodo
whatoughttobedone.TheTathagatasjustshowtheway.Tobesure,theBuddhadidnot
claimtobeasaviorwhoredeemedthesinsofmankind.Hewastheawakenedonewho
paved the way for others to awaken from the slumber of ignorance. Hence, he was the
torchbearer to mankind (ukkadharo manussanam). In accord to a psychotherapists
stance, which avoids moralizing, the teachings are not injunctions and commandments of
moralitybutguidelinesforwholesomeactionwhicharedescriptiveratherthanprescriptive.
The purpose is to show the way, not to coerce; there is no blaming for past conduct. A
psychologicaltakeofKarma,strippedofmetaphysicalnotions,isnolessthanarenaissance
ofthetroubledconcept.
HavingreviewedmostofwhatisrelevantonKarma,IsubmitthattheBuddhacould
be called the first psychotherapist ever. His teaching of notself is as yet the first and
foremost, and only one in the world. Because notself, and the self for that matter, is
quintessentialtopsychologicaltreatment,PKTmighthopefullysoonbelongtomainstream
psychology and the professional discipline of psychotherapy. Rigorous training is required.
Considering the finding that psychotherapy is highly effective no matter what theory or
modelisused,itisrecommendedthatthepracticeandtrainingofPKTmakeuseofavailable
research data. These recommendations are (www.talkingcure.com): (1) use the clients
theory of change to guide choice of technique, (2) enhance the factors that account for
success, (3) be changefocused, (4) tap into the client's world outside of therapy, (5)
potentiateanyandallchangeforthefutureand(6)obtainhonestfeedbackontheclients
experienceofprocessandoutcome.Ineffect,itmightbeconcludedthatalthough"wedo
notknowwhypsychotherapyworks(Wampold,2001),itisknownthatthetheorybehind
the techniques and the strictness of adherence are both irrelevant. Significant factors are:
(1) the therapist's strength of belief in the effectiveness of treatment, (2) the therapists

23

This requires understanding of Relational Buddhism: the confluence of social constructionism and
relationalinterbeing(www.icundv.com/vesak2011/panel2/09MGTKweeFINAL.pdf).

75

personality and (3) the rapport between client and therapist. The latter implies mutuality
with regard to meaning making, reciprocal affection and trust in the alliance. Other key
factorsaremotivationandcollaborationoftheclient,andtheempathicrespondingofthe
therapist.

These characteristics are by definition cultivated in Buddhism, with its 2600 years
experience in helping, and particularly so in PKT. It boils down to developing an art of
dexterity and responsiveness to the human predicament, which is a downtoearth
craftsmans approach. PKT matches excellently with all the conditions for a bona fide
psychotherapyasreviewedinthisessay.HelpedbyarenaissanceoftheconceptofKarma,
PKTcouldblazeintothehighestranksofpopularityinpsychologyandBuddhism.

76

Chapter4
KarmaAssessmentandMethodicGuidelines

Introduction
PsychotherapybyKarmaTransformation(PKT)includesanongoingmacroscopicassessment
oftopographicaldiagnosis(structure)andfunctionalanalysis(process)oftheclientsstatus
of suffering (varying from states of feeling unsatisfactory to agony to pathology).
Topographical diagnosis is the itemizing of observed symptoms (features and signs)
categorized according to the 5Skandhas or BASICI, an acronym for: BehaviourAffect
SensationImageryCognitionInterrelationships.Functionalanalysisistheintegrationofthe
loosely gathered clinical items in five vicious cycles of assumed BASICI multicausal
continuity.Thetermclinicalreferstothetherapistsskilltobeabletobeidiosyncraticand
specific in identifying karmic variables and attributing karmic causality. The assessment of
topographyandfunctionoftherapeutictargetsisaprocessofsynthesistowardanoverview
and setting a strategy of transforming Karma. Both refer to the macro level of global
variables which is different from the micro level which targets the specific and concrete
events,feelingsandthoughtslikefrommomenttomomentselftalk.
A system of transforming Karma, defined as meaningful intentional/cognitive
(inter)action/behaviour), is a collaborative practice requiring the meaningful exchange
between a psychotherapist (teacher/trainer) and a client in order to establish mental
assessment and psychological change. The therapist skilfully supports, encourages and
nurtures the clients wholesome affective/relational performances. Both are engaged in
transformativedialogue,auniquefacilitatingconversationalencounterwhereineachtries
to locate oneself versus the other thus finding inflection points effecting positional shifts
going forward and opening up new territories. This Relational Buddhist dialogue is a
venture whose effective transformational outcome depends on the mutual affirmation of
evolving realities, thus creating new wholesome narratives of reality. Engaging in such a
healinganddetoxifyingdialoguerequirescommunicationskillsoflisteningtotheimplication
ofwhatissaid(contentmessage)andtohowitissaid(relationalmeaning).
PKT inheres in a renovative dialogue and does not rule out empirical research. It
refiguresquantitativeresearchanditspotentials.Attemptstostudyphenomenaoftheself
contained mind (such as self, emotion, affect, cognition, perception, motivation, beliefs or
attitudes) deal with ephemeral social constructions. If history is our guide, the ideal of
cumulativeknowledgeisafiction(Gergen,1996).Nonetheless,empiricalresearchdoeshave
actuarial value by virtue of its power to predictrecurring karmic patterns emerging out of
thewellspringofhumanconduct,amongothers:thepredictionofvarioussocialindicators
(e.g.accidents)andhealthindicators(e.g.obesity).Itspotentialincludesoutcomestudiesof
cognitivebehaviouraltechniquesprovidingpragmaticevidenceasaneversettledbasisto
idiosyncratic practice (e.g. Butler, Chapman, Forman & Beck, 2006). Empirical evidence of
efficacy is the prevailing benchmark in scienceoriented cultures and generally preferred
above irrational practices based on magic or the supernatural. The use of evidencebased
procedures does not imply that the person is a robot. A psychotechnology of assessment
andtherapycanonlytakeholdinaharmoniouscollaborativematch.

Psychopathology in a limited sense refers to mental conditions as discerned by

classification systems (e.g. American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical
77

Manual of Mental Disorders).24 Mental refers to behavioural, affective, cognitive and

perceptual suffering diagnosable by interview resulting in a mental status of symptoms in
context of ones psychological life history. Neurophysiological measurements and
psychological tests pinpointing criteria could complement the examination. Pathological
categoriesaresocioculturalconstructionsofexpertcommittees.Changingovertime,their
validity is not definite. Nomenclatures are convenient as they facilitate communication
amongstcliniciansandadministrators.Presently,morethan300anomaliesarecategorized,
including depressive, anxiety, somatoform, dissociative, sexual, eating and sleeping
disorders,tomentionanumberofwidelyusedlabels.Maintopicofthischapteristheso
called neurotic and personality disorders which revolve around emotional disturbance.
WhilerecognizingitsstigmatizingeffectPKTusessyndromaldiagnosisofpsychopathology,
thusenablingcommunicationwithcolleaguesinmainstreamhealthcare,butemphasizinga
broadspectrumdiagnosisofkarmicBASICI,areformulationoftheSkandhas.
FromaBuddhistassessmentperspectivedisorderiscentredroundthe3Poisonsof
greed, hatred and ignorance on how mind works: inbetween people rather than behind
theeyeballsinbetweentheears. Emotional disturbance lies at the heart of the karmic
sequence of morbid emotional episodes and is based on these root poisons of relational
harmony. Greed encompasses griefsadness (of parting) and panicfear (losing somebody),
hatredencompassesanger/agression(blamingothers)anddepression(blamingself).These
emotionsarethetargetofPKTwhichmodelofthemindissimilartotheREBTmodelofthe
psyche. Because mind is the forerunner of (un)wholesomeness, it is imperative to assess
karmic patterns of thinking underlying relational scenarios of basic emotions: depression,
anxiety,anger,sadness,joy,loveandsilence/emptinessawakening,toeventuallyimplement
lovingkindness, empathiccompassion and delightful joy in relational balance. Ignorance
also alludes to a deficiency in insight on minds truncating illusions and twisted delusions,
andtoalackofselfunderstandingonBASICI.
Personality or self is considered not to be a transmigrating psyche or soul which
mightleavethebodylikeabutterfly.Itisratheraprovisionalconcept/abstractionwhichis
ultimately an empty illusion. Based on the 3Poisons (greed, hatred and ignorance),
Buddhagosha (5th century), already classified six personality temperaments: three pairs of
unwholesomeandwholesometypologies:(1)Greedvs.(2)NonGreed(e.g.generosity),(3)
Hatredvs.(4)NonHatred(e.g.kindness),(5)Ignorancevs.(6)NonIgnorance(e.g.wisdom).
We are impermanent Body/Speech/Mind personalities specifiable in BASICI modalities
operating in a flux of Dependent Origination of the Skandhas: sensingfeeling (vedana),
thinkingemoting (sanna) and intendingbehaving (sankhara). Emotional disorders are
viewed as relational scenarios in Dependent Origination of BASICI: processes
understandableiftelescopedinmindfulness.Weareperceiverandconceiverofinterlinked
and partly overlapping BASICI modalities as they concurrently arise, peak, subside and
cease.

24

PsychopathologyincludesFreudiandefencesagainstemotionalpainwhichoperateinunawarenessandare
an indispensible subject of assessment. In Buddhist terms, these are cognitive reactions which avoid/escape
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Repression is the Gfactor of defensiveness which distorts
awareness by shifting attention from painful thought/feeling/behaviour (observable by selective perception
and slips of the tongue). Other truncating defences are denial, projection, displacement, undoing,
sublimation, isolation and regression. Curiously, the Buddha already described them (Khalunka Sutta) by
comparingthemwithfrustratedhorsesabreactions.Dischargingdiscontentment,duhkhaduhkhaiscreatedby
selfbeguiling.Mindfulnessisconducivetoliftsuchsuffering.

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KarmaandSkandhas/BASICIModalities
Although the term Karma has been adopted in vernacular English and in many other
languages without being translated, this appropriation did not help to fully grasp its
psychological meaning.25 Allocating Karma a central place, the Buddha attributed a
secular/nonmetaphysical meaning to the concept as an emotional episode of intentional
action and eventspecific related consequences adhering to Dependent Origination of
feelingthought(inter)action.ThemostradicalaspectoftheBuddhascausalityviewliesin
histhis/thatconditionality:(1)whenthisis,thatis;(2)fromthearisingofthiscomesthe
arising of that; (3) when this isnt, that isnt; and (4) from the cessation of this comes the
cessationofthat.Thiscausalitycomprisestheinterplayofalinearprincipleandanonlinear
principlewhichcombinedformasynchronicpattern.Thelinearprincipletakes2and4and
thenonlinearis1and3.Whenthetwoprinciplescombine,agiveneventisinfluencedbya
(relational)inputfromthepastanda(relational)inputfromthepresent.Interactionmakes
theirconsequencescomplex(MahakammavibhangaSutta).
Thus,Karmaisnotamystifyingwhatgoesaroundcomesaroundformula,neither
doesitalludetoafateordestinyarrangementofreincarnationaHimalayanatavismbut
to active choice according to corresponding intention grounded in relational meaning in a
dynamic homeostatic process. Feelingthoughtaction interdependently originating and
ceasinghavethepotentialtodeveloptowardentropy(decayandchaos),likeindepression,
ortowardnegentropy(growthandorder),likeinjoy.Karmictroubleariseswhenignorance
ontheemptinessofselfleadstogreedgraspingandhatredclinging.Itisthereforeofthe
utmostimportancetoelucidateselfsemptinessandanalysetheinterpersonalmeaningof
grasping and clinging. Grasping and clinging are, like most daily experiences, habitual
behavioural patterns learned in interaction and seemingly happening like habits,
automatically. Bad habits form the bulk of regrettable Karma and regret is usually the
startingpointforreflection,contemplation,meditationandalbeit:psychotherapy.26
HabitscomeaboutbyinterplayofthecodependingSkandhasorBASICI,modalities
whichcanbediscernedbutnotseparated.27Theselfexistsonlyasamindconstructionthat

25

In Brahmanism the term Karma carries a religious meaning where it is believed to be a spiritual law of
retributivejusticethatworkslikeabankaccountstretchingacrossreincarnatedlifetimeswhereinmeritorious
deedsarerewarded,unmeritoriousdeedspunished.
26
Interestingly, the concept of intentional activity was recently discovered in the literature of Positive
Psychology and happiness (Lyubomirsky, 2008), seemingly without being aware of the Buddhist definition of
Karma.IntheBuddhistlorehappinessisarelevantaimconsideredtobeafluidexperienceamidstadversities
and an epiphenomenon in the pursuit of meaning while practicing Dharma. Research (e.g. Lyubomirsky,
Sheldon & Schkade, 2005) suggests that un/happiness is determined by: a genetic setpoint (50%),
circumstantial factors (10%) and intentional activity (40%), called Karma in Buddhism. This finding opens a
window of opportunity for happiness (which from a Relational Buddhist point of view is necessarily within
relationship).Humanbeingsareequippedbyan idiosyncraticgeneticsetpointforun/happinesscomparable
withasetpointforweightorlengthwhichishardlymodifiable.Peoplewithhighsetpointswillfinditeasierto
behappy,whilepeoplewithlowsetpointswillhavetoworkhardertoachieveandmaintainhappinessunder
similar conditions. Long term overall circumstances include correlational demographics like age, health,
education,money,country,religionormaritalstatus.Whilethesefactorsmatter,theyonlydetermineasmall
percentagetoun/happiness.Duetohumanhedonicadaptation,itisamisguidedhopethattheyimpactlong
lastingun/happiness.Rapidlyaccustomedtosensoryorphysiologicchanges,theydelivershortlivedboostsof
happiness.Happypeopledonotjustsitaroundbeinghappy.Theymakethingshappenandthisactivityspins
offabyproductwhichishappinessoverandabovethegeneticsetrangeandlifecircumstances.
27
TheBASICIisanacronymforthemodalitiesofBehaviour(action,doing),Affect(emotion,feeling),Sensation
(perception,feeling),Imagery(visualization,thinking),Cognition(conception,thinking),Interpersonalrelations

79

artificiallyfreezesthefluxofBASICIprocesses.Karmacomprisesthe5Skandhasofclinging:
body (rupa) and mind (nama), i.e., perceiving (vedana), conceiving (samjna), conating
(samskara),andconsciousnessawareness(vijnana),thesequentialfactorsofanemotional
episode. I submit that the BASICI modalities reflect the meaning of the Skandhas most
adequately. Buddhist scholars (nonpsychologists) have offered various different, often
contradictory, translations, inferences and meanings for the Skandhas as in Table 1 (cf.
Gethin,1998).(Theitalicizedtermscorrespondwithmymultimodalviewofthem.)

Table1:BuddhologistsInterpretationsoftheSkandhas

AUTHOR
Bernard
Thierry

RUPA

VEDANA SAMJNA

SAMSKARA

VIJNANA

Corporeality

Sensation

Representation

Formation

Knowledge

Edgerton

physical form

Feeling
Sensation

notion / idea
conception

Predispositions

Guenther

expressive form Feeling

Sensation

Motivation

perception

Conception

Volition

Practical
Knowledge
Discrimination
psych process
mentalism
Cs

Feeling

Perception

Dispositions

Cs

Sensation

Perception

aggregate of
formations

Cs / thought
Faculty

Feeling

Perception

Mental formations Cs

Sensation

Perception

Mental
Formations

matter / form
Inagaki
Kalupahana material form
Monier
bodily forms
Williams

Nyanatiloka Corporeality

conscience
knowledge

Rahula

Matter

C.Rhys
Davids

seen-thing / body Feeling

Perception

activities planning mind / survivor

Soothill

Reception
form,
feeling
sensuous quality
sensation

thought / Cs /
perception

Action
mental activity

D.T.Suzuki

material
existence

perception
sensation

Mental perception Volition

Cs of mind
Ideas
& related activities

Gethin

Form

Feeling

Recognition

Takakusu

Form

perception

ideas conception Volition

volitional forces/formations

Cognition

self-Cs
Cs/Mind

BASICI reflects the topography and structure of a provisional state, called self (or
personality) which at bottom is viewed as an intersection of relationships. Taking place in
relative awareness and depending on wilfully paid consecutive concentration to what is
attended, daily experiencing is often habitual. Habitual responses happen automatically
conformtotheprinciplesofclassical,operantandvicariouslearning(Kwee&Lazarus,1986).
From a relational Buddhist perspective learning principles are metaphors which
together constitute a coherent narrative for change. Change takes place in collaborative

(interaction, doing). The BASICI is a function of consciousness and neurogenetic Drives, i.e. the origin of
elementaryintentionandmotivationliketheneedforwater,food,sex,clothingandshelter.

80

conversation,apracticecharacterizedbyscepticism(aboutimmutableknowledgeandthe
truth), particularism (nobody is the same), interactionism (intelligibility emerges through
coaction) and connectivism (we are interlinked in Dependent Origination). Habit as an
inadequatereactiontoaStimulussituationrequiresanewadequateResponsetobefigured
out by the Organism. Whether what was emitted is adequate and wholesome is an
evaluation on the cognitive/affectiveemotional level. Affect inheres in relational meaning
and can be any inner shortlived or longterm feeling varying from moods, preferences,
stances, attitudes, dispositions to strong emotive experiences with a positive, negative or
neutral quality. An inadequate Response is connected to some emotional disturbed or
unhappyfeeling,extinguishablecandleflames,andisoftenthestartofvoluntaryattention
and awareness of the modalities for the sake of change. These might be experienced as a
SICABIfiringorderSensationImageryCognitionAffectBehaviourInterpersonal,asequence
correspondingwithKarmasvicissitudesinDependentOrigination.
Regret is usually the beginning of assessing Karma and focusing on the sequential
unhappyfeeling,depictedmacroscopicallyinSOR/BASICItermsofPKT,asfollows:

(1) MindBody Skandha (namarupa): A momentary Stimulus configuration contacts

(sparsa) and impinges on the Organism, i.e. the somatic radar screen of the sense
organs which detects and wilfully attends in awareness amidst streaming
consciousness a momentary stimulus configuration of external and/or internal
dharmas:thesmallestmindobjects/unitsofexperience.
(2) Perceiving Skandha (vedana): Sensation After wilfully attending, there is
perceptionandapperception,apostperceptualbutpreconceptualtinymomentof
dharmaperception,impactedbymemoryandrecognitionandweighinginonAffect;
theOrganismexperiencesasensoryaffectivefeelingimmediatelyratedasrelatively
positive,negativeorneutral.
(3)ConceivingSkandha(samjna):Imagery/CognitionTheStimulus,i.e.thedharma,
becomes a representation through visualization and conceptualization, dualistically
classified as black/white, good/bad, right/wrong, etc., against the backdrop of
memory fits/misfits, further fabricated and proliferated as beliefs, attitudes,
judgmentsandvaluesbytheOrganism.
(4) Conating Skandha (samskara): Affect/Behaviour Subsequently, having
appraised, the Organism emits an emotive Response that motivates a volitional or
intentional act of Karma, a karmic Response which is automatic and habitual or
planned and prepared through selftalk and more often than not expressed in a
contextofInterpersonalrelationshipsthroughspeech.
(5)ConsciousnessSkandha(vijnana):Onecanonlybeawareofdharmasinthespace
of consciousness as SOR/SICAB sequence wherein usually the formation of Ime
mine/self illusions and god delusions takes place automatically and the attack of
othersasselfdefenceissanctioned;meditationisameasuretobypassaresorttoa
provisionalself(psychotherapytakesplaceintherealmoftheself).

InPKTonecanlearntobecomeawareofthe(re)birthoriginationarisingpeaking
subsidingceasingofemotionalepisodes,e.g.joy,sadness,fearoranger,oftheDependent
Origination, interplay and firing order of themodalities,and discover that craving leads to
grasping and clinging onto illusory certainties. These illusions can be unveiled by being
mindfulofthesenseperceptionofdharmaswhichcanbedesignatedassocialconstructions,
notablyperceivablesi.e.,visibles,hearables,smellables,tasteablesandtouchablesand
81

thinkables,i.e. images,conceptsas wellasmemories, dreamsanddelusions. Meditation

accruing wisdom and virtue is a means to decondition or unlearn and metaphorically
extinguish karmic agony like candle flames. Extinction of emotional arousal is callend
Nirvanawhichisnotaplacetogoliterallyafterdeath,norisitastateofbeingoutoforbit.
Nirvana is rather an unmoved condition of silence and cessation of an episode after an
emotionsorginationarisingpeakingsubsiding.Nirvanaisattainedforinstanceifanxietyis
extinguished by exposure treatment or when depression is dispelled by cognitive
restructuring.NirvanacouldbeatemporarystateoralastingtraitofhavingbypassedIme
mine/self.Indailylife,NirvanaandSamsaracycleconsequentialtoKarma.
The domino pieces metaphor of Karma delineates Dependent Origination
extensivelybyexplicatingtheinterplayof12interlinkedelements(Conze,1980).Detailedas
amacroscopiccycle,itisathisworldly/herenowSORinterpretationofa12factorprocess
in three phases of awareness: an initial phase, a middle phase and a final phase. The
graphicalrepresentationofaging,deathandrebirthhavemadecredulousBuddhistsbelieve
that this traditional exposition is about reincarnation, the soul and Transcendental Truth,
rather than about a meditative scrutiny of Dependent Origination from mindmomentto
mindmoment. Thus, an emotional episode is the interplay of 12 interlinked codependent
componentsofasinglekarmicsequenceofpersonalexperience.Thisoriginatesatbirth(1
jati),decaysasitproceedsandceasesdieseventually(2jaramarana);anemotionalepisode
arisesduetoignorance(3avidya),whichproducesapsychologicalstateofsomedetrimental
intentional activity like e.g. negative Speech (4 samskara), awareness of which dawns in
consciousness(5vijnana),whichonlyexistsinconjunctionwithMindBody(6namarupa),
which are the condition for the six senses(7 sadayatana), which through sensecontact (8
phasa)withattendedstimulievokefeelings(9vedana)ofgreedorhatred,whichmightbe
craved for (10 tanha) and grasped or clung onto (11 upadana), which affects like fuel
perpetuating the fire of passion and become (12 bhava) a (re)birth of the next emotional
episodeeventuallyresultinginbeingstuckinSamsaraorNirvana.

ParallelismofSkandhas/BASICI,SORandABC
InPKTarationalunderpinningisnotaboutaccuracyorsubstancebutaboutthepotentialof
opening up a reservoir of action; that is, REBT/multimodal concepts of PKT can also be
viewed as provisional narratives and metaphors on a microscopic level to guide action of
transforming human conduct. PKT is based on a StimulusOrganismResponse model: a
Stimulus(S)impingesontheOrganism(ICA)thatsubsequentlychoosestoemitaResponse
(BI).ThismediationalmodelemergedfromthebehaviouristSRmodelwhichconveniently
discardedtheOpartasunsuitablebecauseitcouldnotbeobserveddirectly.However,since
thecognitiverevolution(Newell&Simon,1956),thestudyofprocessesintheblackbox
was reinstated along with the method of systematic introspection: measuring what is
internallyperceived.Forexample,Wundts(1874)studiesonjustnoticeabledifferencesin
sensoryinputrevealedthatacandlelightcanjustbeseeninacleardarknightonadistance
of30metresorthatsweetnesscanjustbetastedifoneteaspoonofsugarismixedwithtwo
gallonsofwater.Introspectionresearchbearssomeresemblancetomindfulnessasaninside
viewingtool.
TheSORsequentialformatisequivalentwithREBTsABCcentrepiece:Astandsfor
the Activating event (or Stimulus), external or internal (S), B stands for Beliefs (Organism),
irrational or rational (IC), C represents Consequence (Response), emotional (A) and
behavioural(BI).TheKarmasequencestartswiththefeltsensoryperceptionthroughoneof
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thesixsensedoors,mindfullyregisteredasrelativelypositive,neutralornegative.These
qualificationsareontheinputlevelofSensoryfeelingandtheActivatingeventsparkedby
theStimulusthequalityofwhichcanbediscriminativelyneworhabituallygeneralized.On
the subsequent level, processing in ignorance will likely result in the illusion of self, the
delusion of god(s), as well as in unwholesome intentions, thoughtsCognitions/Images,
irrational beliefs within the Organism. These intentions guide motivation by intensifying
affectandemotionsintodetrimentalbehaviour,Responseslikegreedgraspingandhatred
clinging. All of this takes place in awareness emanating from Body/Speech/Mind in an
interpersonal context and karmic activity might increase or decrease depending on
contingent and other forms of conditioned learning, for instance by reinforcement.
Sequentialemotionalepisodesarepartofachainprecededandfollowedbyotherepisodes
andmayformcyclesthatareeithervicious(Samsara)orvirtual(Nirvana).
How the SOR/ABC and BASICI models and the Buddhas Karma sequence parallel
eachotherinPKT,isdepictedinTable2.

Table2:CentrepiecesofanEmotionalEpisode(SOR/BASICI/ABC)inParallelwiththe
BuddhasKarmaSequence


SOR/ABCModel
Stimulus(Activatingevent)
Discriminative
Generalized
Organism
Cognitive(Beliefs)
Somatic
Response(Consequences)
Emotional
Behavioural
Contingency
Reinforcement
Punishment

BASICIMultimodal&
TrimodalAssessment
Sensation(feeling)

PKT:theBuddhas
KarmaSequence
6Senses,felt:+/0/
(vedana/perceiving)

Imagery(thinking)
Cognition(thinking)

Ignorance:Illusion(self)/
Delusion(god)(samjna:
conceiving;intentions)
Craving:GreedGrasping,
HateClinging(samskara:
conating,action,motive)
Body/Speech/Mind:to
bemindfullyaware
(vijnana/consciousness)

Affect(feeling)
Behaviour(doing)
Interactions(doing)
NeurogeneticDrives/
Biology

AdiscernableKarmasequencestartswith(1)bodilycontact(rupasparsa)withaparticular
Stimulus attended to and which is the mere sensory perception of an object arising in
awareness(sight,sound,smell,taste,touchanddharmas:mindobjects).Contactispure
sensoryperceptiononeisawareofwhichincludestheexternalperceptionsofthefivesense
organs plus the brains internal perceptions, i.e. the images, conceptions, memories and
dreams of the minds eye, which appear in consciousness and are described in the first
chapter as a social constructional metaphor. Immediately ensuing contact, (2) feeling
(vedana) enters the field of attention which hedonically checks the contact as being
relativelypleasant,painful,orneutralevokingaconsequentialdirection.Nexttofeeling,(3)
conceiving (samjna) occurs in the Organism, an ongoing interpretation of the contact and
feelingexperienceagainstthebackdropofavastpoolofstoreddatainmemory.Doesitfit
into the network of available information? Is it recognizable? How does it connect to
previous experiences? Can it be labelled? Thus, the experience is classifiedcategorized,
stored in memory and becomes the next building block to an intelligible world. After
conceiving, (4) conation (samskara) surfaces as a Response to the Stimulus contact and
feeling, to the Organisms conceiving to play a part as will, affect or emotion which
83

motivatesonetoapproachoravoidtheobject,ortobeindifferent.Oneisnotalwaysaware
of volition which can be instinctive, intuitive and subconscious or unconscious but always
hungryandonthelookoutforsatisfaction.Astheprocessunfolds,(5)awareness(vijnana),
reflection and mindmaking of theexperiencetakes place (manisakara), which is an active
attentiveevaluatingoftheentireepisodewherebynotonlyattention/concentrationbutalso
discriminative awareness play the role of figuring out whether longterm goals to end
emotional suffering (duhkha) will be attained. This is a skilful/insightful reflective
scrutinizing to be done in a sane, sound and sensible way with reason and savvy (yoniso
manisakara),thusdevelopingwisdom(panna)andwholesomeness(kusala).
VariouspassagesintheBuddhistscripturescorroboratethisanalysis.Aquotelinking
PKTs Karma sequence stems from the Dhammapada (the Buddhas sayings in 423 verses)
whichisagemofabookletbelongingtoworldliterature.Therewereadtheopeningverses
inByroms(2001)translation(italicsadded):

Wearewhatwethink. Allthatweareariseswithourthoughts.Withourthoughts
wemaketheworld.Speakoractwithanimpuremind,andtroublewillfollowyouas
thewheelfollowstheoxthatdrawsthecart.Wearewhatwethink.Allthatweare,
ariseswithourthoughts.Withourthoughtswemaketheworld.Speakoractwitha
puremind, andhappiness willfollowyouasyourshadow,unshakable Lookhow
heabusedmeandhurtme,howhethrewmedownandrobbedme.Livewithsuch
thoughtsandyouliveinhate.Lookhowheabusedmeandhurtme,howhethrew
medownandrobbedme.Abandonsuchthoughtsandliveinlove.Inthisworldhate
never yet dispelled hate, only love dispels hate. This is the law, ancient and
inexhaustible...Howevermanyholywordsyouread,howevermanyyouspeak,what
goodwilltheydoyou,ifyoudonotactuponthem?

Astheitalicizedwordsindicate,theBuddhasubtlyunveiledthemajormodalitiesofthinking,
doing and feeling. Another illustration of the Buddhas corresponding stance was found in
thefollowing(alsofromtheDhammapada):

Byoneself[unwholesomeness]isdone,byoneselfonesuffers,byoneselfevilisleft
undone, by oneself one is purified, purity and impurity depend on oneself, no one
canpurifyanother(Humphreys,1987,p.93).

PKTisnotsolelybasedonaSICABsequence.ThisfiringordercorrespondswiththeS
OR/CBTworkingmodelandappealsforheuristicreasons,happenstoconcurwithCannon
Bardsfiringorder:Iperceiveabear(S),Iappraisedanger(I/C),Ifeelfear(A),Itrembleand
run (B). However, other firing orders are possible like JamesLanges firing order (SICBA): I
perceiveabear(S),Iappraisedanger(I/C),Itrembleandrun(B)andIfeelfear(A).Darwin
PlutchikpointataSBAC/Ifiringorder:Iperceiveabear(S),Itrembleandrun(B),Ifeelfear
(A), and I appraise danger (C/I) (cf. Scherer, 2005). Many other firing orders can be
experienced: BASICI.D. transmutations equal the faculty of seven letters (7!), thus 5040
firing orders are theoretically possible. The postulate of Dependent Origination did not
freeze any firing order. In fact the Sammaditthi Sutta and Mahahatthipadopama Sutta
contendthatifthisarisesthatarises,ifthisceases,thatceases,leavinganyvariantopen.
According to the Buddha, one who sees interdependent arising and ceasing sees the
Dharma.

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TheHeartofKarma:AffectandEmotion
RelationalBuddhismviewsemotionsascomplexpatterns,i.e.relationalperformativesand
appropriated expressions within a sociocultural context. In order to understand this view,
weneedtoabandontraditionalemotionalconceptsasdiscreteindexesofthemindorthe
cortex which try to differentiate properties in search of essence and reconstruct the
individualistconceptionofemotionsasembodiedactionsofrelationalscenarios.Thus,the
terms affect/emotion inhere in a relational meaning conform to Dependent Origination.
Thus,Igrieveaboutsomeonesdeath,Ifeartobefiredbytheboss,Iamangryatmykid,I
feelsadaboutherrejection,Ifeltjoymeetinghim,Iloveher,Iwassilentlythinkingofmy
deceasedmother,etc.Inadditiontobeingrelational,Affectassecondaryemotionisemotion
mixedwiththinking,sensingand/ordoing.
Onadeeperlevel,assessment,topographicalandfunctional,comprisestaxonomyof
emotionalpathologybasedonthe3Poisons:greed,hatredandignoranceonhowthemind
works. Greed conceals karmic scenarios of anxiety/fear regarding future loss of
happiness/joyandcoverssadness/griefregardingpastlossofhappiness/love.Hatredhides
anger/otherblameduetootherhatredandmasksdepression/selfblameduetoselfhatred.
Love,joy,sadness,anger,anxietyanddepression(arrangedfromordertochaos)areviewed
as basic or primary emotions. Executed in an interpersonal context, they start from a
conditionofnonmovement/silencetowardbeingemotionallymovedwithkarmicimpact.
Basic emotions are reserved to denote primary emotions, elemental but elusive
experiences applicable as a compass in collaborative practice. There is no consensus as to
the number of basic emotions due to its high abstraction level and the lack of criteria for
basic(Scherer,2005).Clinicalexperiencewithmorethan2000clientsleadsmetosubmit
the following list of eight elementary categories. Already occurring in interaction with a
parentfrombirthonandthusviewedasbasicareAnxiety,Anger,Sadness,JoyandLove,and
tocompletethelistDepressionandSilence/Nirvanaareaddedasspecialinstances.Thiscan
beillustratedbybasiccognitivestylesofselfspeech/selftalk:

Depression:Imaloserwithoutanyhopeandfuture
Anxiety:WhatifIfailorlaughedat?Iamtotallylost
Anger:Heshouldntbelikethat,damnedit
Sadness:Illnevergetoveritandwillstayunhappy
Joy:Lifeisgood,hahaha,myprospectisjoyful
Love:Smilingwithin()Ilovethepresentmoment
Silence:Emptiness(0)

Emotions can be depicted as layers of an onion. From the outer to the inner: Depression,
Anxiety, Anger, Sadness, Joy, Love, Silence and Nirvana. The first group of four are karmic
unwholesome, to be decreased; the second group of four is karmic wholesome, to be
increased.Whileonemightexperienceseveraloftheseemotionsinvariousdegrees,thereis
adynamichomeostasisbalancinginbetweenthestressfulchaotic(entropy)experiencesof
lowawarenessandtherelaxedorderly(negentropy)experiencesofhighawareness.
In the pristine Buddhist languages as well as in the other Eastern languages of the
Dharma,thereisnowordforpsychologyandemotion.ForinstanceinMandarin,theterm
for psychology is Xin Li Xue, meaning the science of the heart which is a metaphoric
denotation for guiding a balanced way of life. This concurs with the Buddhist view of the
mindaslocatedintheheartratherthaninthehead.Theheart(affect/emotion)andthe
mindareevidentlyindispensabletounravelthewho,what,where,whenandhowtoend
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psychological suffering. Between the state of emotions gone awry (Depression) and non
emotion (Silence/Nirvana) all possible variants of emotional experience from suffering
(duhkha)tohappiness(sukha)haveaplaceinthespectrum.

From a Buddhist perspective Depression is not merely a negative experience. The

Buddha awakened during a state of despair. Depression can be considered positive, if
viewedasanobstacletobeturnedintoapaththatmaymarkthebeginningofameditative
way of life, a learning experience leading to selfreflection and awakening to emptiness
and interconnection. Depression is enriching if conducive to become "sadder but wiser".
Depressive clients erroneously attribute failures to themselves and successes to external
factors. Their sombreness is fed by a negative view of themselves, others and the future
(Beck, 1976). Sometimes the urge to commit suicide prevails. Such death wishes
differentiateDepressionfromLove.
Heraldedasthemostimportantexperienceinlife,magnaresestamor,Loveisthe
mostsoughtafteremotioninallculturesdesignatingtheraisond'treoflife(Sternberg&
Barnes,1988).Itisnotadiscretestatethatlendsitselfeasilytoexperimentalinvestigation.
There are two variants of Love: infatuation (passionate) and compassion (dispassionate).
Featuredbyaltruism,compassionfiguresprominentlyintheBuddhistvaluesystemnextto
kindnessandjoy.Enlightenedcompassionisendorsedwhichisadowntoearthpracticeof
empathizing with the suffering of others and is to be applied sensibly, like in what I have
calledtheoxygenmaskprinciple.Incaseofemergencyintheair,usethemaskyourselffirst
beforeapplyingittoyourkidstosecurethebestsurvivalchancesforall.
The above taxonomy can be more fully understood by scrutinizing the functional
relationships of emotions, intentional thought and behavioural action vis vis a goal.
Inhering in will, volition/conation (samskara), affect motivates purposeful action aiming a
target. Karma becomes transparent in terms of intended goals of action by peeling each
emotion,layerbylayer,untilNirvanaisunveiled.InDepressionnogoalsareworthwhileto
pursue: one feels intensely dejected, down, disordered, confused, demoralised and
hopeless.However,evendepressionharboursapotentialtoreassessthings.InAnxietythe
attainmentofanintendedgoalisthreatened;fearcanbefunctionalordysfunctional.Inthe
lattercaseit might take the formof a disorder. For example, claustrophobia might be the
resultoflockedup AngerorSadness.InAngerthestriving foranintendedgoalis blocked
andfrustrated.Itsburningheatusuallygoesalongwithloweredlevelsofawarenessanda
lossofcontrol.Ifchronicallyrepressed,psychosomatosislikehypertensionmightbetheend
result.TherelievingexpressionofAngerdependsoncultureandvariousrationales.Froma
Buddhiststanceitiswiselytransformedintocompassionateassertiveness;tothrowgarbage
onsomebodyusuallyleadstoescalation.InSadnessthereisalossofanattainedorintended
goal;sadnesshasahealingeffectifexpressedincrying.SadnessandJoyareliketwosidesof
acoin,botharemeltingexperiences.Joyconveysarelevantprogressiontoorattainmentof
an intended goal. In Love an intended goal of attachment and merger is met; this usually
requires total acceptance and surrender. In Silence there is minimal intention, no goal.
SilenceisfulfillingandprofoundbecauseitisenergizingandopensthedoortoNirvana
PKT endorses an lexicon of affect (secondary emotions) and the hedonic rating of
feelings as painful, pleasurable or neutral and backs peoples striving for happiness and
avoidingunhappiness.However,happinessisamultifacetedstatefeaturingnotbeing(1)a
goalinitselfbutanepiphenomenonofpeoplesworkingatcreatingameaningfullife,nor(2)
anabsoluteconditionbutafortunateincidenceamidstlifesinescapableadversitiesandis
thus always: chaironic happiness <www.meaning.ca>. Psycholinguistic and semantic
86

analyse reveal that there are 4000 English words expressing various nuances of affect,
anothertermforemotiondenotingthemanyvariantsofemotingfromweak(e.g.worry)to
strong(e.g.panick).Alexicalguideisdevisedinordertobecomeawareoftheseexperiential
versions. They manifest in Dependent Origination with concomitant cognitions and
behavioursandaredenotedassecondaryaffect(seeTable3).

Table3:SemanticsDenotingVariationsofBasicEmotionsSampleofTerms

Depression

Anxiety

Anger

Sadness

Joy

Love

Silence

Blue
Dejected
Dysphoric
Dysthymic
Despondent
Melancholic
etc...

Worry
Anguish
Fear
Fright
Terror
Panic
etc...

Annoyed
Contempt
Hostility
Fury
Rage
Hate
etc...

Pity
Sorrow
Distress
Grief
Agony
Mourning
etc...

Amused
Glad
Happy
Humor
Delight
Content
etc...

Tenderness
Fondness
Intimacy
Compassion
Infatuation
Kindness
etc...

Relaxed
Content
Grateful
Safe
Secure
Peaceful
etc...

On this level of secondary emotion there are numerous words on mixtures of affective
compositions like melodies created from a basic set of musical notes, analogous to the
BASICI.Anothermetaphorpointsattherainbowthatappearsifwhitelight(Silence)isbent
by a prism resulting in six basic colours: red (Love), orange (Fear), yellow (Joy), green
(Anger), blue (Sadness), and violet (Depression) with numerous hues inbetween. An
affective lexicon serves the purpose of becoming aware regarding the variants of basic
emotions. The implication of classifying thus is not to be complete but to facilitate
negotiatingthroughreflexivedeliberationonthekarmicproblem.28
Intermsofmodalities,emotionissecondaryif,inthecontextofInterpersonalissues,
itiscontaminatedbyBehaviour,Sensation,Imageryand/orCognition.Thereare14listsof
basicemotionscreatingaBabeloftonguesonthistopic(e.g.Ortony,Clore&Collins,1988),
the most relevant are proposed by Plutchik (1994), Izard (1972), Frijda (1987) and Ekman
(1996) (Davidson, Scherer & Goldsmith, 2003). Plutchik lists Anger, Joy, Fear, Sadness,
Surprise,Disgust,AnticipationandAcceptance;IzardlistsAnger,Joy,Fear,Surprise,Disgust,
Contempt, Distress, Shame, Guilt and Interest; Frijda lists Anger, Joy, Fear, Surprise,
Contempt, Distress, Shame, Aversion, Desire and Pride; and Ekman lists Anger, Enjoyment,
Fear,Sadness,Surprise,DisgustandContempt(JohnsonLaird&Oatley,1992).
In the atomistic analysis of modalities, the italicized emotions are considered
secondary: Surprise may vary from Cognition about an unanticipated event to a sudden
activationofaneuralreflex(Lazarus,1991).DisgustimpressesasaSensoryexperience.Anti
cipation comprises Imagery and Cognition, beliefs that cannot be classified as emotion.
AcceptanceisanattitudewithpredominantlyCognitive,BehaviouralandInterpersonalfea
tures.ContemptinheresinCognitionwiththequalityofangeranddefensivefear.Distressis
the aspecific term for the Sensory feeling of being tensed or upset. Shame is a variant of
fear with Imagery, Cognitive, Interpersonal and Sensory aspects. Guilt largely consists of
Cognitions, Interpersonal values and a social fear. Interest is conative and motivational
ratherthanemotive,thusforemostCognitive(intentionalandvolitional)aswellasSensory
(perceptual and attentional). Aversion (Latin: aversio, turning away) has a Behavioural

28

Enigmatically,namingtheparticularaffectwithinaculturalscenariomightevaporatethemagicspelland
ceaseanemotionalhijacklikeinthefairytaleofRumpelstiltskin.Theexerciseislinkedtomindfulness.

87

emphasis due to a Sensorybased dislike, Desire refers to the future and consequently
containsImages/Cognitionsofhope,andPrideconnotesenjoymentbasedonInterpersonal
comparisonandastandingonapedestalataCognitive/Imagerylevel.
The rationale of discerning primary and secondary emotions is to enable PKT
practitioners to pragmatically find and match appropriate interventions. Thus Acceptance,
Anticipation, Contempt, Desire and Guilt call for Cognitive/Imagery interventions, Disgust,
Distress, Interest and Surprise call for Sensory interventions, Shame and Pride call for
InterpersonalinterventionsandAversioncallsforaBehaviouralintervention.If,forinstance,
Anticipationisconsideredtobeprimary,CognitiveandImagerymaterialwouldbelostfor
scrutiny. Another example is Guilt. Despite the vernacular, Guilt comprises fear provoking
Cognitions and Imagery of selfblame. If Guilt is not recognised as secondary, cognitive
restructuring would not be considered the treatment of choice. Comparably, Distress
(Sensory) is apt for relaxation exercises, Shame (Interpersonal) for assertion training,
andAversion(Behaviour)forsystematicexposure.

KarmaAssessment:TopographicalAnalysis
PKTinheresinmultimodalassessmentofKarmasDepemdemtOrigination,encompassinga
functional/processual analysis of the BASICI./Skandhas process) and a listing of problems,
i.e.atopographical/structuraldiagnosiscentredonemotions.

Table4:KarmicBASICI.D.ProclivityScale

Ratefrom6(=high)to0(=low):

B:HowmuchofadoeramI?
A:HowdeeplyemotionalamI?
S:HowfartunedamIintomysenses?
I:HowvividdoIvisualise/thinkinpictures?
C:Howmuchofathinker(analyst/planner)amI?
I.HowmuchengagedinsocialactivitiesamI?
DiagnosingHealthiness:HowunhealthydoIfeel?

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
B

I.

D.

6
2
5
3
3
4
1

Figure1:GraphofaPersonsScores
88

Rationale for diagnosis is to eradicate inner foes: daily rebirths of suffering, distress and
agony due to mayhem of BASICI. In order to create order out of chaos, a topographical
diagnosis is prescribed as a first step in the collaborative practice. A multifaceted
questionnaireisdevisedtowardcreatingastrategicalroadmap(seeTable4).Figure1above
is a graphical representation of the result and depicts an assessment of karmic BASICI.D.
proclivitiesinDependentOrigination.Itisusefulbecausethetherapistwillgetaclueabout
intervention.
Thequestionnaireenablesassessingwhethersomeoneisathinker(vedanatype),
feeler(sannatype)ordoer(sankharatype).Aseventhdimensionisaddedwhichrefers
to diagnosing the individual health aspect; biological causes of psychological
malfunctionining need to be excluded at any time. The histogram depicts the scores of a
doerfeelerthinker. Matching interventions implies that a doer requires
behavioural/interpersonal interventions like conducting pleasant activities in case of
depression or approaching feared objects in case of phobia. A feeler requires meditative
interventions like owning an emotion or sensations, while a thinker needs intervention in
the cognitiveimagery modalities. However, this karmic BASICI.D. proclivity assessment is
just the beginning for a karmic BASICI topographical diagnosis. This is a summingup of
karmicBASICIitems,accruedbyinterviewingandadjustedgoingforward,categorizedona
macroscopiclevel,sampledinTables4(depression)and5(anxiety):

Table5:KarmicBASICITopographicalDiagnosisinCaseofDepression

B:Inhibited/passive/apatheticconduct;decreaseoffeat,pleasurableactivity
A:Dysphoric/dejected/demoralizedmood;feelingsadandangrytowardsself
S:Reducedattention/concentration;difficultymemorizing;tensedandtired
I:Negativeimagesonself/othersandtheworld;expectationsofdoom/gloom...
C:Catastrophizingthoughtsabouthopelessness/helplessnessandinferiority
I:Inadequatesocializing;lessinteracting;inassertiveness;muchcomplaining

Table6:KarmicBASICITopographicalDiagnosisinCaseofFear

B:Conductofflightandavoidance;lookingforescape/helpwhilehidingfear
A:Heightenedarousal;hyperventilationleadingtofearoffearandtopanick
S:Chillingsensationsofsuffocating/sweating;tachycardia;nerveless/dizzy
I:Imageryofbeingcaughtandlost;visualizinglossofcontrol,embaressment...
C:Catastrophizingthoughtsabouthopelessness/helplessnessandinferiority
I:Attitudeofdependency/inassertiveness/manipulating;disturbedfamilylife

Listings as in Tables 4 and 5 reveal targets of therapeutic intervention, the rationale of

assessment. REBT picks up where Dharmakirti (8th century) left off; hediscerned valid and
unvalid cognitions.29 There is a significant overlap between (ir)rational and (un)valid

29
Inthe4thcentury,theYogacaraVijnavadaschoolespousedanepistemologythatconcursexplicitlywiththe
ABC (Anacker, 2005): afflictions are not caused in the worldoutthere, but by our own unvalid

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thoughtsastheyleadto(un)wholesomestates. REBTcontendsthatourownthinking,not
some external agent, determines what we feel. PKTs multimodal/REBT approach discerns
thefollowingfiringorder:weperceivesomethingconducivetosomeemotionbecauseof
what we think which could result in unwholesome behaviour in need for change. If this
behaviourwaspremeditated,i.e.intentional,itiscalledkarmic.Thustheoretically,specific
interventiontargetscanbeassessed(seeTable7).

Table7:MultimodalKarmaAssessmentandKarmicTargetsofIntervention

SKANDHAS
/KHANDHAS
VEDANA
SAMJNA
SAMSKARA
RUPA/VAK
NAMA
VIJNANA

THERAPY/KARMICTARGETS(3Poisons)
GREED
HATRED
IGNORANCE
fear/
anger/
illusions/
grief
depression delusions

MODALITIES(BASICI)
Sensing
Feeling
Emoting
Thinking
Intending
Conducting
Body/Mind
Speech
Consciousness
Awareness

Sense
perception
Affect
Cognition
Imagery
Behaviour
Interpersonal
relationships
Mindfulness/
Meditations

13

14

15

10

16

11

17

12

18

In theory, the 5Skandhas can be discerned into ten modalities. Combined with the 3
Poisons,twelvetherapeutic/karmictargetsofgreed/hatredandtheirvariants,andsixtypes
ofdysfunctionalselftalkcanbedistinguished.Inpracticeonecanbeconsciouslyawareof
fourbasicnegativeemotions(fear,grief,angeranddepression)ininterpersonalcontextand
ofsixvariantsofignoranceonthemindsfunctioning.
For example, the 5Hindrances (nivaranas) differentiate types of selfsabotaging
Karmahamperingprogressinmeditationwhichischaracterizedbydistinctfeelingsandself
talk:

(1)Sensepleasure/greed:Imusthaveittobehappy
(2)Illwill/hatred:S/heshouldnothavedoneit,revenge
(3)Slothtorpor/depression:Lifemustbeeasy,Imnotgoingtotakeeffort
(4a)Restlessworry/fear:Whatifithappens?Awful!Cantstandit
(4b)Restlessregretguilt/anger:Terrible,cantforgivemyself
(5)Doubtruminating/grief:Imalooserwithoutafuture

PKT entails countering unwholesome/irrational/unvalid selftalk by questioning each

lamentationsrationality/validity,asfollows:

(1)IsthisBeliefkarmicwholesome:whereisthetangible/factual/empiricalevidence?

(illusory/delusional) perceptions and thoughts about the world, the other, and the self. It was Dharmakirti
th
(7 century),thelastoriginalBuddhistthinkerbeforetheDharmademisedontheIndiansubcontinent(1193),
who discerned the difference between valid (prama) versus unvalid (aprama) perception and thought
(Scheepers, 1994). This discernment is congruent with rational versus irrational concepts/images. While
meditation emphasizes the cleansing of unvalid perception and thought, REBT aims at changing thoughts
contentbydisputingirrationalbeliefsandmodifyingbehavioursinordertoimpactemotion.

90

(2)WillIreachcontentmentbythinkingso:Interbeing:kindness/compassion/joy?
(3)Isconflictwithmyself/othersavoided:whatisthekarmicwholesomealternative?

Skilfullyansweringthesequeriesconstructswholesome/rational/validthoughtsandhealthy
feelings, which prevent Karma seeds to take hold and germinate. For instance, in case of
hinderinggreed:Thereisnoevidencethathavingthethingisanabsoluteconditiontofeel
happy.ThinkingsoIwillneverreachcontentment;onthecontrary:Iwillcreateconflictwith
othersandmyself.Itisfarbettertothinkthatthethingisnotanabsolutenecessityandthat
IcanlivewithoutitIncaseofhatred:Thereisnoevidenceforhertonotdoit,infact
there must be causes and conditions for her to do so. I will not reach my goal of
contentment if I seek revenge, because such clinging will prolong hatred as she will
counterattack me, thus creating conflict and eventually evoking regret of my deed of
revenge.Itisfarbettertothink:IforgiveherforherdeedandtalkpeacefullytoherhowI
feltaboutit,andmakenewarrangementshowtodealwitheachotherinthefutureIn
thesamewayselftalkleadingtodepression,fear,angerandgriefcanbetackled.
Asselftalkfluctuatesasaconsequenceofbelievingornotbelievingwhatonesaysto
oneself,thereisanalternatingcycleofSamsaraandNirvana.Buddhistpsychopathologyof
Samsara is thus possible as a pathological system of samsaric (disordered/disturbed)
emotionsandhowtheymotivate(hetu)dittokarmicactivity.

KarmaAssessment:FunctionalAnalysis
PKTaccommodatesanadvancedmodelofastructuralBASICItopographicalanalysisanda
processualBASICIfunctionalanalysis:theselfas BASICIisat the heartofPKT. Functional
analysisoftheBASICIcomprisescyclicalemotionalepisodesandthesequentialrebirthsof

Figure2:BlueprintofKarmaFunctionalAnalysisinSORandBASICI.D.
Terms(5HypotheticalKarmicCycles)

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Karma.30 I submit that feelings (Sensation/Affect) are a function of thought

(Cognition/Imagery), action (Behaviour/Interaction) and body/genetic Drives as well as
consciousness/awareness (Kwee & Lazarus, 1987; Kwee & Ellis, 1997). These
modalities/Skandhas form the building blocks of Karma. Karmas definition as
intentional/meaningful (inter)action opens the possibility for presenting a PKT cyclical
interpretationreflectingthefunctionalrelationshipsbetweenmulticause(thought/feeling
andmeaningfulintention)towardeffect(behaviouralinteraction)(seeFigure2).
This blueprint elaborates a macroscopic multisequential scheme which follows an
inputoutput StimulusOrganismResponse (SOR) structure of five major karmicforming
cycles.Itdepictshowhabitsoffeeling(S/A),thinking(I/C),anddoing(B/I.)areperpetuated
viaspirallingcyclescirclingaroundAffectalongnoteworthysequentialorders.Asablueprint,
any emotional disorder and its concomitants can be completed at each discerned point of
the assessment template. Based on a hypothetical reconstruction of the functional co
dependentinterrelationsbetweenmodalitieswithinhypotheticalcycles,itreflectsgyrations
perpetuating the vicious processes of affective disorder (grief, anger, fear or depression),
which occur between the environmental input of sensory awareness and the
affective/behavioural/interpersonaloutput.Themaintainingcontingencieswillincreasethe
output by C+ (positive Consequences) and decrease the output by C (negative
Consequences). Next to this samsaric reconstruction, a nirvanic reconstruction is also
feasible by depicting the virtuous processes of affective order (joy, love, silence and
Nirvana). The tool is also a roadmap: an intervention plan and collaborative guide for the
therapist/coach and the client during the transformational process of implementing
techniquesofchange.
The cycles picture and expand the putative vicissitudes of the Sallatha Suttas
educationonthemanwithanuntrainedmind,who,hitbyapoisonarrow,experiencedtwo
kindsofpain:abodilypainandamentalpain,asifhehadbeenhitbytwoarrowsinsteadof
justone.Howdoesthispsychologicallessonapplytoallofus?Shotbypoisonarrowsdaily,
we can start feeling bad, mad or sad and tumble into a morbid spiralling process at any
moment of the day. The five vicious cycles of karmic functional analysis highlight the
highways of this process and adhere to the Buddhas thisthat conditionality. This
conditionalityreferstoalinearfunction(whenthisis/isnt,thatis/isnt)andasynchronous
function(fromthearising/ceasingofthis,comesthearising/ceasingofthat),implyingthat
past and present influences are interacting in complex patterns (Mahakammavibhanga
Sutta).Thefollowingillustrateseachcycle:

The 1st cycle starts with a Stimulus (an arrow penetrating a Sensory organ),
subsequently the Organism responds (by Images of doomgloom, Cognitions of
despair, and anticipation of catastrophe), evoking a Response (Affect of fearpanic,
angerrage, or sadnessdepression), e.g. the hateful intention to retaliate
(Behaviour), and meanwhile complaining on what happened (Interpersonal);
feedbackactivatesaneweventcausingmoreAffectivemisery,roundingupthefirst
cognitivemediationcyclewhichfollowsaSICABIsequence.

30

Karma is represented in the Nikayas (discourses) by the Buddha as based on the 12 components of
Dependent Origination and the Abhidhamma (the last book of the third canonical tome of the Theravada)
distinguish 24 patthanas: possibilities of functional/activating links between dharmas which is reformulated
hereinfivekarmiccycles.ThefunctionalrelationshipsbetweendharmasinDependentOriginationrangesfrom
looselyconnectedcorrelationtohardwiredconnections.

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The 2nd cycle follows a BSDA firing order, reflecting a spiral of longterm intrinsic
loss. As a result of the dysfunctional aggression (Behaviour), the person harbours
chronic tensions (Sensation), a negative consequence which eventually transforms
intochronicpainsorcausespsychosomaticillnessnecessitatingmedication(D:which
mightchangeconsciousness/awarenessandneurogeneticdrives)andextendingthe
emotionaldisturbance(Affect).

The 3rd cycle follows a BISA firing order, reflecting a spiral of longterm extrinsic
loss. As a result of the aggression (Behaviour), the person evokes adverse social
reactions(Interpersonal),anegativeconsequence,leadingtodriftinsocialisolation
and eventually having lost contact with work and family in a state of sensory
deprivation(Sensation),whichaggravatesdisturbedAffect.

The 4th cycle (BSI/CA firing order) represents shortterm intrinsic gain (negative
reinforcement,apositiveconsequencebythealleviationofanegativeconditionlike
tension).Initially,theaggression(Behaviour)leadstotensionreduction(Sensation),
but in the long run this shortterm relief does not solve any of the problems.
Thoughts of doomgloom (Imagery) and of guiltremorse (Cognition) accumulate,
increasingtheemotionaldisturbance(Affect).

The 5th cycle (BISA firing order) represents shortterm extrinsic gain (positive
reinforcement, a positive consequence like a reward). Initially, the aggression
(Behaviour)seemsadvantageous,butinthelongrunitturnsouttoberampantand
disastrous(Interpersonal).Onemaygainsocialattentionbymanipulativeploysorbe
excused from responsibilities through facesaving tactics, but in the end these
reactions will likely backfire and generalize into even more stressful events
(Sensations)escalatingdisturbedAffecttothepersonsdetriment.

Thus,themanhitbyapoisonarrowaskedhimselfwhodidit,Illkillhim?!.Thisquery
evokesanger/hatredandlamentationandtheurgeofwantingtofight(whilesufferingfrom
bleeding pain and perhaps unrecoverable wounds). His readiness to fight, disapproved by
family/friends,makeshimfeelbetterintheshorttermaslongasthereissocialsupportbut
willleadtoremorse,isolationandmorestressfuleventsinthelongrun.Theendresultisan
aggravationofthemanskarmicdestinybyhisownchoice.
Thetemplateisaroadmaportreatmentplanwhichtheclinician/coachcompletesin
reflexivenegotiationwiththeclient.Itprovidesstrategicclueswhereandwhentointervene
in order to curb the vicious cycles, to find and break up the spiralling and inflexion points
leading to change and virtuous transformation. This blueprint is ready to use handson
template.Thistemplateisoperationalizedinaform,theKarmicLifeHistoryQuestionnaire,
tobecompletedincollaborativepractice(presentedintheAppendixofChapter7)31.

DisruptingandCurbingKarmicCycles
Inordertointervenemeaningfully,oneneedstoknowtheclientspsychologicalprofileby
collectingdataofher/hispresentstatethroughanintakeprocedureandbyscrutinizingthe
clients emotional/interpersonal life history. In PKT this includes the clients emotional
development in the context of family, education and work. Interventions are preferably
evidencebased.Thus:the1stcyclemightbetackledbyRationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy

31

Thischapterisadvisablyreadinconjunctionwithchapter7.

93

(REBT). The 2nd cycle: relaxation/Samatha or medication;32 the 3rd cycle: interpersonal
training;the4thcycle:meditation/Vipassana;andthe5thcycle:familytherapy.Whilethese
strategiessuggestageneralapproachfordisruptingacycle,thereexistvariousinterventions
provenusefulfortargetingpsychologicalproblemswithsometechnicalprecision.
AlthoughDharmaadvocatestheultimatenotselfandemptinessexperiencebydis
solving,disowning,unclinging,ungrasping,uncravinganddeconstructingthesenseofI
memine/self, PKT works in the delimited area of the provisional self and its negative
emotions. Working with people, techniques need to be applied with clinical acumen,
proficient skills and unique artistry. This call for a technical eclecticism (Lazarus, 1997): no
matterwhereatechniquehasoriginatedorwhospawnedit,aslongasthereisevidencefor
itsclinicaleffectivenesstheuseiswarranted.Itisnotnecessarytoendorseatheoryinorder
tosuccessfullyutilizeatechnique.Themostfrequentlyappliedandeffectivetechniquesare
listedbelow(cf.Lazarus,1989):

Table8:ACompendiumofEvidenceBasedTechniques

1ABCDEdisputationscheme
2Angerexpression
3Antifutureshockimagery
4Anxietymanagementtraining
5Associatedimagery
6Aversiveimagery
7Behaviouralrehearsal
8Bibliotherapy
9Biofeedback
10Communicationtraining
11Contingencycontracting
12Correctingmisconceptions
13Feelingidentification
14Focusing
15Friendshiptraining
16Goalrehearsalorcopingimagery
17Gradedsexualapproaches
18Grieftherapy
19Hypnosis
20Meditation

21Modelling
22Nonreinforcement
23Paradoxicalstrategies
24Positiveimagery
25Positivereinforcement
26Problemsolving
27Recording&selfmonitoring
28Relaxation/Autogenictraining
29Selfinstructiontraining
30Sensatefocustraining
31Socialskills&assertivenesstraining
32Stimuluscontrol
33Systematicexposure
34Theemptychair
35Thestepuptechnique
36Thresholdtraining
37Timelimitedintercommunications
38Timeprojection,forwardorbackward
39Thoughtblocking
40Tracking

Due to space constraints they will not be worked out and only used here for illustrative
purposes. These techniques are not a random mlange or a ragtag collection, but are the
therapists toolkit for strategically implementing a rational treatment plan. In PKT the
Buddhaservesasamodelforthetherapistasahumanebeing.
A PKT strategic plan for transforming Karma is based on a macroscopic functional
analysis of Karma as elucidated above. As microscopic analysis suffices in most cases,
macroanalysisisindicatedforcomplexcases.Whilemacroanalysisfollowscircularcausality,
microanalysis follows linear causality which is embedded in the circular causality.
Microanalysis is equivalent to REBTs ABC centrepiece: it is not the Activating event (A)

32

In a pilot study (N=19) Bitner, Hilman, Victor, and Walsh (2003) found that antidepressants (socalled
Selective Serotonine Reuptake Inhibitors) not only reduced levels of major depression but also facilitate the
practiceofVipassanameditationinexperiencedmeditatorswhosufferedfromclinicaldisorders.

94

which upsets us emotionally and determines behaviour (Consequence, C), but our own
irrational Beliefs (B) about A. The ABC structure delineates an emotional episode. It is an
assessment and working tool for cognitive restructuring and behaviour change (by adding
rational Disputation to arrive at emotional/behavioural Effect). The ABCDEscheme for
karmicrationalanalysisprovidesaframeworkforapplyingapaletteofREBTtechniquesas
listedbelow(cf.Kwee&Ellis,1997).

Cognitive techniques (for tackle Imagery and Cognition): 1. Active disputing of

mustsandotherirrationalbeliefs;2.Usingrationalcopingstatements;3.Summing
up dysfunctional behaviours disadvantages; 4. Modelling; 5. Distracting (e.g.
biofeedback,relaxation,yoga,meditation);6.Changingcognitionsbyhomework(e.g.
forms, books, cassettes); 7. Reframing by seeing the bright side of "awfulness"; 8.
Correcting semantics (like blackorwhite thinking, arbitrary inferences,
overgeneralizations,absolutisms,etc.).

Emotivetechniques(fortackleAffectandSensation):9.Shameattackingexercises
(including judicious use of profane language); 10. Rationalemotive imagery; 11.
Forcefulcopingstatements;12.Forcefulselfdialogues(disputingirrationalbeliefson
tape);13.Useofhumor(e.g.rationalhumoroussongs);14.Useofgroupprocesses
for experiential and emotiveevocative exercises; 15. Interpersonal and family
processes; 16. Role play processes; 17. Reverse role playing; 18. Other emotive
techniques like strong encouragement, forceful disputing, selfdisclosure,
analogies/metaphors,unconditionalacceptance,etc.

Behaviouraltechniques(referringtoBehaviourandInterrelations):19.Invivo
desensitisation;20.Implosivedesensitisation;21.Remaininginawfulsituations;22.
Response prevention, 23. Penalizing (as well as rewarding and using other
reinforcements), 24. Medication; 25. Social skills training to enhance assertiveness,
communication, relationships, or sexuality. (See for a detailed description of these
techniques).

Allocatingthesetechniquestospecificproblemsisaheuristicexerciseofartistryratherthan
astrictprocedure.
TheABCDEisinlinewiththeBuddhasawakeningexperience(AriyapariyesanaSutta)
andthe4EnnoblingRealities(Brazier,2001),particularlyhisperceptionofthecohesiveweb
ofkarmicconditionality(idappaccayata)whichcorrespondstotheABC:whenthisis,that
is;thisoccurring,thatoccurs;whenthisisnot,thatisnot;thisceasing,thatceases.InREBT
terms: C (emotion/behaviour) is a function of B (cognition/imagery) and A (sense
perception);AandBareafunctionofC.A,BandCareinterdependentandpredicatedupon
eachother;theyoriginateandceaseinDependentOrigination.TheABCisalsodepictedin
theLokaSutta:

Dependentontheeyeandforms,eyeconsciousnessarises;thismeetingofthreeis
contact;withcontactasconditionthereisfeeling;whatonefeelsthatoneperceives;
whatoneperceivesthatonethinksabout;whatonethinksaboutthatonementally
proliferates.

Mindfulness enables this observation as illustrated in the story of the swordsman

continuouslytargetedbythearcher.Theswordsmansuccessfullyinterceptedpoisonarrows
95

due to his unbroken mindfulness until he was distracted and fatally hit. As in the Vinaya
Sutta, it is not the distraction (A) that killed the swordsman (C) but his own interrupted
mindfulness (B). This metaphor implies that we are all constantly being fired by poison
arrows which we cannot prevent. However, we can wilfully modify Karma by intercepting
unwholesome thoughts and by intending and acting differently. Due to the speed of
thinking,itseemsthatweonlyhavethechoicetocutoffautomaticthoughtandthatwe
lackthefreedomtopreventitfromoccurring.Thisbringsupthesubjectoffreewillwhich
isfromaBuddhiststanceanillusion,unlessweliberateourselvesfromthepredicamentof
duhkha:suffering/affliction.
This proposition is corroborated experimentally (Libet, 1985): preparatory brain
activity occurs hundreds of milliseconds prior to the choice to move. This finding was
reinforced by brain imaging methods (Soon, Brass, Heinze & Haynes, 2008). Subjects had
their brains scanned while they decided to press a button with an index finger. Free
decisionsaredeterminedbybrainactivityaheadoftimeupto10secondsbeforeentering
awareness.Thisdelaylikelyreflectsanetworkofcorticalcontrolareasthatbegintoprepare
anupcomingdecisionlongbeforeitentersconsciousness.Unconsciousbraindeterminants
offreedecisionsconjectureafreewont,ratherthanafreewill,suggestingthereason
whyweusuallyworkonourABCsafterthefact.ItisPKTcontentionthatthisfreewont
can be transformed into a new habit of a free will. In a Nobel Prize awarded study,
Kahneman(2003)presentedapsychologyofrationaljudgmentandchoice.Hearguedthat
we rarely make rational decisions because perceptual processes run fast, automatically,
effortlessly and associatively. However, we learn slowly, as reasoning runs serially,
controlled, effortful and rulegoverned. Thereby, our perceptual apparatus is structurally
weak,leadingustoseetheworld intuitivelythroughapairofillusoryglasses whichisthe
basis of automatically making irrational decisions. Such mistakes are difficult to control
becausewetendtobecarriedawaybyillusions(calledmayaintheBuddhistlore).

Amazingly, theBuddha(VitakkasanthanaSutta)alsotalkedaboutautomatismsand
proposedrationaltacticstotherapeuticallydisruptandcurbthem:

(1) Whenever an unwanted thought intrudes awareness, replace this in full

awareness by switching to an opposite incompatible thought and by supplanting a
wholesomethoughtinstead(e.g.compassionvs.hateorgenerosityvs.greed).
(2)Ifthatfails,closelyexaminetheharmful,perilous,andnegativelongtermeffects
of the unwanted thought: suffering. Redirect and divert attention by averting and
distractingactivities.Contemplateitsmanyuglyconsequences.
(3) If that fails, ignore/forget the thought, engage in distracting activities or focus
concentration on something wholesome/healing and do not pay attention to the
unwantedthoughte.g.byhavingawalkordoingsomeotherphysicalactivity.
(4) If that fails, take a breather and question its arising. Scrutinize the unwanted
thought, its formation, causes, or antecedents, like e.g. anger, fear or sadness.
Investigateitsfunction,andreflecthowtoremoveorstopitsputativecause.
(5) If that fails, resist, dominate, and control the unwanted thought by forceful
effort:seizeit,restrainit,controlitandcrushit.Befirm,harshandradical,e.g.by
clenchingteeth.Thus,onepartofthemindcontrolstheother.

Because this program seems to refer to sticky thoughts (intrusive, unwanted and
persistent), the Buddha presumably dealt with obsessions. In the Sabbasava Sutta he
discussedanoverallstrategytoabandonafflictingthoughts(asavas).Afflictionswillnotbe
96

resolved by magic but by wise reflection, i.e. checking functional relationships (patthanas)
andlookingforantidotesandcapabilities(Premasiri,2006):

(1)Isthereinsightthatunwholesomethoughts,e.g.onself,actuallyprecedemental
miseryandthatoneisfullyresponsibleforfeelingthinkingdoing?
(2) Is there selfcontrol of thought impulses in reaction to perception and wise
moderationinrespondingtoattractionandrepulsion?
(3) Is there rational attention paid to fulfilling basic needs in order to safeguard
againstillnessorisoneinclinedtoindulgeinharmfulhabitslikeovereating?
(4) Is there a buildup of endurance for tolerating harsh environmental conditions,
physicalstressorsocialpressure,tofreethepersonfrommentalworries?
(5/6)Isthererecognitionandwiseavoidanceofintoxicatingplacesandfriends,and
proactivedroppingofthembeforetheycanpollute?
(7) Is there cultivation of awakening factors, i.e. being mindful, investigative,
persistent,enthusiastic,serene,focussedandbalanced?

It is insufficient to only point at irrational thinking. The ABCDE format for cognitive
restructuring is also meant to verbalize rational alternatives toward contentment amidst
adversity.Forinstance,aclientfeelsdepressedwhenthinking:HemustlovemeorelseI
am a worthless human being. Disputing the irrational thought by applying the rational
criteriaismythoughtrealistic/evidential,goalorientedandconflictavoiding?thishelpful
alternativewascollaborativelyconstructed:

Thinking so, I wont reach my goal of contentment. There is no evidence that he

mustloveme,noristhereanyproofthatmyworthdependsonbeinglovedbyhim.
Ifhelovesanother,hemustnotloveme,whichfeelssadbutisnoreasontodetest
myselfasahumanbeing.Myworthofselfcantbejudged,becausethereisno
accurate way to rate it; my mere existence warrants my worth unconditionally.
Thus,IllavoidunnecessaryconflictswithmyselfandwithhimandfeelOK.

InPKTweneedtobecourageous(noble)and,liketheBuddhaandthearahants,notto
flee from inevitable duhkha and defeat our inner enemies. Carrying the Buddhas
metaphorofduhkhaasinescapablediseaseastepfurther,theanalogyofduhkhaasaself
inflictedautoimmunediseasecomestothefore:emotionalagonyisinflictedbyoneself.If
duhkhaisinferredassufferingfromtheunsatisfactorinessofexistenceitself,duhkhacanbe
called existential neurosis. This runofthemill existential suffering that is hopeless but
not serious is clearly depicted in Woody Allens Deconstructing Harry. Duhkha is a term
defying translation. No doubt, duhkha is inextricably entwined in lifes impermanence and
imperfection.Lifesflowistroubledlikethewheelofachariotwhichdoesnotrollsmoothly
andissomehowstuckduetothestressoflife.Thestressofduhkhastartsrightafterbirth
andbecomesmanifestandclearinourdealingswithdecay,diseaseanddeath.
FirstusedbySelyeinthe1930s,thetermstressseemsadequatetodenoteduhkhaif
itisconceptualizedastheburdenbearingonanindividualduetosituationalandemotional
changeswhichevokenonspecificBody/Speech/Mindadaptivereactions.Anenduringstate
ofdistressmighttransformdiseaseintodisease,physicalillnessduetolongtermexposure
tostresshormonesadrenalineandcortisol.Duhkhaasstresshasthepotentialtoexacerbate
not only psychological disorders like depression, panic/phobia or Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder,butalsopsychosomatosislikehighbloodpressure,heartfailure,psychogenicpain,
skinirritationorgastrointestinalills.AlthoughtheDharmawasnotmeanttocurephysical
97

disorders,thestressdefinitionofduhkhaopensthedoortoprobingwhethermindfulnessas
stress reduction might perhaps ameliorate these types of disorders; psoriasis is a case in
point(e.g.KabatZinn,2003a).

InConclusion
PKTguidedbyBASICI/ABCDEassessmentismeanttoexpeditethecessationofduhkha,the
noble aim of the Buddha, particularly in the area of emotional disorders. Transformation
requires commitment and hard work, the reason why PKT is not suitable for the faint
heartedwhowillbenefitmorefromthedosanddontsofethics(SigalovadaSutta)and
fromthemetaphysicsofheaven.However,forthosewhowishtodecideforthemselvesand
use their capacity to think, pick, and choose rather than to follow commandments, PKT
enables creating a bright future. PKT does not require clients to become Buddhists or to
acquireaBuddhistmodusvivendi.Ithoweverrequirespeopletoembraceawholesomeway
oflife. WhatPKT furtherentailsafterassessment and treatmentplanningissubject ofthe
nextchapter.

98

Chapter5
TransformingKarmicThoughtandRelationalAction

33

Introduction
ThereareplentymisunderstandingsaboutKarmawhoseconceptualizationinnonBuddhist
quarters carries the flavor of fate or destiny due to the working mechanism of causeand
effect.Thisusuallyboilsdownto:gooddeedsleadtoheaven,anafterlifeparadiseandbad
deedsleadtohellinthebeyond.TheBuddhaallocatedfromhisawakeningpointofviewa
specific thisworldly/herenow meaning of Karma, a term borrowed from Brahmanism, as
intentional action that is subject to choice. Furthermore, from a Buddhist Psychology and
Psychotherapy (BPP) perspective heaven and hell are metaphors for joy and anger, while
goodandevilonlyexistasnonfoundationalqualitieswhicharebasicallyempty.Thisessay
drawsonthetenetthattheBuddhawasananalyst/vibhajjavadin(SubhaSutta)34andthat
his transforming dialogues were meant to change intention/Karma, motivation/hetu and
performance/kiriya.
Karma delineates the Buddhas axiom of Dependent Origination
(pratityasammutpada)asapsychologicalpostulateoffeelingactionthought,modalitiesco
dependentlyoriginatingarisingpeakingsubsidingandceasinginrelationalcontextandasa
function of awareness with always interpersonal meaning. These are systemic processes
enabling unwholesomeness (entropy, decay and chaos) or wholesomeness (negentropy,
growth and order). Morbid Karma originates when ignorance from the emptinessof self
evolves into greedgrasping/hatredclinging. The root poisons of greed and hatred
incorporating the negative emotions of sadness, anxiety, anger and depression require
abatement.Thepositiveemotionsoflove(kindnessandcompassion)andjoyaswellasof
silence, emptiness and Nirvana are known in the Buddhist lore as the Brahmaviharas (a
metaphor for where the divine feelings dwell) to be accrued by the social meditations of
lovingkindness,empathiccompassion,sharedjoyandmeditativeequanimity.Theyneedto
be amplified immeasurably if sustainable wholesome Karma is to be secured. Outcome
research on lovingkindness meditation showed that this practice produces increases over
timeindailypositiveexperiencesleadingtoincreasesinpersonalresourceslikemindfulness,
purpose in life, social support and healthiness. These increments predict increased life
satisfactionandreducedemotionaldisorders(e.g.Frederickson,Cohn,Coffey,Pek&Finkel,
2008;Hutcherson,Seppala&Gross,2008).
Closely related to Dependent Origination, the notion of Karma is the Buddhas
hypothesisofmulticausalityifthishappens,thathappened,whichliesattheveryheartof
Dharma and includes circularity wherein cause is effect and effect is cause. Karma
Transformation quizzes the whereabouts of the 3Poisons hatred, greed and ignorance.
Whichantecedentandconsequentfactorsplayaroleinkarmicformationandwhichfactors
makeKarmaperpetuate,subsideandcease?Inauniverseofimpermanenceandinamental
space of dharmas (smallest units of experience) events take place in a flux of concurrent

33

Originally prepared for the Buddhist Psychotherapy panel at the 2nd International Association of Buddhist
UniversitiesAcademicConferenceatMahachulalongkornrajavidyalayaUniversity,Ayutthaya,Thailand,May31
June2,2012.
34
ThanksareduetoDr.DionPeopleswhoproficientlybroughtthecorrectsuttatomyattention.

99

momentary flashes of experience. Snapshots can only provisionally capture putative firing
orders.
Inordertocontributetothedailypsychologicalrebirthsofwholesomeemotional
episodes, the Buddhas tactics of transforming Karma can be summarized in a centerpiece
called Karma Sequence, which is a combination of the modalities/Skandhas and the 3
Poisons: (1) awareness of sensory perception (seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting
andviewingthroughthemindseye) whichare felt relativelypositive,negativeor neutral,
(2)awarenessofdys/functionalcognitionsduetoignoranceonhowthemindworkswhich
usually fabricates projections of illusory selves and delusional gods, (3) awareness of
un/wholesome cognitions of intentional planning also called volition or conation which
inhereinthemotivationalfactorsofaction,(4)awarenessofselfsabotagingthoughtswhich
reflect the proclivity of irrational craving (musts/shoulds), greedy grasping (fearofloss
andgriefofloss)andhatefulclinging(aggression/otherhateanddepression/selfhate)and
(5) awareness by mindfulness unveiling the interactive Dependent Origination of
Body/Speech/Mind which incorporates karmic antecedents and consequents leading to
balanced interactivity. In effect, Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation (PKT) starts with
anunwantedemotionalafflictionandworksatchangingunwholesome/akusalaperception,
cognition,andbehaviorwithregardtoanexternalorinternalactivatingeventbychoosing
forwholesome/kusalaperception,cognitionandaction/behaviourtoalteraffect.Thus,the
Karmaofdrama,distressandagonyistransformedintotheKarmaofcontentment.Thisis
illustrated by a case example detailing the construction of wholesome Karma as rational
cognition and functional behaviour. Insiders have observed that karmic sequences run
parallel to the centerpiece used in CognitiveBehavior Therapy (CBT), a school of
psychotherapy, which implies thatthe two methodologiesof change overlap considerably.
Indeed,oneofthefoundingfathersofCBT,thelegendaryAlbertElliswhopracticedRational
Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), noted that these disciplines bear more commonalities
thandifferences,particularlybyabolishingmostofthehumanego(Kwee&Ellis,1998).
From a Buddhist perspective, PKT operates in the realm of the provisional self;
hencetherapylogisticallyprecedesmeditationtowardsultimatenotself.Atbottom:only
whencalmeddown,freefromemotionalquagmiresandhorrorvacuum,isonereadytoshift
towardemptinessandBuddhahood.

DharmaasPsychologyandPsychotherapy
There is a growing interest worldwide amongst scientistspractitioners for the Buddhist
teachings(Dhamma/Dharma)asanappliedscienceofpsychologytoguidepeopleswaysof
living toward emotional balance (e.g. De Silva, 2010; Kwee, 2010a; 2011, Kwee, Gergen &
Koshikawa,2006).ThisisinspiteofthefactthatDharmaisconsideredbymany,Buddhists
andnonBuddhistsalike,tobeareligionoraphilosophyratherthanapsychology.However,
because these three words/concepts do not exist in the pristine Dharma and in the
languages of Buddhist Asia, it is neither of these three. Because Siddhartha Gautama, the
Buddha who lived around 563483 Before Common Era never claimed to be some
intermediarybetweenhumanityandthebeyond,amessiahoraprophet,oranythingelse
but a human being, who claimed to be just awakened, i.e. not asleep (Dona Sutta), the
DharmaisdefinitelynotareligionintheAbrahamicsense.
Moreover, as in the discourses (Nikayas), one might infer that the Buddha
promulgatedathisworldlyteachingofwisdomthatisnontheisticimplyingthatDharmais
neithertheisticnoratheistic(SabbaSutta,VacchagottaSuttaandMalunkyaputtaSutta).In
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the Tevijja Sutta the Buddha pointed out that it is foolish to assimilate with an
imaginary/visualized god. In effect this boils down to the reading that god is non of our
business. Nonetheless, the Dharma was and is usually categorized as a religion. Even if
termed a secular religion this classification is a consequence of Eurocentric/neocolonial
thinking.However,fromapragmaticpointofview,thereareadvantagestotreatDharmaas
areligion,becausethenitis:(1)recognisable,(2)organisable,(3)subsidisableand(4)viable
inmulticulturalsocieties.35Hence,onthebottomline,radicallyresistingtheerroneousview
oftheDharmaasareligionbecomesquestionable.ButBuddhistsknowbetter:ourteaching
isaboutdisseminatinglovingkindnessagainstthebackdropofanemptinessofthewise.
GodheadsmergedwiththeDharmaareculturalatavismsmeanttoattracttheilliterateand
nottoscareoffthemeekbyanemptyteaching.Incertainpsychologicalquartersitisnot
atallpraiseworthytoconsiderDharmaasareligion.TotherenownedSigmundFreud(1927)
religion is a collective obsessivecompulsive disorder due to an infantile wish for a parent
which is much akin to a psychotic disturbance; and the legendary Albert Ellis (1980)
straightforwardly called religion mental illness. As both giants are of Jewish descent they
alludedtotheAbrahamicfaithswhentalkingaboutreligion.
While the interpretation of Dharma as a religion was in the tradition of Louis de
VallePoussin(18691939),aBelgianwhoexploredIndianMahayanathatincludesgodlike
interpretations through its representations of cosmic Buddhas meant as skilful means
(upayakaushalya),therewasanothertraditionthatviewstheDharmaasaphilosophy.This
current was spearheaded by the Russian scholar Fyodor Stcherbatsky (18661942) who
exploredTibetanBuddhismasaphilosophy.ThetermBuddhismisexemplarytodenotethe
philosophicaltake.Notwithstanding,theDharmaisamagga,awayorpractice(comparable
totheTaoinChina),notanism;henceitisnotaphilosophy,noratheory,butaguidefor
practice. Hence, rather than opium for the intellectuals, Dharma is a modus vivendi for
seekers of liberation from experiential malaise by tailored experimentation called
meditation. If Dharma is not a philosophy, should this Western word, enforcing misguided
semantics,bebannedfromtheBuddhistvocabulary?
Aslongastheuserknowsbetter,usingBuddhismasacontainertermthatincludes
religion and philosophy is surely convenient. This implies that Buddhism could also be a
psychology (De Silva, 1979/2005; Kalupahana, 1987). However, because psychology is a
typicalWesterndiscipline,itisforclarityreasonsadvisabletoexplicitlytalkaboutBuddhist
Psychology to acknowledge the confluence of Dharma and psychology. According to the
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA)psychologyisthestudyofthemindandbehavior.
Thedisciplineembracesallaspectsofthehumanexperience,fromthefunctionsofthebrain
totheactionsofnations,fromchilddevelopmenttocarefortheaged.Ineveryconceivable
settingfromscientificresearchcenterstomentalhealthcareservices,theunderstandingof
behavioristheenterpriseofpsychologists(www.apa.org).
Psychologists/psychotherapists are scientistspractitioners who attempt to
understand mind, experience and concomitant behaviours; these are themes overlapping
theBuddhistventure.TheBuddhistprojectistoresponsiblywatchoverKarmawhichcanbe
defined psychologically as: intentional/cognitive activity/behaviour in relational context.
How does Karma come about? Which factors are functional in contributing to its multi
causal (Body/Speech/Mind) and multimodal (doing/talking/thinking) arising, peaking,
subsiding and ceasing? What remedy is prescribed to alleviate people from psychological

35

E.g.,ifnotasareligion,theDharmawouldbeunclassifiableandunviableinIndonesia.BydeclaringtheAdhi
Buddhaasagodhead,Buddhismenjoysthestatusofaformalreligionintheframeworkofreligiousfreedom.

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suffering? Which interventions need to be implemented for what ailments, to whom, by

whom, when and under which circumstances? William James (1902, p.512), father of
Americanpsychology,alreadynoted:IamignorantofBuddhism...[but]asIapprehendthe
Buddhistkarma,Iagreeinprinciplewiththat.Inthisessay,Ifollowhislead.

KarmaandItsMetaphors
A Buddhist approach considers meaning as derived from the compassion and care for
interpersonalrelationshipinharmonywithoneself.ThisstretchesouttoBPPthatcouldbe
pinpointedasanevidencebasedsystemofassessmentandintervention.Todate,theschool
ofpsychotherapythatisresearchedbestisCBTwhichisanamalgamofBehaviourTherapy
andCognitiveTherapy;bothbeganinthe1950s.
BehaviourTherapyisbasedonamodelderivedfromthepsychologyoflearningby
conditioning: (1) Pavlovian classical conditioning (food associated to a ringing bell will
eventually result in salivation when only hearing the sound), (2) Skinnerian operant
conditioning (rewarding a target behaviour will result in its frequency increase) and (3)
Bandurasvicariousconditioningwhichiscognitivelearningthroughmodelingandimitation.
Cognitive Therapy targets the analysis of dysfunctional or irrational thoughts, cognitions
concepts/imagesvisualizations which are highly correlated to affectemotion and
individual/interpersonalmanifest behaviour. Affect36 is the psychologistterm for emotions
which form the prime target of CBT that is mainly focused on alleviating suffering from
anxiety/fear,anger/aggression,sadness/griefandclinicaldepression.Therearetwoschools
ofCBT,BecksCognitiveTherapyandRationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy(REBT)foundedby
thelegendaryAlbertEllis(19132007).Accordingtoasurveyof800counselingandclinical
psychologists,membersoftheAPA(Smith,1982),amorerecentoneisnotavailable,Beck
and Ellis were the seventh and second in the ranking of most influential psychotherapist.
This author has worked closely with Ellis on ferreting out commonalities and differences
between REBT and Zen (Kwee & Ellis, 1998) and was one of the first to connect CBT with
Buddhism,alongwithP.deSilva(1984)andW.Mikulas(1978)(Kwee,1990).
Thiswastheformativebeginningofadevelopmentthathasleadtoaconfluenceof
CBTandBuddhistpracticeforwhichIhavecoinedthephrase:BuddhistPsychotherapyby
KarmaTransformation(Kwee&KweeTaams,2010ab).PKTtargetsKarmaplainlydefinedas
(motivated) action. This definition is blurred by supernatural notions, an unfortunate
developmentthatwillbeavoidedhere;BPPisinterestedinthisworldlykarmicsequences.
These sequences function according to Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada), the
summum bonum of awakening. Understanding Karma, a proposition that intentions
implicateactivityanditsfruits(karmaphala)isquintessentialintheBuddhistpracticetoend
suffering.Ineffect,intentionisamentalstateofheart/thought(CetanaSutta)whichleads
tokarmicactionofBody/Speech/Mindthroughvolitionandintention.Intention[Isay]is
kamma. (Nibbedhika Sutta). The importance of Karma can be inferred by the Buddhas
furtherstatementsthatKarmaisimbibed:weown,arebornof,relatetoandlivebyKarma;
andwhateverKarmawecreate,unwholesomeorwholesome,thatwillbeinherited
(Upajjhatthana Sutta). Moreover, the Middle Way37 is also known by its essential
dealingswithcapriciousKarma:(1)kammavada(theapplicationofwholesomeKarma),(2)

36

Affectcanbeanyinnershortandlongtermfeeling,fromweakmoodstostrongemotionswithapositive,
negative,orneutralquality.
37
TheMiddleWayavoidstheextremesofasceticismandhedonismandthe8FoldBalancingPracticeconveys
howtoequilibrateandcomprehendDharma.Itisdefinitelynotcreatorism(issaranimmanavada),nornihilism

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hetuvada(theanalysisofKarmasmotivation,causationandfunction,and(3)kiriyavada(the
effectorseedtofruitperformanceresultofKarma).Hence,theBuddhawasalsoknownas
a kammavadin, hetuvadin and kiriyavadin. Even though it can be read about in various
discourses (e.g. Mahanidana Sutta, Kammavada Bhumija Sutta, Maha and Culla
kammavibhangaSuttas),asyet,acrystalclear,systematicandunequivocalinterpretationof
Karma is scarce. It is however a panBuddhist given that absolute predestination is
anathemainaBuddhismwithoutgodheads(Kalupahana,2010).
Thefollowingisanattempttoofferanunambiguouspsychologicalinterpretationof
Dependent Origination and the vicissitudes of Karma, which is secular and thisworldly.
Analyzing the Buddhas wondrous instances of teaching, the observation stands out that he
frequentlymadeproficientlyuseofpsychologicalmetaphorsanddoubleentendres.Acase
inpointishisdialoguewiththefingernecklaceserialkiller,who,surprisedtoseeafearless
ascetic passing his notorious residence, stopped and yelled at the Buddha To stop or
otherwise whereupon the Buddha, while continuing his walk, replied that he had stopped
alreadyandretorted:Dontyouwanttostop?Hearingthis,thebanditwaspuzzled,because
hewasaskedtostopwhilehewasnotwalkingandbecausetheasceticsaidhehasstopped
whileheisstillwalking(AngulimalaSutta).Obviously,theBuddhawasjugglingwithsemantics
ashisuseofstoppingcarriesthedoublemeaningofstoppingtowalkandstoppingtokill.The
thesissubmittedhereisthattheBuddhawasasemanticartistorpoeticactivist.Heshowed
that terms can be interpreted as psychological metaphors, particularly when terms are
borrowed from Brahmanism. The task is to seize their awakened meanings. Based on this
authorsexplorationsasastudentinpsycholinguisticandGeneralSemantics(Kwee,1982),here
isalistcontainingaselectionoftermswhichcouldbeacquaintedwithasdeepmetaphors
(see Table 1). Their proposed psychological meanings discard literal exegesis, e.g. of Mara
(PadhanaSutta).38

Table1:SelectedBuddhistTerms/MetaphorsandProposedPsychologicalMeanings

Rebirth:psychologicallylimitedtoathisworldly/dailyrecurrenceofemotionalepisodes
6Realmsofrebirth:1heaven,2hell,3titans,4hungryghosts,5humansand6animals
Heaven:feelinggodly,ametaphorofbliss/pridewhichdoesntmakeoneagod
Hell:feelinghellishnessifhateful,angry,furious,resenting,hostileandaggressive
Titans/demigods:experiencingconflict,struggle,fight,envy/jealousy,distrustandparanoia
Hungryghosts:frustratedstateduetoinsatiablecraving/grasping/clingingtoimpermanence

(ucchedavada) or fatalism (pubbekatahetuvada). As Dhamapalla stated (Maha Bodhi Journal, vol. 34, 1926),
there is a host of names denoting Dhamma: Sambodhiyana, Dhammayana, Jhanayoga, Ditthijala, Attajala,
Brahmajala, Brahmayana, Vibhajjavada Samukkansadhamma, Vimuttinanadassana, Ariyamagga,
Ariyadhamma and Bodhipakkhiyadhamma, which are not translated due to space constraints. Most
importantly,theDhammaisalso known as kammavada, hetuvada and kiryavada, and the Buddha as an analyst
(vibhajjavadin) of intentional action (kamma), motivational factors (hetu) and performance efficacy (kiriya). In
the framework of Dependent Origination the kammavadin is a collaborative practitioner who puts wholesome
Karma in place while extinguishing unwholesome Karma. This requires viriyavada, a tenet necessitating human
effort in pursuing wholesomeness (www.ucalgary.ca/numatachair/files/numatachair/Karunadasa_2001.pdf).
38
Obviously, I am not the first or only to point at the metaphoric nature of the Dhamma/Dharma. The late Ven.
Buddhadassa discerned everyday language and Dhamma language in 1966, October 8, in a splendid lecture
at Suan Mokkhabalarama, Chaiya, Thailand (www.buddhadasa.com/naturaltruth/twolanguage1.html). However,
to date it seems that only few people consequently apply psychological interpretations. E.g. if duhkha is literally
the axle of a chariots wheel that does not run smoothly, if the chariot is subject to wear away due to lifes
imperfection and impermanence (anicca), and if the chariot when torn apart does not accommodate any self or
soul (anatta), then dukkha is a psychological simile about the 3-Empirical Marks of Existence.

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Humans:mostcommonrebirthrealmwhichoffersthebestopportunityforBuddhahood
Animals:mostfrequentdepictionsareacock(greed),asnake(hatred)andapig(ignorance)
Nirvana:extinctionofthestateortraitofunwholesomeaffect/emotionalarousal
Duhkha:adamagedwheelaxlepreventingacartfromridingsmoothly,asimileforsuffering
Mara:projectionsofemotionsrelustconfusionasadeadlyarmyofdemonicstates
Poisons:metaphorforthepsychologicalafflictionsofgreed,hatredandignorance
Brahmaviharas:divinedwellingofkindness,compassion,joyandequanimity
Arahant:notasaint,butsomeonewhohasvanquishedinnerenemiesandisawakened
Wheel of life: cycle of lifedeath of thisworldly, daily karmic greed, hatred and ignorance
Karma:notfateordestiny,norabookkeepingofgoodandbad,butintentionalaction

ThatKarmaisnotthebottomlineofanaccountingsystemofdeedsbutratherano
nonsenseteachingofcalming,Nirvana,insightandemptiness/notselfisillustratedinthe
followinganecdoteontheIndianBhikshuBodhidharma,theallegedfounderofChan,who,
in521,visitedtheemperorWu,agreatpatronofDharma.Havingbuiltmanypriories,the
emperor asked what merit his generosity had earned. "No merit," was the answer.
Astonished, he asked what the Dharmas supreme essence is. "Vast emptiness, nothing
holy", was the reply. Finally, he asked, "Who are you?" "Dont know" said Bodhidharma
alluding to notself. In a psychological approach, Karma leads to rebirth in the space of
Body/Speech/Mind. This can take place in heaven or hell. That heaven and hell are to be
soughtherenow,wasalreadyacknowledgedforcenturieslikeinthefollowingkoan(Reps,
1957):39

AproudwarriorasamuraivisitedaZenmastertolearnaboutheavenandhell;do
theyreallyexist?Insteadofansweringimmediatelytheteacherkepthimwaitingfor
a while, treating him like a beggar. The samurai gradually became impatient, angry
and at last demanded a proper answer. "You are too stupid to understand", the
masterreplied.Furiouslythesamuraidrewhisswordtokilltheteacher,whoatthis
verymomentraisedhisindexfingerandthensaid:"Experiencethegateofhell!"All
ofasuddenthesamuraiunderstoodthatthiswashislecture,bowedindeepgrace
and kneeled in merciful surrender. The monk smiled, raised his finger again and
concluded:"Experiencethegateofheaven!"(Hakuin,16851768)

KarmaSequence
AsKarmausuallyreferstothebecoming/birthandtheageing/deathoffeelingslikepainand
pleasureinarecurrentcycleofrebirths,thisgivesrisetotheideathatthisbirthanddeath
are not physical, but an analogy to explain the beginning and end of daily pleasures and
pains. Thus, metaphors for birth and death are a poetic description of the Dependent
Origination, arising, peaking, subsiding and ceasing of karmic sequences which take place
during emotional episodes. The cycle of births and deaths of suffering (samsara) can be
ceased by transforming the Karma of drama, distress and agony into the Karma of
contentmentandNirvana.Hence,PKTaimsatpreparingthenirvanicextinctionofkarmic
arousal by skilfully eradicating unwholesome Karma moving forward, i.e. by working at
unsatisfactory rebirths one by one. PKT is to prepare and lay the basis for working at
contentmentandNirvana,butnotatemptinessandBuddhahood.PKTisthereforeonlyan

39

Akoanisanexemplaryteachinganecdotecomparabletojurisprudenceinlawmaking.

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initialphaseinalongBuddhistquest.Thisfirstphaseismeanttoalleviatethesufferingof
anybodywhofeelsdistressedorinagonyandneedstherapy.Onlywhencalm,tranquilized
andfreedfromthequagmireofemotionalimpasse,withorwithouttherapy,isoneableto
pursue the next phase. This second phase targets Buddhist aims and is therefore almost
exclusivelysuitableforBuddhistswhowanttotakeupthepainstakingjourneytowardnot
selfandBuddhahood.
BeforegoingintotheKarmaSequenceastheoperationalcenterpiece,letusdwellon
the raison dtre of Karma Transformation. This is a transformative process of eliminating
emotional quandaries and conceptual confusion by decreasing unwholesome Karma and
increasingwholesomeKarma.SkilfulandwholesomeKarmaisrootedinnongreed(alobha),
nonhatred (adosa) and nonignorance (amoha), while unskilful/unwholesome Karma is
rootedinthe3Poisons:greed(lobha),hatred(dosa)andignorance(moha).Ignorancerefers
to notknowing how the mind functions. Pitfall is the difficulty to see and understand the
projectionsofthemindwhichresultintheillusionofselfandthedelusionofgod/s.The
antidote to ignorance is (1) wisdom on the mechanisms and workings of the mind and (2)
knowledge and savvy about putting this wisdom in practice. The remedy to heal greed is
heartfelt generosity. The cure for hatred is lovingkindness. Because Body/Speech/Mind
factors inhere in the causes and effects of Karma, the 3Poisons afflict body and bodily
action,contaminatespeechandvocalactionanddefilemindandmentalaction.
From my clinical pointofview greed and hatred mask negative basic emotions.
Greedconcealsthefearoffuturelossandthegriefofpastloss.Hatredistheresultofanger
which could proliferate (papanca) to otherhate/aggression and selfhate/depression. The
sociocultural expressions of depression, anxiety, anger and grief are the prime targets to
decrease.TheyaretheemotionalstatestozeroinduringKarmaTransformationwhichthen
worksatfocusingonfeelingswhichareneitherpainfulnorpleasurable.Affectofneutrality
and contentment clear the air for the alternative scenarios of joy, love and serenity. In
Karma Transformation client and therapist usually dig into the karmic
feelings/thoughts/activityofapastevent,whenthingswentwrong,inordertoameliorate
future emotional episodes. Hence, the focal point is herenow, even if the intentional
activity was originally created in the past (puranakamma): one cannot but live in the
present.Ifdiscussedherenow,emotionaleventsthattookplaceinthepastaresomething
ofthepresentandusuallyonealsogetsthesamefeelings.Eventhoughthesubjectstems
fromaverylongtimeago,thekarmicimplicationofthepast(kammavipaka)becomesactual
andchangeablenow(navakamma).
KarmaSequencealmostalwaystakesplaceinarelationalcontextandstartswitha
stimulussituation,herecalledanemotionalepisode.Thiscanbesummarizedas:Itisnot
the perceived things without or within (point Aactivating event) that upset me (point C
consequence)butmyveryownthoughtsimages/conceptionsandconcurrentinterpretations
evaluations/judgments(pointBbeliefs)whichmademefeelbad,sadandmad(C:emotion)
and motivated me to intend/plan regrettable karmic acts (C: behavior).40 This ABC
terminology,derivedfromEllisREBT(Kwee&Ellis,1998),isanechooftheBuddhassaying
that we are what we think,41 which emphasizes responsibility (Dhammapada): By

40

Wehave100billionnervecells(neurons),i.e.1millionbillionconnectionsflickeringwhenthinking:forabout
1000thoughtsperhourwhichisabout16.000thoughtsadayorprobablyevenmore;85%ofthesethoughts
arenegativeandripeforcorrection(C.Greer,NationalScienceFoundation;www.hvacprofitboosters.com).
41
TheDhammapada(423verses;transl.Byrom,2001),agemofworldliterature,clarifies(Byrom,2001;p.3):

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oneselfisunwholesomenessdoneandisoneafflicted;byoneselfisunwholesomenessnot
doneandisonenotafflicted.Afflictionandnonafflictiondependentirelyononeself;noone
can nonafflict another. A most didactic presentation of the ABC is through the following
Jatakastoryinspiredsimile:

Once in a forest,a sleeping hare heard a hullabaloo. Believing it's the end of the
world,hebegantorun.Thinkingthesame,othersjoinedhim:thedeeralsothought
so and joined the flight and one species after the other started running until all
animals were in a frantic sprint which would eventually have lead to their demise.
When the Buddha saw them in panic, he asked them: why? Because the world
ends,theysaid.TheBuddha:Thatcan'tbetrue...let'sfindoutwhyyouthinkso.
Questioning them in succession, he finally arrived at the hare that started the run:
where were you and whatwere you doing when you thought it's the end of the
world?Thehare:Iwassleepingunderamangotree...theBuddhahypothesized:
you probably heardamango fall...startling you (A, the activating event), you
thoughtit'stheendoftheworld(B,theun/wholesomebelief),youtookfright(Ce,
theemotionalconsequence)andran(Cb,thebehavioralconsequence)...let'sgoback
tothattree...toverifyandfalsify...Thus,theBuddhasavedtheanimalkingdom.

Inamorescholarlyfashion,thecommonalitycomestotheforeinthefiringorderof
the street (vithi) which refers to our Karma Sequence as described in the Abhidhamma
(thedeeperteachings,oneofthethreecanonicalworkscontainingnumericalabstractionsof
theBuddhasdiscourseswrittenbyadepts).TheAbhidhammadescribesthemindasaflow
of discrete mindmoments (cittas) each one of which is said to last for 1/64th of a finger
snap;inotherwords,themindismomentaryandischanginginanincrediblyquickpace(cf.
HoneyballSutta).42Thestreetfollows17infinitesimalstepsofmindmoments(cittas)which
strikinglycorrespondtotheABCsequence:

ThereisanActivatingevent(e.g.amangofalling):1.baselineawareness(e.g.deep
sleep) ~ 2. vibrating input (a sound) ~ 3. interruption (waking up) ~ 4. adverting (5
sense doors) ~ 5. perception (e.g. eye consciousness) ~ 6. receiving awareness
attending ~ 7. investigating awareness by the minds eye (incl. memories) ~ 8.
determining/noting awareness by the minds eye (incl. memories) ~9~10
~11~12~13~14~15 impulse awareness: reflection by un/wholesome Beliefs with a

Wearewhatwethink.Allthatweareariseswithourthoughts.Withourthoughtswemaketheworld.Speak
oractwithanimpuremindandtroublewillfollowyouasthewheelfollowstheoxthatdrawsthecart.Weare
whatwethink.Allthatweareariseswithourthoughts.Withourthoughtswemaketheworld.Speakoract
withapuremindandhappinesswillfollowyouasyourshadow,unshakable.Lookhowheabusedmeandhurt
me, how he threw me down and robbed me. Live with such thoughts and you live in hate. Look how he
abusedmeandhurtme,howhethrewmedownandrobbedme.Abandonsuchthoughtsandliveinlove.In
this world hate never yet dispelled hate, only love dispels hate. This is the law, ancient and inexhaustible
Howevermanyholywordsyouread,howevermanyyouspeak,whatgoodwilltheydoyou,ifyoudonotact
uponthem? NB:AsintheRohitassaSutta,bytheworldisnotmeanttheworldinthebeyondoroutthere
(intheironageconceivedasflat),butthemindsworld,withdataenteringthroughthesensedoorsandwhose
minutiae are observable in meditation: In this very onefathomlong body, along with its perceptions and
thoughts,doIproclaimtheworld,theoriginoftheworld,thecessationoftheworldandthepathleadingto
thecessationoftheworld.
42
Apparently,asdemonstratedbyNobellaureateRuhterfordin1910,thesilentrealityofatomsand cellsis
thatall ofthem are 99% empty space. Thirty billion nervecellsand onemillion billion neuronal connections
flickerinourbrainwhenwethink.

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karmichistoryandfreshintentional willto(not) actasaConsequenceengendering

an emotional and a behavioral output ~ 16~17 followed by subliminal storage and
retentionofanImemine/selfexperience.(NB:6~7~8refertoapperceptionwhichis
postperceptual but preconceptual, observable in mindfulness; 917: include the
therapeutic awareness that might transform unwholesome Karma into neutral
feelings.)43

CandleKarmaandDominoKarma
Interestingly, neither the REBT centerpiece, nor the Karma Sequence endorses a ghost in
themachine.Because the5Skandhas,whichwecallpsychologicalmodalities,areempty,
thisbasicallyimpliesthatthereisnoselftoidentifywith.Theselfsemptinessisobvious
whenthenatureofreifiedabstractionsisunderstood.PirsigsZenandtheArtofMotorcycle
Maintenance(1974)dealswiththisissue:wheredoesinherentexistence,soulorselfreside
ifthebikeistornapart?Thisisavariantofacomparison highlightedintheMilindapanha
(2ndcenturyBCE):theBhikkhuNagasenaexplainedtheIndoGreekKingMenandrosthatthe
modalitiesarelikethechariotsparts.Minddeconstructedinitsmodalitiesdisintegrateslike
adecomposedbodylikeachariot.Itsconstituentpartsarebutatemporaryassemblage.The
Buddha also used the analogy of a lute, whose elusive music is composed by the
combinationofstrings,boxandbowthatisfullofmomentaryexperiencebutemptyofthe
selfnature of eternal sound (Sigalovada Sutta). Not only sound, but all perceptible
phenomena are impermanent, nonabiding and ever changing by nature, thus they are
essentially empty and lack inherent existence (sabhava). The self exists only as a mind
constructionthatfreezesthefluxofthemodalitiesprocessesandisthereforenothingbut
an illusion. Another way to arrive at selfs emptiness is Nagarjunas (2nd century)
emptinessofeverythingwhichisimpermanent.Hediscernedtheultimateemptinessof
notselfandtheprovisionalselfofthehouseholderwhoisawareofthefutilityofaname,
but simultaneously appreciates the convenience of being indexed, e.g. by having an
identity card. The crux is to keep Karma unafflicted by not attaching to greedy or hateful
thoughts/feelings/deeds.Thefollowingtwoschemesaretoolsofanalysis.
(1)Thecandleflamemetaphor(GaddulabaddhaSutta).Habitualbehaviourpatterns
are the bulk of regrettable intentional action. With the negative karmic impact of regret,
reflectionaswellasKarmasassessmentoftenbegins.Habitscomeaboutbytheinterplayof
theSkandhas.Thedynamiccombinationofmodalitiesreflectsthestructureandprocessof
what is called personality, i.e. a snapshot description of a psychological profile. These
compriseBodyrupakaya/Speechvakalapa/Mindnamacittaoutofwhichconsciousnessor
vinnanaemergesandfunctionsthroughawareness.Mindfulnessenablesthefullexperience
ofthemodalities:perceivingsensing(A),conceivingcognizing(B),emotingfeeling(Ce)and
conatingacting (Cb). Experiencing may take place consciously, in full awareness or non
consciously, in subliminal awareness, depending on the willful attention paid to what is
perceived outside or inside the body. Our daily experiences are mostly governed by habit
which happens automatically due to too ingrained conditioned and conditional learned
responses. A habit may be an inappropriate reaction to an activating event requiring
adequateconsequenceswhichisaprocessoffiguringoutandcreatingnewbeliefs.Whether

43

Nota Bene: 6~7~8 refer to apperception that is postperceptual and preconceptual; 917 refer to the
awareness that may eradicate unwholesome cittas to attain Nirvana the extinction of emotional arousal.
Interestingly,thetermextinctionisusedinthesamewayinREBT.

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theclientsresponsesareadequate,appropriateandwholesomecanbeexperiencedonthe
affectivelevel.
An inadequate response is likely connected to some emotionally distressed and
unhappy feeling and is often the beginning of somebodys voluntary paying attention and
focusing awareness to the modalities. In line with the metaphor, Karma Transformation
eventuallyresultsinflameextinction(Nirvana)(seeTable2).

Table2:TheBuddhasKarmaSequenceandREBTsCenterpiece:
ParallelApproachestoKarmicEmotionalEpisodes

Body/Speech/Mind
(kaya/vak/citta):Basic
mindfulnessofthe
phenomenainthesespaces
Perceiving(vedana):
Awarenessofthe6Senses
(seeing,hearing,smelling
tasting,touchingandthe
mindseye),felt:+/0/
Conceiving(sanna):
Awarenessofprojections
duetoignorance:illusionof
selfanddelusionofgod(s)
Conating(sankhara):
Awarenessofignorant
cravingandsubsequent
proclivitiesofaction:greed
graspingorhatredclinging
Consciousness(vinnana):

Amomentaryexternalorinternalstimulusconfigurationimpinges
onthesubject,i.e.somethingoneisawareofinfleetingsense
consciousnessafterdetectionandbeingincontactwithonthe
radarscreenofoneofthesixsenseorgans,tobeperceived
Activatingevent:sensing,whileapperceiving,whichispost
perceptualbutpreconceptual,thereiswillfulattendingand
perceptionwhichisinfluencedbymemoryandrecognition,and
theperceivergetssomesensefeeling(partlyoverlapping
affect/emotion)whichisrelativelypositive,negativeorneutral...
Beliefs:imageryandconceptions,thecognitiverepresentationby
thesubjectbecomesinterpretedandevaluatedi.e.dualistically
fabricatedandproliferatedasgood/bad,right/wrong,etc.andto
betappedasir/rationalandun/wholesomecognitionsandideas
Consequences: karmicaffective/emotionaland(interpersonal)
behavioralresponseshavingappraisedthoughts(selftalk)as
unskilfulirrational/unwholesome,thesubjectskilfullytransforms
theseintonewrational/wholesomethoughtsinordertoplan/emit
newkarmicrational/wholesomemotivatedintentionalactivity...
Advancedmindfulnessisthenextposttherapyphasetobodhi.

(2) The domino pieces metaphor (Dutiya Gaddulabaddha Sutta). Unwholesome

Karma, noticeable by craving affect, grasping thought and clinging behavior, does not
breathethequalityoffreedom,itfeelslikebeingshackled.WholesomeKarmaisfreefrom
attachments.Itisastateattainedwhenignoranceisoverandknowledgeiswiselyapplied.
Like in a court of justice intentions and wishes count less than actual facts, observable
conduct, manifest behaviour, premeditated performance or motivated action comprising
Karma.44 However, planned intentions form the seed for future activity. To be mindfully
aware of them prevents unwholesome Karma and likely promotes wholesome Karma.
Karmas working is elucidated by the Buddha through an analysis of its
conditionality/functionalitycomprising12links,interconnectedlikedominopieces.Thisisa
moredetailedassessmentthanthecandleview(Conze,1980).Thedominometaphoroffers
athisworldly/herenowinterpretationoftheselinksanddiscernsthreeparts:ageneralpart
(steps 14), a specific part (steps 510) and a cyclical part (steps 1112) (For a
graphical/classical depiction, see Table 3 in Chapter 3). They are translated into the ABC
sequence(seeTable3).

44

In a way PKT resembles detectiving because like a Private Investigator, confronted with a puzzling act
throughakilledbody,willalwayslookfor themotiveofthemurderer,theBuddhistpsychotherapistiskeen
aboutthewhereabouts(ABC)ofanact(Karma)andthemotive/s(hetu)leadingtokarmicsuffering.

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Table3:APsychologicalInterpretationofKarmasDependentOrigination
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Link1conveysthatthelinksareastepwisemodelaboutkarmicgreed,hatredandignorance
whichconcurswithREBTsABCcenterpieceanddisplaysanemotionalepisode,asfollows:

Link2explainsA:whileignorant,anActivatingeventarisesinsensorium,e.g.afight
Link3explainsB:outofthis,awarenessarises,i.e.irrationalBeliefsonthefight
Link4explainsC:outofB,Consequentialemotionalaction(Ce/Cb)arises,e.g.aggression

Link5specifiesA:outofbodilysenseorgansascondition,perceivingarises
Link6specifiesA:outofperceiving,contactarises,e.g.seeingJohn
Link7specifiesB:outofcontact,cognitiveexperiencingarises,e.g.feelingangry
Link8specifiesB:outofinferences,cravingevaluationsarises,e.g.Iwishhimdead
Link9specifiesCe:outofcravingunwholesomeemotionsarise,e.g.hatred(otherblame)
Link10specifiesCb:outofhatredasmotivation,aggressivebehaviorwillfindexpression

Link11ABCcycling:step10originatestheconceptionandre/birthofsteps510
Link12ABCcycling:birthofanemotionundergoesageingtowarddeath,rebirth,etc.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The metaphors of re/birth, ageing and death have made many credulous followers
believe that the 12linked stepwise exposition is about the metaphysics of the soul,
reincarnation and Transcendental Truth, rather than a tool to closely examine Dependent
Originationthisworldly/herenow.Themetaphysicalflirtationsnotwithstanding,theBuddha
was not concerned with the cosmological order of the universe. He was involved with the
impermanenceofthehumanconditionandthequesttoknowhowtocometogripswiththe
fringes of existential trouble due to impermanence/imperfection. That the Buddhas
discoursesunambiguouslyrejectmetaphysics,cosmologyandontology,andbreatheathis
worldly/herenowpsychologicalspiritcanbereadinthefollowingquote(SabbaSutta):

Theeyesandforms,theearsandsounds,thenoseandsmells,thetongueandtastes,
thebodyandtangiblethings,themindandmentalobjectsIfsomeoneshouldset
thisAllasideandproclaimanotherAll,itwouldbejusttalkbecausethiswould
bebeyondthelimitsofhisabilities.

PsychotherapybyKarmaTransformation
PKTtakesplaceafterassessmentbymeansoftheKarmaSequenceformulatedastheABC
centerpieceofanemotionalepisode.Typically,aclientwillnotseekcouncilforaproblem
of greed or hatred, s/he will likely come with complaints of depression, anxiety, anger,
and/orgrief.Thetherapistthenpinpoints,incollaborativepractice,thetreatmenttargetlike
forinstanceovercomingtheincapacityofcryingwhileinasadsituationofdivorcefroma
verballyviolenthusband.Despiteitisfunctionaltobestrongandtosticktoherguns,it
wouldbestrongerandhealthiertocrythannottocry.Cryingisnotperseweakeningand
couldevenstrengthenonesimmunesystem;henceitisadvisabletocrywhenaloneorwith
familyorfriendstogetridofthewasteproductsintears.Hence,thetargetisnottocryin
themiddleofyellingandscolding,buttolearntocryifsad.Inthiscasetheclientwasinfirst
instance encouraged to visualize sad situations of the past and to watch movies with the
potencytostrikeasensitivestring.Insecondinstance,KarmaTransformationusingtheABC
centerpiece weighs in. The Activating event is: Sitting while visualizing him damaging my
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clothesandjewelryaftermytellingtoleavehim,TheirrationalBeliefswithunwholesome
karmicimpactare:1.Heshouldntyellatmeandnowhedoes,hesasonofabitch;2.
Hemustntscoldatme;Iwishhimbadluck;3.Heisalazyman,howcouldIevermarry
him? And so on. The karmic Consequences of these thoughts on the emotional level are
Anger/hatredandonthebehaviourallevelofmanifestactionisHavingrestlesslegs.45

After formulating the ABC, the transformational karmic Dispute and aimed karmic
Effectcomenextintheprocess.Thepursuedgoal(E)setbytheclientis:Tofeelsadandcry
ifalone,buttostayfirmwithregardtomydivorcedecisionandfeelrelativelyhappyamidst
lifes adversity. In order to attain this aim each cognitive strand is microscoped by first
disputing (D) its completeness by questioning the evaluation impacting the emotional
experience.Evaluationsliebelowthetipoftheicebergofthesurfacecognition.Thesecond
step is to question the un/wholesomeness and ir/rationality of the complete cognition. A
thought is wholesome and skilful if it is rational/logical/realistic/factual and likely leads to
the pursued goal of intrapersonal and interpersonal harmony. In the vignette, the first
sentenceiscompletedthroughquestioningitsevaluativeandmotivationalimpactresulting
in:Heshouldntyellatmeandnowhedoes,hesasonofabitchandIhatehim.The
secondsentence:Hemustntscoldatme;IwishhimbadluckbecauseIhatehim.And
thethirdsentence:Heisalazyman,howcouldIevermarryhim?...IwishInevermethim,
nowIveruinedmylife,stupidme.Table4provideskarmicwholesome/rationalalternatives
accruedincollaborativepractice.Seeformoreofwhatandhowto:Appendix1and2.
Table4:ThreeKarmaTransformationScripts
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Thecreationofanalternativeforthefirstsentence:Heshouldntyellatmeandnowhedoes,hesasonofa
bitchandIhatehimgoesasfollows:Isthisthoughtrational/realisticandwholesome/skilful,andwillitresult
inmykarmicgoal?Thisthoughtisirrationalandunrealistic,becausehehasreasonswhicharelogicalfromhis
stance, hence the most rational and realistic thing to do for him is that he should yell at me which is not
reasonable to me, but that does not make him a son of a bitch all of a sudden besides his mother is my
daughtersgrandmotherTothinkthiswayisunwholesomebecauseitleadsmetohatehimandhisfamily
and others who do like him Hate creates hollownessin me andis not healthy for my system, it works like
poisonandcouldmakemesickIcantlovehimanymore,butperhapsyessure,Icanempathizewithhis
feelingofbeingdesertedbyawoman,whichhappenstobemeandstayfriendlywithhimdespitewhatand
howloudheisyellingatme,nowandstayfriendlynexttimewemeetagainMygoaltofeelsadandcryif
alone, but to stay firm with regard to my divorce decision will be reached with my new karmic thoughts,
becausethefireofangerandthepoisonofhatewilldiminish,ifIreallybelieveinwhatImjustthinkingmy
softness/sadnesswillreturnandinduetime,iftriggered,thechancesthatIllcryifaloneandfeelhappyagain,
eveninpainofdivorce,arenowincreasedcryingcleansesmysystem,detoxifiesandpourswasteoutofme,
letmethereforesurrenderincryingwheneverandwhereversuitable,sothatIcanriseinlovingkindness.

The second sentence: He mustnt scold at me; I wish him bad luck because I hate him. Is this thought
rational/realisticandwholesome/skilful,andwillitresultinmykarmicgoal?Thefactthathesmadatmefor
leaving him is unwise of him but highly understandable to me... whatever he scolds at me, if I stick to my
mantra that sticks and stones can break my bones but words will never hurt me, he may scold at me the
nastiestthingspossibleandIcanremaininmyserenity,ifIdecideandwanttoSo,hemustscoldatmeand
it would be illogical if he wasnt scolding at me if he is furious and not eating up his anger: can I then feel
compassion for him and empathize...? since its irrational not to expect him to scold at me and its more
realistictoexpectthathewillorevenmustscoldatme,itsjustgoodthathescoldsatmeTowishhimbad
luckistowishmeandourdaughterbadluckwhichisthereforeanunwisewishIdbetterwishhimgoodluck
becausehishappinesswillincreaseeveryoneshappinessandifIdoso,saysotohim,Iwishyouthebestof
luckandthehappiestofhappinessnowweareseparated,thiscouldcreategoodwillandatleastnotcreateill

45

Thethoughtsinthiscasevignette,althoughrealistic,areinspiredbutnotbasedonreality;theyaremadeup
forillustrativepurposes.

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willHatredisfermentedangerwhichwillresultinalifewhichcarriesanacetifiedtasteandsinceIdonot
wishasourlifebutasweetandhappylifefullofloveandkindnessmyenergyisbetterusedtobekindnow
tohim,evenifitshardMygoaltofeelsadandcryifalone,buttostayfirmnottosharelifewithhimwill
bereachedwithmynewKarmaashatediminishesandifIdeeplybelievemywholesomethoughtsandactto
mynewintentionsthechancesthatIllfeelhappyagainamidstadversitywillincrease.

Thethirdsentence:Heisalazyman,howcouldIevermarryhim?...IwishInevermethim,nowIveruinedmy
life,stupidme.Isthisthoughtrational/realisticandwholesome/skilful,andwillitresultinmykarmicgoal?A
realistic view would be that he isnt lazy but a man who usually behaves lazy With the wisdom of the
present,itisanirrationalwishtonothavingmethimbackthenwhenIfeltjoyandwashopefultosharelife
with him and even to bear and give birth to our child all of which was meant to be happy as a family
however, as many marriages this one was also bound to end in separation Calling me stupid will only
motivateselfhatredandisnotrealisticbyanystandardIsitstupidnottopresagethisend?AsIamnota
fortuneteller,Icouldnotforetellthisunfortunatechemistryoccurringbetweenlazinessandmytemperament,
soitwasnotstupidatthetimebutwithtodayspainfullygainedwisdom,ithadbeenbettertostayattracted
at some distance and to find out character in/compatibilities first which is my karmic decision now when I
meetaniceyoungmanwhodoesntbehavelazyIwouldliketorelatewith...so,itwasamistakewhichdoes
notmakemeastupidperson:atworstIdidastupidthing,whichIcanalwayscorrectlikeIdidbyseparating
Bythinkingso,Illstayinfriendlyrelationshipwithmyselfthisselftalk/selfconversationismeanttohavea
freshstartandbuildupanewlifewhichwouldnotbepossibleifIamruiningmyselfbyirrationalitiesIwould
not say such to someone I love unless meant as teasing Human beings are fallible, even Einstein made
mistakes (would the Buddha have made a few mistakes?) To make a premature and false foregone
conclusionthatIveruinedmylifebecauseofthismarriageisruiningKarmaandwontresultinmyaimtofeel
sad, cry alone, be firm on my divorce and feel happy amidst the hardness of life so, let me cry in
unconditionalselfacceptanceasapandboostwholesomeness.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Althoughopaque,thereisanepistemologicalhierarchyintheaboverationalanalyses
which follow the ladder of abstraction. One needs to be aware of conceptual abstractions
whichboildowntotheadageofGeneralSemanticsthatthemapisnottheterritory.This
implies that speech/language can be viewed as a map of the map of the map, and so on,
which may lead to identifications and reifications of Imemine/self (soul), unless there is
awareness of the natural order of abstraction (Korzybski, 1933). Mindfulness counters our
selfmade maps and semantic reactions, and could secure the pure perception and
descriptionoftheterritory.Languagemovesfromtheconcretetotheabstractandfromthe
specific to thegeneral.If we nevergetgeneral, we dont say anything and if we dont get
specific, real meaning might remain obscure. Irrationality arises when stuck on the
abstractionladder.Faultyabstractionsinclude:deadlevelabstracting(e.g.fearoffear,angry
atanger,sadaboutsadness),selectiveabstracting,arbitraryinferring,misattributing,inexact
labeling, dichotomous reasoning, overgeneralizing, magnifying, minimizing, catastrophizing
andpersonifying.Theseerrorsaresubjecttocorrection.Abstractingaccuratelyfollowsthe
logics of the ladder and starts with a factual description (e.g. this is a heartbeat). It
continues by a personal inference (e.g. this feels nasty) and results in some emotional
evaluation (e.g. this is my death) which finally motivates Karma (e.g. calling an
ambulance).Asaneorderofabstractionstartswiththesilentleveloftheimpermanent
process world of the territory, i.e. atoms, molecules, cells, and so on. What follows is
mappingwhichisadescriptivereportofthebarefacts,i.e.amindfulneutralobservation.
Subsequently there is an inference containing a cognitive judgment (e.g. Ive made a
mistake) and finally, there is an evaluation, i.e. an emotional value judgment (e.g. Im a
worthless human being). Interpretations and evaluations usually happen unconsciously,
automaticallyormindlessly.Mindfulnessraisesawareness.

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FurtherSimilarities
My own work as a therapist in almost four decades was to demonstrate that the pan
Buddhist Dharma (Buddhist tenets acknowledged by every Buddhist school and
denomination)andREBTshareacommonparadigmandusecomparabletactics.Theseare
summarizedinthefollowingsevenpoints(Kwee&Holdstock,1996).(1)Althoughtheiraims
areseeminglydifferent,REBTandtheDharmabothworktowardoptimizingmentalhealth:
curingpsychologicaldisordersvs.ceasingexistentialsuffering,distressandagony(duhkha).
(2)Similartoduhkha,REBTexpoundsthatlifeisahasslefromwhichthereisnoescape;both
agree that there is no need to suffer needlessly. (3) While the Buddhas message is to
transform karmic activity toward wholesomeness by skilfulness, REBT aims at eradicating
irrationalcognitionsanddysfunctionalemotionsbychangingthemviatheABCDEformat.(4)
REBTuseshomeworkasanintegralpartofadvancingselftherapy;Buddhismsrelianceon
selfhealingisadamantasintheBuddhaslastwords:

AndwhoeverAnanda,noworafterIamdead,shallbearefugetothemselves,shall
taketothemselvesnootherrefuge,butseeing[theDhammaasarefuge],shallnot
seek refuge in anyone but themselves, it is they, Ananda who shall reach the
furthershore!Buttheymustmaketheeffortthemselves(Humphreys,1987,p.94).

(5)Surprisingly,REBTalsopropagatestheabolishmentof(mostof)thehumanegoby
definingegoorselfasthesumtotalofc/overtbehaviors,thusofKarma.Therationalstance
is not to judge behaviors/actions simply because there is no accurate way to rate them.
Whatevertheoutcome,rationallyitcannotimpactthepersonasawhole.Thisisinlinewith
theBuddhistpracticenottoblamethepersonwhilerejectingher/hiscognitivedefilement
andemotionalaffliction.REBTsstanceiscomparabletoBuddhismwhichabolishesallofthe
selfontheultimatelevelwhileacknowledgingaprovisionalselfforpracticalreasons.
In both cases the admonition is not to identify with anything in an impermanent
world of flux and hence to ban the semantics of the is of identity. By questioning the
validity of the verb tobe, mindful attention enables clarity that there is no static self to
identify with: I consists of many iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiis (as a husband, lover, dad, teacher, pie
eater,andsoon).ThisresemblestheBuddhasexpressiononthemodalitiesofclinging:this
is not me/mine, this is not what I am, this is not my self (Anattalakkhana Sutta). For
instance, a client is depressed when thinking: He must love me or else I am a worthless
human being. Applying REBTs Unconditional LifeAcceptance, Unconditional Self
Acceptance and Unconditional OtherAcceptance, the following alternative applies: By
thinkingsoIwontreachmygoalofregainingequanimityregardinghimormyself.Thereis
noevidencethathemustloveme,noristhereanyproofthatmyworthdependsonbeing
lovedbyhim.Thefactisthatifhelovessomeoneelseexclusively,hemustnotloveme.This
feelssadandregrettable,butitisnoreasontodetestmyselfasahumanbeing.Myworthof
self cannot be judged because there is no accurate way to rate it. My mere existence
warrantsmyvalueunconditionally.Byavoidingdisharmonywithmyself,withhimandwith
life,IwillfeelOK.(seeAppendix1forrationalideasintheformofrhetoricalquestionson
selfacceptance.)
(6)NexttothemostimportantprocedureoftheABCDEformat,therearetwodozen
additionaltechniquestotackleemotionaldisorders.Duetospaceconstraints,thesewillnot
bedealtwithhere.Sufficetosaythattheyinterveneinthedomainsofcognitionimagery,
affectemotion and inter/personal behavior and show some overlap with Buddhist
interventions (P. de Silva, 1984). The Buddha also proposed specific techniques and
112

highlightede.g.12interventions(Premasiri,2003).Thefirstsevenarepreventive(Sabbasava
Sutta):

1.Wholesomeaffectisprecededbyright/balanced/sustainableviews:toseenotself
andunderstandthatbeliefsaboutevents,nottheeventsperse,evokeemotionality.
2. Restraint: it is wholesome to practice selfcontrol and not to cling to what one
must/shouldhaveornothavewithregardstowhathadenteredthesensedoors
3.Wiseindulginginonesbasicphysiologicalneedslikefood,clothingandshelter,to
safeguardagainstphysicalillnessandpromotementalwellbeing.
4.Thedisciplinetoenduremostpressuresfromthepsychological,physicalandsocial
environmenttosecurefreedomfromunnecessaryandneedlessworries.
5.Todropunwholesome/unskilfulthoughts:oneistimelymindfullyawareofthem,
i.e.rightfromthestartbeforetheyareabletoaffectunwholesomeKarma.
6. To avoid places and situations one does not need to be and which might
expectedlyengenderpsychologicalcankers,unwholesomethoughtsandemotions.
7. To prevent cankers, one cultivates awakening by being: aware, investigative,
persistent,enthusiastic,serene,concentratedandequanimous.

The next five, derived from the Vitakkasanthana Sutta, deal with a flow of unwholesome
karmichabits.TheyareconsecutivelylistedandtranslatedintoABCDEtermsasfollows:

8. Whenever an unwholesome thought enters awareness, one replaces this with

anotherwholesomethought(e.g.blamingandforgiving):ChangingBintoD.
9.Ifthatfails,examinetheharmfulconsequencesoftheunwholesomethoughtand
itsinevitableproduct:thecreationofsufferingallaround:FormulatingCandE.
10. If that fails, forget the thought and engage in attention diversion: look for
wholesomedistractionlikereadingasuttaorjogging:ChangingAintoanotherA.
11. If that fails, investigate and reconstruct the antecedents of the thought and
remove its cause; e.g. ABCsadness preceded next ABC with B of anger and fear of
sadness.
12.Ifthatfails,resistwithforce:beharshandradicalbyforinstanceclenchingteeth
orpressingthetongueagainstthepalate:ChangingCbehaviourintoEbehaviour.

Notably, the Buddha dealt with persisting habits and automatic thoughts. Beware if they
becomeobsessivethoughts;theyintrudeintomindagainstourwillandmanifestthemselves
inarepetitivefashionasiftheyarenotours.Obsessionsandcompulsions,ifgeneralizedto
behaviouralacts,comeaboutwhenmindtricksusbymechanicallyshiftingattentionaway
from a grave emotional knot totally beyond awareness. One advisably turns mindfulness
onto the emotional problem, usually something relational and extreme like fury or
bereavement, as to disentangle and unwind. PKT could weigh in here from assessment to
remedy.Allmeansandmethodsaretobeusedlikearaft.Iftheriveriscrossed,thereisno
needtocarrytheboataround(AlagaddupamaSutta).
(7) The Buddha also applied empirical wisdom, comparable to evidencebased
methods. This is exemplified by a homework assignment of a performancebased
interventioninthisinspiringvignetteonbeingobsessiveagainstthebackdropofdenial:

Kisagotamimournedthedeathofhertwoyearssonbittenbyasnake.Notaccepting
thefact,shewasinaprolongedgrief.DesperatelyshewenttotheBuddha.Howcan
mysonbecured?TheBuddhareplied:Thereisonlyonewaytohelpyouandyour
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child.Lookforablackmustardseedthatmustcomefromahousewherenooneever
diedandwhichshouldbegiventoyoubysomeonewhohasnodeceasedrelatives.
Kisagotami left with her dead boy. Seeking from one house to the next, she could
nowherefindsuchseed.Finally,sherealisedwhattheassignmentwasabout,buried
hersonandwascured(Dhammapada287).

In effect, PKT is a confluence of REBT and Buddhism through the psychological

modalities/Skandhas of clinging and the ABCDEformat around the 3Poisons and basic
emotions.Capturingallofthisrequirestheobservationalawarenessofbasicmindfulness:
(1)awarenessofsensoryperception(seeing,hearing,touching,smelling,tastingandviewing
throughthemindseye),(2)awarenessofirrationalcognitionsduetoignoranceonhowthe
mind works resulting in projections: illusory selves (I/me/mine) and delusional god(s), (3)
awareness of un/wholesome cognitions of intending (volition and conation) and the
motivationalfactorsofactionand(4)awarenessofunwholesomethoughtswhichreflectthe
proclivity of irrational craving (musts/shoulds), greedy grasping (should have) and
hateful clinging (must not be). Basic mindfulness opens the window for advanced
mindfulness which unveils the Dependent Origination and interactivity of
Body/Speech/Mindandthepsychologicalmodalities;thisincludestheirkarmicantecedents
and consequents. Eventually the result is balanced interaction, emptiness and
Buddhahood.

InClosing
A pointer indicating that the Buddha is a psychotherapist and that his Dharma can be
inferred aspsychotherapy is the illness metaphor of his 4EnnoblingRealities.46 These are:
thereissuffering, tobe understood(diagnosis),thisisduetoignorance,tobeabandoned
(cause), there is a way out, to be realized (prognosis) and this way comprises the 8Fold
BalancingPractice,tobecultivated(therapy).Attention(8)andawareness(7)arethe two
componentsconstitutingmindfulnesswhichrequireefforttodevelopwholesomeness(6)to
applyinlife(5)onkarmicactivity(4),speech(3)andintention(2),whoseeffectdependson
arealisticview(1):mentalsufferingexistsandcanbeceased.Toluxuriateonthemetaphor,
theillnesstobecuredisadiseasetobehealedandasdiseasereferstomindandspeech
ratherthantobody,thecureisnotmedicationbutmeditation(Kwee&Holdstock,1996).It
isboldbutnotunrealistictodrawtheanalogyoftheBuddhaasa21stcenturyclinician.His
acumen in dealing with greed, hatred and ignorance based on a wholistic view of
Body/Speech/Mind resembles the World Health Organizations paradigm of the human
being as biopsychosocial system (Engel, 1977). If agreed that the Buddha dealt with the
mind and its concomitants, he could be called the first psychologist and psychotherapist
ever.
Tobesure,PKTtakesplaceinthespaceoftheprovisionalselfandtheclientsself
talk, i.e on a microscopic level from momenttomoment. Framework is the collaborative
practice of dialogical speech between client and therapist. The quintessence of change is
that unskilfulness leads to unwholesome, irrational and unhealthy Karma, while
skilfulness leads to wholesome, rational and healthy Karma. All of these is rooted in
non/greed, non/hatred and non/ignorance (e.g. Baahitika Sutta and Chakkanipata Nidana
Sutta). Apparently fitting original meanings, psychological interpretations of Karma do not

46

From a psychological view of emptiness which discards Transcendental Truth, it would be erroneous to
continuetousetheEurocentricexpressionFourNobleTruthsforthePali:catvariaryasatyani.

114

have the monopoly on truth. Others who prefer interpretations in terms of

good/right/virtuous vs. evil/wrong/sinful will consider theirs as true. However, such
explanations squeeze Buddhism into religious and ethical pipelines (Keown, 1992) which
were not included in the pristine Dhamma. Buddhist Psychotherapy discards Eurocentric,
utilitarianandunaestheticalinterpretationsbyappreciatingtheemptynatureoftheselfand
of Buddhism itself which includes the present views. Interestingly, even the last of the
original Buddhist thinkers, Dharmakirti (7th century), who belonged to the Yogacara
denomination,dealtwithepistemologyratherthanwithreligionorethics(Dunne,2004).He
discerned valid (prama) and unvalid (aprama) thoughts as if he was a rational emotive
behaviour therapist. Dharmakirti secured cognitive validity by scrutinizing: (1) the direct
objectofobservation,evidentandpublic;e.g.atree,(2)itsprivatecognitiverepresentation
appearing as mental images and as (3) conceptualizations coloured by inferences (e.g. a
hatefulstinkingtreeoralovelycomfortableparasol).Thevalidityofcognitionsisrooted
in the 3Empirical Marks of Existence which are congruent to the nonabsoluteness and
relativityofreason.
ThepracticeofPKTisconcernedwithdowntoearthdailyhassleslikeangerwhich,if
accumulated,couldexplodeinaggression.IntheBuddhistloreangerisseenasgarbage;but
rather than something merely destructive to cut down and throw out, anger can be
composted,atransformingprocessofcreativity(Thich,1998).Ifexpressedascatharsisto
feel good in the shortterm, the opposite will probably occur in the long run. One likely
becomes angrier and if reciprocated by the other a vicious Samsara cycle might develop;
somebody will get hurt and physical damage might occur. Pounding on a cushion is not a
solutioneither;althoughrelievedtheseedofangerwillcontinuetoslumber.TheBuddhist
attitudetotakecareofangerdoesnotmeantosuppressorrunawayfromit,buttoallowits
suchness and tolerate the hellish experience in silence. While breathing in and out,
tenderlyembracingtheanger,onefocusesontheangerinmindfulandneutralobservation,
let it be. The garbage of anger hides flower seeds of kindness, compassion, joy and
equanimity. By the sun beams of attention garbage ferments into dung, empowering the
lotusflourishing.
Nirvana,longlastingtraitorshortlivedstate,belongstothenormalrangeofhuman
experienceandisnotsomethingoutoforbit.ItisaccuratetostatethatNirvanaisattained
if the flames of emotions are extinguished. Negative emotions, i.e. confusing depression,
suffocating fear, burning anger and drowning sadness, belong to the basic emotions from
whichthevariationsofaffectarederived.Basicemotionsandvarietiescanbedepictedas
layers of an onion, consecutively from the outer to the inner: depression, anxiety, anger,
sadness,joy,love,serenityandNirvana.Thefirstgroupoffourarequiteunwholesome,thus
tobeabandoned,whilethesecondgroupisquitewholesome,hencetobecultivated.Inthe
Buddhistlorelove(kindness/compassion),appreciativejoyandrelationalequanimityareto
be acquired and immeasurably amplified to secure wholesome Karma. Interestingly, the
term emotion is derived from the Latin verb emovere, which means to be moved. This
being moved or in motion implies that there is a condition engraved as unmoved, not
beinginmotionduetonirvanicextinction.
A practitioner of PKT, therapist, coach or teacher, practices what s/he preaches.
Practice implies meeting new challenges which accrue new learning experiences. After all,
nobody is perfekt and balancing toward contentment, happiness and Buddhahood is
usuallyalifelongcultivation.TheBuddhisttherapistnotonlyshareswisdomandsavvy,but
alsohelpstheclienttobecomeher/hisowntherapist.Sincetherearedifferentstrokesfor
115

differentfolks,PKTseemsnotparticularlysuitableforthefaintheartedwhowillbebetter
offbydosanddonts,religion,ethics,orthemetaphysicsofheavenandhell.Forthose
who wish to choose and are capable to think and decide for themselves, a psychological
roadmap built on ancient wisdom and evidencebased science may engender karmic bliss.
Nonetheless, as M.W.P. de Silva (pers. comm., 2008), nestor of Buddhist Psychology,
cogently admonished: science may enhance the credibility and relevance of Buddhist
concepts,butawakeningmaybeachievedwithoutscience.

Appendix1:DevelopingKarmaofSelfAcceptance
==============================================================
1.STICKSANDSTONESCANBREAKMYBONES,BUTCANWORDSEVERHURTME?
2.DOESMYWORTHDEPENDONACTSORISITTHEREINTRINSICALLYBYBEINGHUMAN?
3.CANIITEMIZEMYFAULTSANDFAILURESWITHOUTDEFININGME/SELFBYTHEM?
4.CANIACCEPTMYSELFUNCONDITIONALLYWITHOUTDEIFYINGORDEVILIFYINGME?
5.ISTHEREANEEDFORSELFESTEEM/SELFWORTHORDOESSELFACCEPTANCESUFFICE?
6.DOESACTINGSTUPIDLYMAKEMEASTUPIDO?
7.ISREPRIMANDINGMYACTIONENOUGHORDOIHAVETOPUNISHME?
8.ISPRAISINGPERFORMANCEOKWITHOUTBERATINGME?
9.ALTHOUGHACCOUNTABLEFORMISTAKES,DOESTHATNECESSITATEDWARFINGME?
10.DOESMYSELFJUDGEMENTDEPENDONOTHERSORCIRCUMSTANCES?
11.DOESACTINGSTUPIDLYMAKEMEASTUPIDPERSON?
12.ISITFOOLISHORWISETOPUTMYSELFDOWN?
13.DOESMYSELFACCEPTENCEDEPENDONCIRCUMSTANCESOROTHERS?
14.CANIACCEPTMYSELFDESPITEOTHERSEVALUATIONSOFME?
15.SUCCEEDINGISOK,BUTWHATDOESITSAYABOUTMEASAHUMANBEING?
16.DOESFAILINGMAKEMEAFAILURE?
17.AMIABADPERSONWHENACTINGBADLY?
18.AMIAGOODPERSONWHENACTINGWELL?
19.CANIDEFINEMYSELFBYMYACTSORDOPEOPLESOPINIONSCOUNT?
20.DOINEEDTOPROOFMYSELFORCANIJUSTBEMYSELF?
21.AMIAFOOLBYBEHAVINGFOOLISHLY?
22.AMIANASSBYACTINGASININELY?
23.HOWMANYMISTAKESDOIHAVETOMAKEBEFORECONDEMNINGME?
24.DOINEEDTODAMNMYSELFORISITJUSTENOUGHTOCORRECTWEAKNESS?
25.HOWCANIPROVEBEINGSUBHUMANLYBADORSUPERHUMANLYGOOD?
26.AMIAWORMBYACTINGWORMLY?
27.ISSELFDOWNINGWORTHTHEEFFORT?
28.HOWDOIRELATEWITHMYSELFINCASEOFWIN,LOSEORDRAW?
29.CANIBETTERDENYMISTAKESORACKNOWLEDGETHEM?
30.WHOWILLACCEPTMEIFNOTI,EVENAFTERWRONGDOING?
==============================================================

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Appendix2:TheABCDESchemeFormatandForm

TransformingakarmicemotionalepisodebyanABCDEFormat/formofthe4Ennobling
Realities&8FoldBalancingPracticetoChangeKarma(IntentionalAction)

AnintegrativeviewoftheABCDE,inspiredbyBrazier(2001),mergesitwiththe4Ennobling
Realities format: A (Duhkha/Affliction) activates B (Samudaya/Beliefs) leads to C (Nirodha/
Consequences)requiringD(Marga/selfDialogue)inordertoarriveatE(Karma/Effect).This
macroanalytic view worked out in microanalytic terms, a fusion of the ABCDE with the
Skandhas,resultsinaspecifictherapeutictool,aformwhichenablesthepractitionertoself
transform each afflicting emotional episode into a karmic wholesome one. This tool forms
theworkingheartofPKTpracticeofselfdialoguesecuringawholesomerebirthofKarma.

1stER(Dukkha)AFFLICTION:Thereisanactivatingeventevoking/sparkingexistentialand
emotionalkarmicadversity/stressandemotionalsuffering

2ndER(Samudaya)BELIEFS:Thisleadstoconcomitantkarmicunwholesomeintending
(thinking,imagingandrelationalacting)whicharedestructiveandunrealistic,thuschange
theseirrationalcognitionsintorationalones

3rdER(Nirodha)CONSEQUENCES:Karmicpsychologicalsufferingistobecontainedby
enacting/embodyingconstructivecognitiveintentionsandrelationalbehaviours,i.e.by
DISPUTING(D)irrationalgreed,hatredandignorancetowardawholesome
emotional/behaviouralEFFECT(E)

The4thER(Magga)KarmaTransformation,designing/creating/formingkarmicwholesome
(constructive/realistic/rational)intentionalthoughts(cognitions/images)takesplaceby
walkingthetalkofan8FBP:

1. BalancingVIEWSonthecausesandconditionsofkarmaandonhowtostart
transformingfuturekarmahereandnow
2. BalancingINTENTIONS:beingabletodiscernwhatiskarmicun/wholesome,
de/constructive,un/realisticandir/rational
3. BalancingSPEECH:changingkarmicintentionstakesplacethroughthevehicleof
dialogueandselfdialogueorselftalk
4. BalancingACTIVITY:intentionalactionistheseedofintentionalrelational
behaviouralaction,regretfuldeeds
5. BalancingLIVING:transformingthoughtandaction,achangeofoneswayofbeing
towardcaringforrelationships
6. BalancingEFFORT:sufferingmotivatesforbearance(commitmentandresolve)
towardchangingaction/cognition/emotion
7. BalancingAWARENESS:mindfulawareness/attentiongivesinsightandunderstanding
intheABCDEofkarmasvicissitudes
8. BalancingATTENTION:mindfulattention/awareness,theverystartoffocusingonthe
ABCDEofKarmaTransformation

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TheBirthandRebirthofaKarmicEmotionalEpisode

Afflictingevent/sensebased
DA:Disputebysensecontrol
(Vedana/Touch)

(video/audiotracking)

Beliefs:karmicunwholesome
DB:Disputebyquestioningeach
(Sanna/Intention)
thought(cognition/image)*
1

Consequencereemotion(Sankhara)Effectemotional:equanimityof
kindness,compassionand/orjoy

Consequencereaction(Sankhara)Effectbehavioural:equanimityof
kindness,compassionand/orjoy

*(1)IsthekarmicBeliefwholesome/constructive/realistic:absoluteorrelative?

(2)WillthisBeliefleadtoInterbeing:equanimouskindness,compassion,joy?
(3)Formulate:rationalBeliefsleadingtokarmicwholesomeemotionaction?
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Chapter6
PristineMindfulness:HeartfulnessinPractice

47

Introduction
AreviewofPsychotherapybyKarmaTranformation(PKT)isnotcompletewithoutdiscussing
mindfulness meditation. The present discussion positionsmindfulness in the framework of
RelationalBuddhismasanexusforintegratingviewsofTheravada(teachingoftheelders)
and Mahayana (great vehicle). Mindfulness is enjoying mushrooming interest due to
research boosted since KabatZinn introduced MindfulnessBased Stress Reduction (MBSR)
in the medical setting (1979). However MBSR is BuddhistLite, i.e. stripped off from its
roots.FullblownBuddhistisPristineMindfulnesswhichreferstoacoreprocessforclearing
themindandaspringboardtopracticeafamilyof12Meditationson:Breathing,Behaviors,
Repulsiveness, Elements, Decomposing, Feelings, Hindrances, Modalities, Senses,
Awakening, the 4Ennobling Realities and an 8Fold Balancing Practice. The latter practice
considers mindfulness as awarenessandattention and an inseparable part of Buddhist
views, intentions, speech, actions, living and efforts. Thus, the practice of mindfulness is
embedded in a wholistic framework. During mindfulness we encounter dharmas, the
smallest units of experience, here innovatively called perceivables (experienced through
the body and its feelings) and thinkables (experienced through the mind and its events)
(MahasatipatthanaSutta).AccordingtotheBuddha,thehumanpredicamentofsufferingis
relationalandrootedinthe3Poisonsofgreed,hatredandignoranceonhowmindfunctions
(Sedaka Sutta). Wisdom detoxifies by healing speech (including selfdialogue and
interpersonal performance) which emphasizes an extended view of mindfulness and the
mindaslocatedbeyondthebrainandinbetweenpeople,apropositionmadebyRelational
Buddhism.Emulatingthe14thDalaiLama(2011),thisessayincludesadaptationofinnovative
ideastokeepBuddhismalive.
Pristine Mindfulness finetunes attentionconcentration (to discipline a wandering
mind) and awarenessintrospection (to understand Karma and notself). It operates
through what I have called the minds eye in sensorium and refers to process and
outcome.Practiceinvolvesinward(andoutward)concentrationofattention(amodulating
foreground) and introspective awareness (a changeable background) which illuminates
consciousness (a stable backdrop presence) and enables alert monitoring in luminous
comprehensionofdharmasastheyariseinDependentOrigination(pratityasamutpada).By
integratingviewsfromTheravadaandMahayana,twophasesandeightstagesofawareness
canbedifferentiated.PhaseI:1.Samatha,stressfreeserenityamidstadversity,2.Samadhi,
concentrative absorption and firmness while extinguishing emotional arousal (toward
Nirvana),3.Vipasanna,insightinmindsDependentOriginationofsensingthinkingfeeling
doing/interacting, and 4. Sunyata, suchnessor zeroness: aresetpoint characterized
by notself and emptiness. Phase II: 5. Nonduality/mahamudra, mindfulness of speech
which transcends the trap of duality (e.g. emptiness/form, beginning/end, good/bad, etc.,
culminating in: the Buddha=bad), 6. KilltheBuddha: a Chan advice to eradicate
progresshindering concepts and dependency, 7. Brahmaviharas, implementing kindness,

47

ThanksareduetoDr.JeffTsefuKuanforhiscogentremarksonanearlierdraft.

119

compassion, joy, and relational equanimity, and 8. dharmas: understanding the world as
neitheremptynornotempty (the Buddha, 6th century BCE), emptyofemptiness
(Nagarjuna, 2nd century), emptynonduality (Vasubandhu, 4th century), and as a social
construction which is ontologically mute and empty of Transcendental Truths (K.J.
Gergen,21stcentury).

Reviewoftheresearchliteratureleadstotheconclusionthatthesalubriousoutcome
evidenceoftheBuddhistLiteMindfulnessBased(MB)approachesreferstothefirsttwo
stagesofstressfreeserenity(Samatha)andconcentrativeabsorption(Samadhi).Itwouldbe
excitingtoseefuturestudiesonPristineMindfulnessinthecontextofRelationalBuddhism
BuddhistPsychology/PsychotherapyandPKT.

MindfulnessBasedInterventions
AboutthreedecadesagoMindfulnessBasedInterventions(MBI),likeMBStressReduction
(MBSR)andMBCognitiveTherapy(MBCT),enteredthefieldofhealthcarethroughthework
ofJonKabatZinnintheUSA.MBIhavebecomeahottopicamongpsychologistswhowork
with evidencebased interventions: research thrives. KabatZinn (2003b) defined
mindfulnessas,payingattentioninaparticularway:on purpose,inthepresentmoment,
and nonjudgmentally. Recently, this BuddhistLite definition has been increasingly
criticized by psychologists with a Buddhist background (e.g. Kwee, Gergen & Koshikawa,
2006).Theproclivityistoemphasizethatmindfulnessisjustahumancapacity,toexclude
Buddhist wisdom inherent in mindfulness meditation from which MBI are derived, and to
frame mindfulness by the Hippocratic Oath instead (KabatZinn, 2009ab). Most
importantly, MBIrenditions (Shapiro & Carlson, 2009; Teasdale, 2000) isolate mindfulness
fromthe4EnnoblingRealities:isthatachutzpah?
Mindfulnessmeditationisanoverarchingprocessconstitutingboththegeneraland
centralfactorforclearingthemindtopracticethe12MeditationswhichtheBuddhaoffered
humanity as a gift of compassion. As acentral factor the Mahasatipatthana Suttaand the
SatipatthanaSuttarefertothefourframesofreferenceofmindfulness:(1)thebody,(2)the
bodysbehaviours(i.e.feelings:sensationsandemotions),(3)themind,and(4)theminds
behaviours(i.e.thoughts:visualizationsandconceptions).Thus,thefirsthalfdozenofthe
meditations refer to mindfulness of the body and bodily feelings, while the second half
dozenrefertomindfulnessofthemindandbrainythoughts.Inseparablybelongingtothe
Buddhassoteriologicalsystemtoceaseduhkha,theseexercisescomprisethethemesasin
Table1.48Therearemanymoremeditations.Wellknownarethecontemplationsonloving
kindness,empathiccompassionandjoy/happiness.BecausetheDharmaisamodusvivendi,
ourwholelivesarepreferablyspentinameditativeway.Formalexercisescanbedoneonall
preciousexperiencesindailylife,likee.g.laughing,smiling,singing,drinkingoreating.
Embeddedinthe8FoldBalancingPractice,mindfulnessisascaffoldforameditative
modus vivendi comprising a balancing of attentionconcentration and awareness
introspection. Mindfulness can be process (the practice) or outcome (awareness) and
operates in the sensory modality. It is an inward concentration of attention (a modulating
foreground) and awareness (a changeable backdrop) illuminating consciousness (a stable
backdroppresence)andenablingintrospectionofDependentOriginationofexperience.The

48

Formalmeditationismostlypracticedinasittingpositionwiththebackheldupright,notslouchedforward.
Research findings suggest that holding the back straight strengthens confidence in the emitted thoughts
whethernegativeorpositive(Brinol,Petty&Wagner,2009)andthatthispostureboostspositivemood,while
adoubtfulpostureinvitesorworsensadejectedmood(Haruki,Homma,Umezawa&Masaoka,2001).

120

firststepistotametherestlessmindthroughthepracticeofJhana/Dhyanausingbreathing
as an anchor to sharpen concentration in four stages: 1st Jhana (one
pointedness/pleasure/joy), 2nd Jhana (onepointedness/joy/happiness), 3rd Jhana (one
pointedness/contentment), and 4th Jhana (onepointedness/equanimitystillness). One
pointed concentration is a runup to accessing mindfulness and to awakening in
emptiness.

Table1:MindfulnessBasedMeditations12ThemestowardCalmSerenity(Samatha)&
SpringboardtoConcentrativeAbsorption(Samadhi)

(1)Breathing:Canwebemindfulofhowtheairofabdominalbreathingpassesthenostrils
and use the breath as an anchor to concentrate, absorb, and contemplate towards clarity
andcontentment?
(2)Behaviours:Canwebemindfulofthefourdignities(sitting/walking/standing/lying)and
all other varieties of body motor conduct, like looking, drinking, chewing, savouring or
silencing?
(3) Repulsiveness: Can we be mindful of the body as a bag with two openings and full of
grain,wheat,rice,beans,seeds,etc.envelopedbytheskin,andmadeof32partslikehair,
nails,teeth,flesh,nerves,bones,etc.?
(4)Elements:Canwebemindfulofthecorpseofacowcutintopiecesbyabutchersknife
and of the bodys elements earth, water, fire, and wind, which awareness is conducive to
disidentifythebodyfromImemine/self?
(5)Decomposing:Canwebemindfulofadeadbodyoveronetothreedays,howitisblue,
swollen, festering, thrown in the charnel ground, eaten by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs,
jackals,wormsandreducedtobonesanddust?
(6)Feelings:Canwebemindfuloffeelings,noticingwhethertheyareskindeeporheartfelt,
how does craving originate/cease; and without grasping/clinging, rate the feeling by
questioning:wasitpleasant,painfulorneither?
(7)Hindrances:Canwebemindfulofasensepleasure,illwill,sloth/torpor,agitation/worry,
and doubt/worry; watch these moods and gently remain aware of impermanence, and
query:whatvaluableteachingiscontainedintheobstacle?
(8) Skandhas: Can we be mindful of Body/Speech/Mind (Rupa/Nama), vedana (Sensation),
sanna (Imagery/Cognition), samkhara (Affect/Behaviour) in present awareness (vinnana)
andaskourselves:isthereanyselfidentification?
(9)Sensebases:Canwebemindfulthusly:doescontactbetweentheorgans(eye,ear,nose,
tongue,skinandbrain)andcorrespondingexternalobjects(sight,sound,odour,taste,touch
andthoughts)senseaspleasant,painfulorneutral?
(10) Awakening factors: Can we be mindful and cultivate skilful observation, investigation,
persistence,enthusiasm,serenity,focus,andequanimityinordertoungraspanduncling,
andremainuncraving?
(11) 4Ennobling Realities (experiences, data, facts, inquiries, examinations, quests,
hypotheses, postulates or propositions): Being mindful, can we experience duhkha, know
thatthereisacauseforduhkhaa,haveconfidencethatthereisawayoutofduhkha,and
starttoseewhichwaythatis?
(12) 8Fold Balancing Practice: Being mindful, we question: are our viewunderstanding,
intentionthought, speechcommunication, actionbehaviour, livinghabitude, effort
commitment,attentionconcentration,awarenessintrospectioninbalance?

121

Table 2 depicts a quadrant of mindfulness, encompassing: Samatha meditation

leading to Samadhi (stabilization) and Vipassana meditation leading to Sunyata (not
self/emptiness).

Table2:QuadrantofMindfulnessMeditation
MINDFULNESS:rememberto
awakeninthecontextofthe
4EnnoblingRealities&8Fold
BalancingPractice49
Relaxed/gentle/focused
concentrationonobjector
process(byjhana/dhyana)
Vigilantintrospectionof
un/wholesomeKarma(by
appamada/watchfulness)

Bareattention:perceptionof
dharmasviathe6senses
(knowledgebydescription);
sati,inattentiveness
1.SAMATHA(Body/Mind)
Composure/tranquility/
equanimity:Quiescence
3.VIPASSANA(Mind/Body)
Insightinthecausalityof
DependentOrigination

Choicelessawareness:6thsense
dharmasapperception
(wisdombyacquaintance);
sampajanna,inluminosity
2.SAMADHI(Body/Mind)
Receptiveabsorption/flow
stabilization:Nirvana
4.SUNYATA(Mind/Body)
Notself/Emptiness
(0)

Mindfulness starts with cultivating Samatha which is a state of composure

characterized by selfcontrol, calm, serenity, balance, undisturbed tranquillity and
equanimity of Body/Mind anchored in a bottom up practice in relaxed concentration and
bareattentionbyneutrallyobservingperceptualstimuli.Practicegraduallyshiftsthisstate
ofquiescenceintoSamadhi,areceptiveandnonsuppressingstabilityorflowingabsorption
resting in an advanced gentle concentration upon occurring dharmas (indices of inner
stimuli: perceivables, thinkables, and their concomitants) in the full present and with
clear comprehension. This results in the extinction of emotional arousal (Nirvana), a
momentarystatewhichmaybecomeanenduringtrait.Havingthustamedafflictedaffect,
one evolves into Vipassana, a Mind/Body topdown practice to cleanse the doors of
perception enabling perceiving in a special way, i.e. to seethingsastheybecome: in
Dependent Origination. This insight comes about by remembering to be attentive and
vigilantly watchful regarding the un/wholesomeness of Karma. While alert in unclouded
luminosity,clearlydiscerning(sampajanna)andconstantlyheedful(appamada),onewisely
introspectsKarmaandgraduallyshiftsintotheawakeninginsightofanemptynotself,also
calledluminoussuchnessorvastzeroness(Sunyata).Thustelescopinginnergalaxiesand
encountering dharmas in inner spaces, insight dawns that dharmas are empty on the
ultimate level and socially constructed on the provisional level. Speech, thought and self
dialogueariseinallsquaresexceptinsquare4.Theprocessfromsquare1to4isatrackof
social deconstruction. Point zero of emptiness is not a goal in itself. A blank mind is a
resetting point and a scaffold for jumpstarting the collaborative practice of social re

49

ZensconnectionwiththeSamurai(i.e.killingandbekilled)isahistoricaldatumandcontinuedintoWWII
(Victoria,2006).Ifyoumarch,march;ifyoushoot,shoot;theonlything,dontwobble;awakeningmanifests
itselfthusly;suchsloganswereusedwhenZennistswereblackmailedtocollaboratewiththewarmongering
rulersoftheirtime.Withoutthe8FoldBalancingPractice,Zen(meditationandmindfulness)canbemisused
deformingtheDharma.Trytostealfromashopwhilenotwantingtobecaught;eyeswillgrowonthebackof
the skull. Mindfulness is indeed just a human quality, thats old news (Shapiro & Carlson, 2009). So, why
mindfulness needs to be torn apart from the 4Ennobling Realities (mumbo jumbo?), by silencing and
substitutingthembytheHippocraticOath(KabatZinn,2009a),whilepsychologistsandmicrobiologistsarenot
MDs,and,atthesametime,flirtingwithauniversaldharma(notthesmalld)ismindboggling.Patientsand
clients too are well able to desecrate mindfulness by turning MBSR into for instance mindfulnessbased
snipingandraping,tosayitironically.

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constructioningbyembodyingkindness,compassionandjoytowardwhatwealreadyare:
Interbeing.
Despite the fact that a quadrant suggests strict categories, there is overlap. The
cultivation of Samatha and Vipassana and the experience of Samadhi and Sunyata are not
mutually exclusive phenomena but may occur partly simultaneously. During the initial
stages, Samatha and Samadhi work like a metonym: there is no way to mindfulness,
mindfulnessistheway.Thisisrealizingthatwearenotgoinganywhereforwearealready
there and therefore nothing needs to be done: the grass will grow out of itself.
Containingmeansandgoals,mindfulnessimpliesthattherearenoaimstostrivefor,except
forperceivingsensoryexperiencebyaneffortlesseffortofabeginnersmind.ThisisZens
shoshinshawhichreferstoMazuswayofOrdinaryMind(8thcentury)withnoaimand no
gain(Zensmushotoku),whichisnonafflicted/nondual.50However,intheadvancedstages,
Vipassana and Sunyata are purposeful indeed as they aim to further wise reflection on
Karmas vicissitudes (yoniso manasikara). In the Sabbasava it is advised to rightly
implement mindfulness (methodically and skilfully) by heedful introspection of the
un/wholesomeness of Karma in order to gain illuminating insight. Furthermore, note that
choiceless awareness implies that there is no prejudice, sympathy or antipathy for what
appearsinthespacesofBody/Speech/Mindwhileapperceivingdharmas.Apperceptionisa
preconceptual perception which excludes preconceived ideas which are by definition
conceptualandjudgmental.

TheFrenzyofMindfulnessBasedApproaches
Mindfulness has become a hot topic amongst health care workers and corporate coaches
who refer their work to studies done on MBI < www.umassmed.edu/cfm/mbsr > (e.g.,
Shapiro&Carlson,2009).MindfulnessBasedStressReduction(MBSR),an8weekoutpatient
intensivecourse,comprisesbodyscanvisualization,HathaYoga,sitting,walking,CDguided
homework and selfmonitored practice (KabatZinn, 2003a). MindfulnessBased practices
have sparked hype amongst adherents who have developed MB Cognitive Therapy, MB
Relapse Prevention, and MB Eating Awareness Training, to mention a few programs. MB
CognitiveTherapywasefficaciousinpreventingrelapseintodepressionforupto60weeks
forthosewhohavesufferedthreeormoredepressiveepisodes(Segal,Williams&Teasdale,
2002; Ma & Teasdale, 2004; Kenny & Williams, 2007) and could reduce the use of anti
depressantmaintenancemedication(Kuyken,Byford,Taylor,Watkins,Holden,etal.,2008).
Shown to be more effective than waitinglist or treatment as usual control groups in
heterogeneous samples, MBSR meets the American Psychological Associations probably
efficaciousdesignation(Baer,2003;Grossman,Niemann,Schmidt&Walach,2004;Shigaki,
Glass&Schopp,2006)andtheUKsNationalInstituteforClinicalExcellenceapprovalforits
useintheNationalHealthService.Studiesofwhatmightbeitsmechanismsofactionhave
mushroomed since mindfulness is surmised to be a common factor in psychotherapy <
http://marc.ucla.edu >. Despite promising results, suggesting the intervention is beneficial
for psychological and physical symptoms, the jury is still out. In a review of 15 controlled

50

ToindulgeinaZenmetaphor(mizunokokoro),theprotagonistdevelopsamindlikewaterwhichisastateof
mindthatflows,reflects,andadapts.Flowingtothelowestpointlikewaterthenaturalstateofthemind is
never to get clogged or stuck by any thought or feeling. Water does not react, it responds appropriately,
adequately,andeffectively.Acentredmindisjustlikeapondthatreturnstoastateofareflectingmirrorafter
a pebble is tossed in. In total readiness and never losing control the minds natural proclivity is to return to
innercalmandflexibilityafterdisturbance.Likewater,thenatureofthemindisnottoberigidandwillalways
taketheshapeofanycontainer.Itrequiresrigoroustrainingtokeepatotalawakening(shonenshozoku).

123

studies, Toneatto and Nguyen (2007) found that MBSR does not have a reliable effect on
clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression. It seems that the state of the art of MB
proceduresisstatisticallyefficaciousratherthanclinicallyeffective.
Nonetheless, and even though its definition is subject of continuous debate,
mindfulness is embraced as an important ingredient in clinical treatment. KabatZinns
(2003b,p.145)workingdefinitionistheawarenessthatemergesthroughpayingattention
onpurpose,inthepresentmoment,andnonjudgmentallytotheunfoldingofexperience,
momenttomoment.Amoredetaileddefinitionincludes:(1)nonjudging;(2)nonstriving;
(3)acceptance;(4)patience;(5)trust;(6)openness;and(7)lettinggo(KabatZinn,1990).In
anotherinstance(KabatZinn,2003b),mindfulattentionincludesastanceof(8)compassion,
(9) interest, (10) friendliness and (11) openheartedness toward the experience observed
regardless of its quality. Later on (12) nonreactivity and (13) intentionality were added
(KabatZinn(2005).Intentionalityreferstothedevelopmentofmindfulnesswhichcanbe
either deliberate or effortless. Others added: gentleness, generosity, empathy, gratitude,
loving kindness (Shapiro, Schwartz & Bonner, 1998), selfregulation, values clarification,
cognitive, emotional, behavioural flexibility, and exposure (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin &
Freedman,2006).Definingmindfulnessasintentional,openandnonjudgmentalattending,
theyinferintentionalasonpurpose,apersonalviewwhyonepractices(e.g.toreduce
hypertension),andbelievethatreperceivingisthemetamechanismofchange.Thereis
no consensus about what exactly constitutes either mindfulness or intention in the MB
approaches.
A consensus panel proposed a twocomponent definition: the selfregulation of
attentionsothatitismaintainedonimmediateexperience,therebyallowingforincreased
recognition of mental events in the present moment... and adopting a particular
orientation toward ones experiences in the present moment, an orientation that is
characterized by curiosity, openness and acceptance (Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson,
Anderson,etal.,2004,p.232).Whileacknowledgingintentionastheinvestigativeeffort
to observe thoughts and feelings, the consensus emphasizes acceptance. According to
Siegel, Germer & Olendzki (2008), nonjudgment, compassion and acceptance are clinical
expansions of the original meaning of sati: attention, awareness and remembering.
Therapists embrace the acceptance component as one needs first to be aware of the
problem to be able change it. A synthetic study of existing questionnaires (Baer, Smith,
Hopkins,Krietemeyer&Toney,2006)revealedthepsychometricpotentialforassessingfive
factorsofmindfulness:(1)nonreactivitytoexperience,(2)observinginnerexperience,(3)
acting with awareness, (4) describing with words and (5) being nonjudgmental about
experience. Whether mindfulness is a state or trait, process or outcome, cure or care will
remain the subject of study going forward. Meanwhile, we may conclude that the term
intention as used by the authors mentioned above does not reflect the meaning of
intention by the Dharma as a karmic wilful/meaningful act toward Buddhist values of
wholesomeness. It seems that there is skittishness to embrace Buddhist values due to
perceivingtheDharmaasareligionandthereforeprivileginguniversalvaluesinstead.By
declaring (the pristine Buddhist) intention to be a direction rather than a destination
(emptiness),Karma(nowherementioned)isblurredandtheDharmaseemstornapartand
throwninthebin(e.g.Shapiro&Carlson,2009,p.9).
In light of this review, we submit that mindfulness as conceived and dispensed in
healthcareisfloatingadriftnotonlyfromthepristinemethodfromwhichithasbeenwrest,
butalsofromitsavowedpurposeasitissadlymissingitscrucialDharmabasics.Mindfulness
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intheMBandkindredapproacheslikeDialecticalBehaviorTherapy(DBT,M.Linehan)and
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT, S. Hayes), which include mindfulness in their
treatment package, advertently exclude the Dharma. We therefore ask: can mindfulness
actually be invoked without subscribing to the Dharma? Traditionally, mindfulness is not a
goal in itself but a tool. It has an inextricable function in the Buddhas project to liberate
humanity from duhkha. This is a larger aim than simply alleviating patients suffering.
Although in MBSR it is emphasized that mindfulness is not a quick fix, the Buddhist
psychological underpinning is in effect conspicuously absent. This leaves the practitioner
withaproceduredecontextualizedfromDharmatheoryessentialtoguideitspractice.The
tactics behind the stripping of mindfulness from its roots is to not burden clients with
Buddhismandtonotrepelmainstreamprofessionals,aseeminglysuccessfulstrategy.
The mindfulness professional is not obliged to study Buddhist Psychology (e.g.
Grepmair, Mitterlehner & Nickel, 2008). Furthermore, KabatZinn (2003b) is categorical in
statingthat:

[Dharma] is at its core truly universal, not exclusively Buddhist a coherent

phenomenological description of the nature of mind, emotion, and suffering and its
potentialreleasemindfulnessbeingaboutattention,isalsoofnecessityuniversal.
ThereisnothingparticularlyBuddhistaboutit(italicsadded,p.145)Itisaninherent
human capacity received its most explicit and systematic articulation and
developmentwithintheBuddhisttraditionalthoughitsessenceliesattheheartof
otherancientandcontemporaryteachingsas well(p.146)[MBSR]neededtobe
free of the Buddhist origins the objective was not to teach Buddhism but to
experiment with novel methods At the same time, the program needed to
remain faithful to the universal dharma dimension alluded to, which lies at the
very core of mindfulness. The task is to translate the meditative challenges and
context in to the lives of the participants, yet without denaturing the dharma
dimension... This requires understanding of that dimension through personal
engagement meditation retreats at Buddhist centers or professional training
programsinMBSR(p.149).

WeareleftwiththeimpressionthattheDharmaisdilutedtosomebewilderinguniversal
lawfulness.Buddhistpsychologyisgivencreditthroughahalfheartedgesture.Infact,ina
following article Davidson and KabatZinn (2004, pp. 150152) totally dismissed Buddhist
Psychology by stating that mindfulness, defined as momenttomoment nonjudgmental
awareness, does not include Buddhist psychology; it is an isomorphic translation for
greaterawareness, selfknowledge,equanimity,andselfcompassion...practicedacrossall
activities of daily living aimed at the cultivation of insight and understanding of self and
selfinrelationship... the cultivation of openhearted presence (has) nothing particularly
Buddhist.Revisitingtheseissuesoncemore,KabatZinn(2009b,pp.xxviiixxix)obfuscates
theabovebycontrivingthathisuseofthemindfulnessconceptisalso:

[A]n umbrella term that subsumes... the Eightfold Noble Path, and... the dharma
itself...Weneverlimitouruseofmindfulnesstoitsmostnarrowtechnicalsense...I
offeredanoperationaldefinition...[which]leavesthefulldimensionalityandimpact
ofmindfulness...implicitandavailableforongoinginquiry...[T]hewordmindfulness
does doubleduty as a comprehensive but tacit umbrella term that included other
essential aspects of dharma, [the choice] was made as a potential skilful means to
125

facilitate introducing what Nyanaponika Thera referred to as the heart of Buddhist

meditation into the mainstream of medicine... and the wider society in a wholly
universalratherthanBuddhistformulationandvocabulary...[His]inclusiveandnon
dualformulationofferedbothvalidationandpermissiontotrustandactonmyown
direct experience of the meditation practice and the dharma... even if... it was
glossingover...Buddhistpsychology...thatIfeltcouldbedifferentiatedandclarified
later,once...

Togivethisjustificationthebenefitofthedoubt,oneneedstobelievethatKabatZinnnever
dismissed Buddhist Psychology. If this post hoc rationalization is acceptable, disgruntled
psychologists with a Buddhist background, who expressed their worry about MBSR and
otherBuddhistLiteapproaches,cannotbutfeelrelieved.51WithoutanydoubtKabatZinn
hasearnedcreditfordrawingmassivescholarlyattentiontomindfulness.
While the politics of not involving the Buddhist teachings in order not to push off
Western patients/clients does not sound unreasonable, the time seems ripe to re
contextualizeandinformpractitionersabouttheoriginsofmindfulness(GreatDiscourseon
theFourFramesofReferenceofMindfulness:MahasatipatthanaSutta). Thecomponentsof
theBuddhistteachingsareinterlinkedandinterconnected.Thus,mindfulnessdoesnotstand
alone.Itisageneralfactorandascaffoldtolaunch12meditations.Thislargercontextbrings
asecondcontextualleveltothefore.AllBuddhisttraditionsconsidermindfulnessincluded
in the 8Fold Balancing Practice which equilibrates 1. views, 2. intentions, 3. speech, 4.
actions, 5. living, 6. effort, 7. awareness, and 8. attention. Attentionandawareness are
yokedlikeourleftandrighthand;withonedominanthand,theyinhereineachotherand
are inseparablefrom concentrationandintrospection.Attention (8)and awareness (7)are
thetwocomponentsconstitutingmindfulnessmeditationinactionwhichrequireseffort(6)
toapplyinlivingandlivelihood(5),i.e.oneskarmicactionsintheinterpersonalrealm(4),
speech: dialogues and selfdialogues (3), and intention: conation/volitionmotivation (2),
whose wholesomeness depend on the view (1) that suffering can be ceased. Thus,
mindfulness is not an isolated practice but an integral part of the Buddhas Middle Way
whichattunestheseeightinseparablefactors.
Athirdcontextuallevel:mindfulnessisanintegralpartofkarmicdeeds.AnAchilles
heelinBuddhism,theKarmaconceptrequireselucidation. Supposeoneseesamoneyfilled
walletonthestreet.Whatwouldafindersselfdialoguebe?OnecouldthinkSinceIcrave
for money and nobody will notice my grasping, I steal it or I dont cling to money as
someonewillbeunhappy,Illpickitupandfindtheowner.Everyonewillhaveidiosyncratic
planning and doing with the found wallet with regard to the people near the site and the
personwholostit.HereisanelaborateddefinitionoftheBuddhistKarma:theinterplayof
manifestactionbasedonintention/motivationwhichinheresinrelationalmeaning
(cognitionaffect). In effect, Karma is not fate or retribution, but something judgmental
regardingitsun/wholesomenesseffectwhichisanimportantfocusinPristineMindfulness.
In effect: isolating mindfulness from its roots strikes as rude: disrespectful, bad
mannered and ungracious. This is the reason for Pristine Mindfulness to firmly reinstall
Buddhism by incorporating tenets of South Asian Theravada (Early Buddhist Teaching)and
NorthAsianMahayana(GreatVehicleTeachings)initspractice.

PristineMindfulness

51

Forinstanceatthe2ndAsianCBTconference,Bangkok,2008.

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Pristine Mindfulness, first introduced at the 8th UN Vesak Day Conference (2011)
(www.icundv.com/vesak2011/panel2/09MGTKweeFINAL.pdf), is presented here in more
detail to contextualize the BuddhistLite comprehension of mindfulness. The term
mindfulness, coined by Caroline Rhys Davids in 1881, might feel like a misnomer as the
strifelessstrivingistowardbeingmindemptyandfullofheartwhilerememberingto
be constantly watchful on whatever appears in the stream of Body/Speech/Mind52
consciousnessinmomentaryattentionandawarenessinordertoawaken.AlthoughthePali
wordsatiorits Sanskrit equivalentsmriti ispreferred,thetermmindfulnessis maintained
becauseofitsvesteduse.However,forthosewhoprefertoseethemindlocatedinthe
interconnected heart like in the Chinese term nian, heartfulness is an appealing
alternative. 53 Thus, Pristine Mindfulness can be defined as the practice of cultivating
(affective)memorynottoforgettoneutrallyfocus,observeornoteeverymomenttoguard
or protect against unwholesomeness, to introspect and inquire intelligently, and to form
wholesomeKarmainrelational(intrapersonalandinterpersonal)context(cf.Kuan,2008).

Figure1:TheBuddhas6thSensetheMindsEye(Brain),AbleofBeing
MindfulreAnythingPerceivableandConceivableandofBeingJudgmentalre
KarmicUn/wholesomeness

InordertofullyunderstandPristineMindfulness,itisimperativetocomprehendthe
th
6 sensethemindseyeasIcallitasdiscernedbytheBuddha(seeFigure1).This
puzzlingsensorymodalityisnotsomethingmetaphysicalandisusuallytranslated(bynon
psychologists)asmind.However,mindissomethingairyanddoesnotparalleltheother
fleshy organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. Nonetheless, the minds eye is neither
mind nor eye. But what is it then? We submit that the 6th sense is the brain able to scan
dhammas (smallest experiential units) which come about in Dependent Origination of

52

ThistripartitecompartmentalizationgoesbeyondtheCartesiandualisticsplitofmindbody.
InthepristineBuddhistlanguagesmind,accountingfortheemotionalrealm,feelslikeinhabitingtheheart.
The heart as a location of mind is not an outlandish idea if one considers how love is experienced and
depictedintheEuropeancultures.
53

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Body/Speech/Mind,i.e.feeling(sensationemotion),thinking(cognition/images),anddoing
(behaviour/conduct). The minds eye notices what is experienced which encompasses
perceivables(imageryofexternallysensedinputthroughthefiveorgans:nimitta,cf.Kuan,
2012) in combination with thinkables (cognition of internally sensed inputs appearing as
covertstimuli:sanna,cf.Kuan,2012).Indeed,graymatterisabletointegrateperceptionsof
external as well as internal stimuli comprising everything that is thinkable, including
conceivablesandimaginables(memories,dreams,illusions,anddelusions).Inessence,
mindfulness aims at differentiating, evaluating and judging unwholesome vs. wholesome
dharmas in the framework of PKT toward happiness or rather the end of
(existential/emotional)suffering,theraisondtreofBuddhism.
Table2designates8steps/statesin4stagesrequiringaparticularinvestment.Stage
1(steps1/2)requireszealtoworkontoNirvana(emotionalextinction);stage2(steps3/4)
requireswisereflectiontoworkontoemptiness(thehighestwisdom);stage3(steps5/6)
requiresclearcomprehensiontoworkontononclingingtotheBuddha;andstage4(steps
7/8)requiresbenevolencetoworkontorealizingintermind/interself(Kwee,2011).

Table2:PristineMindfulnessinFourStagesandEightSteps/States
(NB:MindfulnessBasedInterventionsCompriseSteps1and2)
Context: the 8-Fold
Balancing Practice
Stage I
Heedfulness to
concentrate with zeal
and diligence
(appamada)

Attention (nr 8)
Verbal/speech
(description)

Awareness (nr 7)
Non-verbal/no speech
(acquaintance)

1
Samatha targets calm
& tranquil serenity

2
Samadhi targets flame
extinction: Nirvana

Stage II
Wise reflection: aims at
wholesome karmic
action (yoniso
manasikara)

3
Vipassana: insight in
Dependent Origination

4
Sunyata as highest
wisdom of non-self

Stage III
Wisdom through alert
& clear
comprehension
(sampajanna)

5
Non-duality of subjectobject/emptiness-form

6
Kill-the-Buddha: the
last of hindrances

Stage IV
Accomplishing
benevolence of
Relational Inter-Being
(antaratman)

7
Brahmaviharas: social
meditations-in-action

8
dharmas: man-made
social constructions

Pristine Mindfulness integrates early Buddhist (Theravada) and later Buddhist

(Mahayana) views on mindfulness. Following 8 steps or states and 4 stages of 2 steps per
stage,itoffersabroadspectrumpractice.Thisincludesajudgmentalaspectasaninherent
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partoftheexercisebydiscerningun/wholesomeKarmaandcultivatingwholesomenessas
aninseparablepartofthetraining.IntermsofBorobudurJavaneseBuddhism(Kwee,2014;
in press), Steps 14 (First Phase) is a journey of absolute bodhicitta, the spirit of heartfelt
diligencetoawakenalongAHAexperiences,whichisanintrovertprocessofdeconstructing
self via deep insights toward the emptiness of mind and of self (anatta) while in social
isolation. Steps 58 (Second Phase) travels in relative bodhicitta, the dedication to awaken
further along HAHA experiences, which is an extravert process of socially reconstructing
intermind/interselfviajoyfulexperienceswhilefullyfunctioninginthemarketplace.54
55
Theeightsteps/statescanbespecifiedasfollows:

FirstPhase:
1.Samatha:astateofstressfreeamidstadversityviathe12Meditations;it
comprises preliminary concentration and calming (Jhanas) as a basis for deep
concentration (Samadhi) and contemplation by sensing/perceiving, and meta
cognizing. Apex: absorption (neitherperception/nornonperception), taught by
AlaraKalamaandUdakaRamaputtatotheBuddhaatthestartofhisquest.
2. Samadhi:56 a deep concentrative awareness state leading to cessation of all
emotional arousal flames (Nirvana) experienced in firmfocus/receptiveabsorption
or in action e.g. when painting or sporting, called flow in psychology. Siddhartha
experiencedthisspontaneouslywhenwatchingaploughbreakingground.
3. Vipasanna: a state of insight in how the mind works, i.e. in Dependent
Origination, a process which refers to Body/Speech/Mind: feeling, thinking, and
interacting, modalities arising/subsiding in conjunction while feeling greed (or its
underlying fear of loss or sadness of the lost) or hatred (or its underlying other
hate/aggressionorselfhate/depression).
4. Sunyata: a state of luminous suchness or vast zeroness, a reset point that
not only knows no flames, but no candle nor oil either, and which is the highest

54

Called antaratman in Borobudur Javanese (Mahayana) Buddhism, inbetweenselves (intermind/inter

self) is depicted as Indras Jewel Net on the Gandavyuha Sutra panels of the Borobudur (Crown Jewel
SscriptureonEnteringtheDharmaRealm).Thisisanetwithagemateachcrossingwhichreflectseveryother
gemitmirrorsininfiniteinterpenetration.
55
These two processes are a relevant theme in the Mahayana teachings depicted on more than 1460 bas
reliefs (panels of 2 by 1 meter, one third of which is on the Gandhavyuha Sutra) and by 504 sitting Buddha
statuesin10circumambulatorycorridors(>5km)ofanimmensestupastructureordomelikebuildingcalled
theBorobuduraUNESCOprotected worldwonderstemmingfromtheyear800locatedontheislandof
Java(Indonesia)wherethisauthorwasborn.Thevisitorwhoascendsthishugepyramidalconstructionlearns
tomeditatetowardliberationassymbolizedbythehighesttoweringemptydomeviathepictorialnarratives
and instructions on the panels. Once liberated, s/he begins the journey of descending back to the mundane
world to fulfil the vow of practicing, in mindful equanimity, the social meditations of lovingkindness,
compassion, and joy, and particularly the compassion meditation of offering (kasih) and receiving (terima),
knowninTibetastonglen,alegacyofJavaneseBuddhism.
56
TheBahiyaSuttaincludesaninstructiontoSamadhi:OBahiya,wheneveryouseeaform,lettherebejust
theseeing;wheneveryouhearasound,lettherebejustthehearing;whenyousmellanodor,lettherebejust
thesmelling,whenyoutasteaflavor,lettherebejustthetasting;whenyouexperienceaphysicalsensation,
letitmerelybesensation;andwhenathoughtorfeelingarises,letitbejustanaturalphenomenonarisingin
themind.Whenit'slikethis,therewillbenoself,no"I".Whenthereisnoself,therewillbenomovingabout
hereandthere,andnostoppinganywhere.AndthatistheendofDukkha.ThatisNibbana."Wheneverit'slike
that,thenitisNibbana.Ifitislasting,thenitislastingNibbana;ifitistemporary,thenit'stemporaryNibbana.
Inotherwords,itisjustoneprinciple.

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wisdomasopposedtobelievinginasupernaturalpowerwhichwouldimplytheend
ofselfinquirytowardnotselforpervasivenonself.

SecondPhase:
5.Nondualityisastatethatrequiresattentionofspeechwhichinheresindualities
asatrap.Thepracticeistotranscendduality,thusemptiness=form,beginning=end,
cause=effect, left=right, up=down, heaven=hell, beautiful=ugly, good=bad, yes=no,
etc.,whichculminatesin:theBuddha=bad.
6. KilltheBuddha is an expression of Chan master Linchi (died 866) whose
anarchisticgeniusisstillquitepracticalfortraineeswhowishtoeradicateconceptsin
favor of emptiness. Because the Buddha is already dead literally, what one
metaphoricallykillsisprogressimpedingpsychologicaldependency.
7. Brahmaviharas: the Buddha often used Brahministic terms to which he
subsequently alluded a different meaning; the brahmaviharas is one of them. For
nonBrahmins, the term is to be interpreted as a metaphor for sublime places of
benevolentdwelling:kindness,compassion,joyandequanimity.57
8. dharmas: this scholastic term for the smallest unit of experience can be
conceived as neitheremptynornotempty (the Buddha), emptyofemptiness
(Nagarjuna, 2nd century), and emptynonduality (Vasubandhu, 4th century), it is
now here fathomed as ontologically mute social constructions empty of
TranscendentalTruths(K.J.Gergen,21stcentury).58

MainlybecauseBuddhistLitemindfulnesslikeintheMBIisnonjudgmental,itis
limitedtoSteps1and2(calmingandtranquilizingtowardserenityandtheextinctionofthe
flamesofemotionalarousaltowardNirvana).Notably,BuddhistLitemindfulnessdoesnot
extend to Step 3 (insight in Dependent Origination of Karma as formed through
Body/Speech/Mind) and Step 4 (understanding of notself/emptiness). Tentative
conclusions: (1) Growing research evidence on MBIs effectiveness seems to warrant that
they are not a passing fad; (2) From a Buddhist perspective BuddhistLite mindfulness is
not inadequate, but incomplete, thus needs to be complemented; (3) To date, the art of
Pristine Mindfulness and the science of BuddhistLite mindfulness complement each
other; (4) Buddhist coaching toward awakening requires 8 steps, while nonBuddhist
psychotherapyandcounselinglikelysufficientlyprofitfromsteps1and2;and(5)Buddhist
LitemindfulnessisabasicprocessinBuddhistPsychology/Psychotherapyandisapparently
inplacetobecomeacoreprocessinnonBuddhistpsychotherapy.

ARelationalFramework
ThesecondphaseisforadvancedtraineesandgoesbeyondwhatisdoneintheMBI.While
the First Phase of Pristine Mindfulness is rooted in Theravada Buddhism (the Buddhas
discoursesaswrittendowninSriLanka),theSecondPhaseismainlyderivedfromMahayana
Buddhism (particularly Chan/China or Zen/Japan). Whereas most authors consider
mindfulnessasastrictindividualmatter,thepresentviewtranscendsthistakebyadopting

57

Manymoremeditationshavebeendevelopedaimedatsocially(re)constructingandboostingpositiveaffect
whichcanbedoneinprinciplewithrespecttoallpreciousdailyexperiences,e.g.mirthlaughing,joysmiling,
delightsinging, savoringeating, and so on. These cultivations are meant as meditationinaction and are
appliedatbest,mostsolidly,postemptiness.
58
Interestingly,dharmasasthoughtscanbeunwholesome(akusala)andifsoitisirrationalinwhichcasethey
mightrequiretherapeuticchange.

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aninterpersonalperspectivetotheseeminglysolitaryexercise.Inmyfamilytradition(MK)
meditationissomethingtodoalonebysittinginfrontofawall,theBodhidharmawaysoto
say.GrapplingwiththemeaningofsittingunderaBotree,onemightwonder:shouldone
cutoneselfofffromtheworld?Wouldapracticeoftotalisolationadvancesociety?Hereis
an attempt to find a few answers by a nutshell review of postBuddha Buddhist thought
which aims at providing Pristine Mindfulness an integrated context. A Mahayana inspired
relational perspective offers a metapsychological framework for Pristine Mindfulness as
well.

Down the ages, ever since the Buddhas time, there have been several varieties in
conceptualizationsofandapproachestothepracticeofmindfulness.AsintheSedakaSutta
the Buddha already offered a relational perspective on mindfulness which evolved onto a
Mahayana variant of realizing intermind/interself or Interbeing (Gandhavyuha Sutra).
This discourse was delivered at a place called Sedaka and particularly addresses the
relationalaspectofmindfulness.Theteachingnarratesasimileontwobalancingacrobats:a
masteracrobatandhisyoungfemaleapprentice.Theiractisthatthemanholdsabamboo
pole on which thegirlclimbs via hisshoulder. While she climbs the man says: you watch
me,whileIwatchyou,andthuswewillbothbesafe.Herresponse:No,masteritisbetter
ifIwatchmyselfandyouwatchyouandbywatchingourselvesweprotecteachother;thats
thesafestwaytoshowouract.Themoralofthisstoryisthatwepracticemindfulnessin
order to protect each other and that being older or a master does not necessarily mean
beingwise.BhikkhuAnalayo(2010)corroboratesthepointthatthefourfoldestablishment
ofmindfulnessisthewaytoprotectoneselfandbydoingsooneprotectsothers.Thisisa
reciprocal process which will eventually have a beneficial repercussion on human
relationshipandthesocietyatlarge.
Tobesure,underlyingtherelationalaspectemphasizedhere,thereisavalidanalysis
ontheindividuallayer(relationallyconveyedthroughgenerationsofadeptsdowntheages)
highlighting three other essential features of mindfulness: (1) a fourfold establishment
which,accordingtotheSatipatthanaSutta,comprises(a)theBody,(b)thebodysactions
(i.e. feelings: sensations and emotions), (c) the Mind, and (d) the minds actions (i.e.,
thoughts:visualizationsandcognitions,whichincludesSpeech);(2)ametonymy,i.e.goaland
meansarethesame:thusbyjustbeingmindfuloneisalreadythere.Inotherwords,there
is no way to mindfulness, mindfulness is the way; thus, mindfulness strives at a goalless
goal: there is nothing to be achieved; and (3) a sitting position: although meditationin
action preferred, formal meditation starts with the back held upright, thus not slouched
forward. Psychophysiological research findings suggest that holding the back and head
straight strengthens confidence in the emitted thoughts whether negative or positive
(Brinol, Petty & Wagner 2009) and that this posture boosts positive mood, while other
posturesinvitesorworsensadejectedmood(Haruki,Homma,Umezawa&Masaoka,2001).

ArelationalperspectiveofPristineMindfulnessimpliesthatweconsiderBuddhismas
a psychology. This is because it deals with the mind and un/wholesome Karma as
intentionality and (inter)activity, which happen to be psychological topics. Buddhism as a
practical psychology requires experiential knowledge about processes how we perceive,
imagine, conceive, feel, emote, behave, relate and live with each other. Unlike most
psychologies which consider the mind located and confined in the brain, Pristine
Mindfulness endorses a relational perspective grounded in the psychology of Relational
Buddhism which views mind as originated in the meeting between people and as located
outside rather than confined inside the skull. It is therefore more appropriate to speak of
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intermindratherthanmind,ofinterselfratherthanself,andofInterbeingorRelational
Being (Gergen, 2009a). The latter proposition stems from a mainstream current in social
psychologycalledSocialConstructionwhichstatesthatmindisnotlockedupbetweenthe
ears or lurking behind the eyeballs but operates between people. The Mahayana take of
mindassituatedinbetweenpeoplecanalsobefoundintheVimalakirtinirdesaSutrawhich
seesthemindas locatedintheheart.Thisnotionimpliesthatmindis neither within nor
without,norisittobeapprehendedbetweenthetwo.

The basic idea of Relational Buddhism is that human beings live in an ocean of
relationships from the cradle to the grave (Gandavyuha Sutra). After parental lustful
intercourse(kamadathu),sensingemoting/thinkingtalkingcapabilityisembodied.Speechis
formed by the syllable (mantra) during meaningmaking exchange (rupadathu). As
languagingprogressesformlessthoughtstransformintoficklemind(arupadathu)andself
organizeillusoryindependentselfthatfailstoseeinseparableselvesspacedinbetween
peopleembeddedinculture.Inordertocultivategluingrelationshipsinbetweenselves,we
need to understand the Buddhas view that everyone is embedded in a network of
interconnected relationships (Sigalovada Sutta). Using a compass metaphor, there are six
relationaltypeseachofwhichrequiresspecificresponsibilitiesandcomplementaryconduct
(kids/parentsEast, siblings/friendsNorth, partner/spouseWest, teacher/studentSouth,
disciple/guruUpward, employee/employerDownward). This relational template offers
guidance to find the way in defining stances in relationships whose balance and harmony
depend on how you say things rather than what you say. It is therefore pivotal to soak
speech in vernacular reflecting interpersonal significance of binding we in full
understandingofourhumancondition:DependentOrigination.
AspartofRelationalBuddhism,PristineMindfulnessdealswiththe3Poisonscausing
psychologicalwounds;thesepoisonsariseininterpersonalcontext.Thehumanpredicament
is rooted in greed, hatred and ignorance on how the mind works, i.e. as intermind; its
realizationhealstheillusionofself/soulandcuresthedelusionofgod(s).Thepsychologyof
greed inheres in the fear/anxiety about losing a loved object and the sadness/grief for
havinglostalovedobject;thepsychologyofhatredinheresintheangertowardoneself
leading to depression and the anger toward someone which might lead to aggression. By
lifting the karmic causes of these selfsabotaging emotions, one liberates oneself to
subsequentlyfreelymovetowardtheBrahmaviharas:lovingkindness,empathiccompassion
and shared joy in relational equanimity of nondiscrimination (Brahmavihara Sutta). Thus,
sevenrelationalscenariosofbasicemotionsarediscerned:depression,fear,anger,sadness,
joy, love and silence/serenity/emptiness. In effect, I am linked, therefore I am (K.J.
Gergen): to be is to be related or interbe and to act is to interact. Intelligible thinking is
relationalactivityexecutedascovertprivateverbalized/visualizedspeechmuchinthesame
veinthatemotionsarerelationalscenariosaccordingtothecultureonelivesby.Thus,the
karmicresultofintentional(orpremeditated)action,whichusuallyappearsunbeknownst,
affectsBody/Speech/Mind.Psychologicalmalaisecannotbutinheringinrelationalmeaning.
Duhkha,thegamutofemotionalsufferingregardingbirth,aging,illness,anddeathislike
separation from loved ones, union with unloved ones, and not attaining goals
interpersonal. They are relational performances of affect, creative scenarios expressing
socioculturalmeaning.

Meaning is anchored in speech, a prime interest of Relational Buddhism, Social

Construction,andPristineMindfulness.Speechisthesharedcommongroundinthepursuit
of the real, the rational and the good. It submits that anything conceivable is an
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interpretationemanatingfromaparticularcommunity.Itowesintelligibilitytosociocultural
values; in other words: there is no reality unless the majority agrees on its truthfulness.
Social Construction leans on Wittgensteins heritage regarding the relationship between
speech/language and reality in search for meaning. Referring to metaphysical questions,
Wittgenstein (18891951), like the Buddha and the Tao, came up with the rippling
proposition, "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent". In the human
sciences,whereabsolutesynonymybetween wordsand objectsdoesnotexist,realitycan
only be approached, not exacted. Therefore, there are no unilateral definitions of e.g.
rationalityorgoodness.Anydefinitioncanonlybevalidincertaincircumstancesandina
particular context. Speech is generated in and reflects a social context. It is effective
wheneverpeopleofthesamelanguagecommunityunderstandeachother.Thisspeech,to
bemindfulofinordertosecurewholesomeinteracting,mightbeillogical;butaslongasit
isintelligible,itsrelativemeaningisunderstood.Meaningandrealityaresocialconstructions
which come about through communal use. Thus, turbo speech can be generated which
seemslikeadacadabraforoutsidersbuteffective,functional,andmeaningfulforinsiders
ofthecommunityfamiliarwiththeunwrittenrulesofthelanguagegame.
If Pristine Mindfulness is a psychological experience, Nirvana is not a paradise
beyond,adestinyofreincarnationforthesoul,butathisworldlyrebirthofliberatedaffect
asaresultofextinctionofemotionalarousal.Toarriveatthislevel,oneisemptyofselfby
undefiling and unafflicting unwholesome Karma through Pristine Mindfulness (or PKT if
indicated). The psychological take of Karma as intentional (inter)action reflects a secular
view that does not refer to retribution or tallying good and evil deeds. Rather than using
ethical terms like wrong or evil, molding the user into a religious blueprint, the term
wholesome and unwholesome are preferred to qualify and judge the type of Karma
wheneveritismetduringmindfulness.Furthermore,Karmaisconsiderednotlocatedinthe
head separated from others but as embodied action (in Dependent Origination with
thought/reason,feeling/emotion,andvolition/motivation)bornwithinrelationshipthat,by
precedingtheboundedself,standsbeforeallinbetweenselves.
The quintessence of Relational Buddhism is Pristine Mindfulness whose acumen of
application depends on clinical experience, psychological understanding, and relational
insights regarding meditation which lead to the abovementioned four stages: zealous
concentration/appamada,
wise
reflection/yoniso
manasikara,
clear
comprehension/sampajanna, and relational interbeing/antaratman. These stages are not
static but fluid cyclical courses of eight overlapping but clearly discernable steps of
transitionalstates(thequalitiesofbeing:serene,concentrative,insightful,empty,nondual,
liberated,prosocial,andwise).Thesestateslikelytransform overtimeintorelativestable
personalitytraits.AimingnolessthanBuddhahood,thisprojectstandsontheshouldersof
giantsofBuddhism.ComparedtoBuddhistLitemindfulness,PristineMindfulnessoffersa
broadspectrum practice which inherently includes a judgmental aspect
(evaluation/vikalpa/Svikappa/P)bydifferentiatingandcultivatingwholesomeKarma.Born
into a space of linguistic meanings, we are inbetweenselves, intermind rather than
boundedmindorillusoryself;relationalinterbeingratherthandeludedsouls,cutofffrom
others.Fewpeoplearepreparedforsuchawrenchingdislocation,butforthepoeticactivist
thehorizonsareexciting.
ThefundamentalbasisofPristineMindfulnessistheemptinessexperiencewhich
was clearly described by the Buddha (Maha Sunnata Sutta and Cula Sunnata Sutta).
Emptiness was later focused on in the Mahayana tradition by the EmptinessOnly/
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MadhyamakaSunyavadaschool,championedbyNagarjuna(2ndcentury),andbytheMind
Only/YogacaraVijnavada school of Vasubandhu (4th century). Buddhist scholarly thought
developed until the 8th century; until Shantideva in the tradition of Madhyamaka and
Dharmakirti in the tradition of Yogacara. After Yogacara there was no other significant
scholarlydevelopmentinBuddhism,untiltheappearanceofSocialConstructioninthe20th
century.ItsfrontrunnerandpremieradvocateK.J.Gergen(2009a),afterdeclaringrealityas
ontologically mute and the nonexistence of Transcendental Truth, advocates
Relational Being, which is the 21st century equivalent of Interbeing. Gergens landmark
books(e.g.2009b)areaguidelineforrelationallivingthroughappreciativeconversationof
relational being which boils down to mindfulness of speech and inheres in the Buddhist
spiritwithoutbeingexplicitaboutit.AimingatmergingWesternpsychologyandBuddhism,
RelationalBuddhismproposestobemindfulofInterbeing.AndjustlikeYogacarawhichdid
not reject but included Madhyamaka, Relational Buddhism does not oppose Sunyavadas
emptiness and Vijnavadas nonduality but incorporates both in its daily practice of
PristineMindfulness.IneffectRelationalBuddhismmaybeviewedastheFourthTurningof
theWheelsincetheBuddhasfirstDhammachakra.

InClosing
In conclusion, Relational Buddhism is a confluence of Buddhist Psychology (defined as an
integratedsocialclinicalneuropsychologyofBody/Speech/Mind)andSocialConstruction,a
metapsychological vision on reality as ontologically mute and which discards
Transcendental Truth. This marks a major move away from Buddhism as a religion in the
Abrahamic sense. Embedded in Relational Buddhism, Pristine Mindfulness highlights an
ongoing paradigm shift toward involving applied mainstream academic psychology as an
efficient vehicle to disseminate Buddhism in the 21st century. From its practice evolves
naturally the notion that human separateness is an illusion and that sanity requires
mindfulnessofspeechwhichconveyslovingkindness,empathiccompassion,sharedjoyand
balanced relationship. At bottom, Pristine Mindfulness is a secular approach to the pan
Buddhist teachings (acknowledged by all denominations) which views interpersonal
relationshipsastheframeworkofitsdailypractice.
Relational Buddhisms aspiration is no less than realizing the Fourth Turning of the
Wheel with Pristine Mindfulness and PKT in the core. The interest is not academic
consumptionpersebutgrassrootdailypracticeleadingtowholesomeclients,theprosocial
Arahant and the postmoderm Bodhisattva (Buddhatobe). A fundamental training toward
thisaimismindfulnessofdialogue,conversationalspeechandselftalkwhichtakesplacein
thespaceofintermindinbetweenpeople.Requiringdeeplistening,ithasbeentoooften
neglected while according to the Buddha in the Sedaka Sutta mutual and communal
protectionwillbeestablishedbywalkingthetalkofmindfulness.PristineMindfulnessalso
includes the Brahmaviharas in order to advance societal harmony through coordinated
actionofcollaborativepractice.
Where is the evidence of salubrious outcome endorsing Buddhist practice and
Pristine Mindfulness? On a qualitative level the favorable outcome of Buddhism is
corroborated by Dhammas surviving the ravages of time during circa 2600 years with
millions of people who claim to have benefited from its practice. On a quantitative level
mindfulness research was boosted since KabatZinn introduced MBSR in the 1980s (e.g.
Didonna, 2009). However, this research refers only to Pristine Mindfulness first stage
comprisingthestepsofcalmingserenity(Samatha)andconcentrativeabsorption(Samadhi)
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resulting in emotional extinction (Nirvana). Recently, Theravada Buddhist theory based on

interpretationsoftheAbhidhamma(anabstractionoftheBuddhasdiscourses)enteredthe
space of mainstream psychology in the quest to account for the effectiveness of MBIs
mindfulness (Grabovac, Lau & Willett, 2011). Conspicuously locking out any reference to
KabatZinns work, the working mechanism of mindfulness in the MBI is defined as a non
conceptual understanding while observing the three empirical marks of existence
(impermanence,suffering,andnotself)whenconcentratingonanobjectinamomentby
momentawareness.
According to this Buddhist psychological model enlightenment is a perceptual
change, permanent and radical, which stops habitual identifications of experience with a
separate self. The model consists of the following components linked together by various
feedback loops: (in)formal mindfulness practice, insight in the three marks, increased
equanimity(decreasedattachmenttopleasureandaversiontounpleasantness),acceptance
(nonjudgment), regulation of concentration/attention, less mental proliferation, increased
wellbeing,symptomreduction,andethicalpractice(loweringthebaselineofproliferation).
Centralinthismodelonesbecomingnonattachedandnonaversetoanyfeeling(affectofa
sensoryexperience)resultinginlessproliferationofthoughtsandconsequentlytosymptom
reduction andwellbeing.Mindfulnessasinsightmeditationisjuxtaposedtoconcentrative
meditation.
Indeed,accordingtoMikulas(2011),mostdefinitionsofmindfulnessformulatedby
Western authors refer to concentration rather than to insight. This corroborates Pristine
MindfulnesspropositionthatthesalutaryoutcomeofBuddhistLitemindfulnessrefersto
Samatha and Samadhi. We applaud the blunt import of Buddhist practical theory as
propitious for the development of psychological interventions to eradicate suffering in
clinicalpractice.ComparedtoPristinemindfulness,thereviewedmodelisnarrowlyfocused
onafewaspectsoftheAbhidhamma,whilesincethenBuddhistpsychologyhasevolvedfar
andwide(Kwee,2010a;McWilliams,2011;DelMonte,2011).
Western fascination for mindfulness by psychologists already began with William
James (18421910), founding father of American psychology. He was one of the first who
recognized the psychology that inheres in Buddhism, agreed on the notion of Karma, and
acknowledgedthatcomparedtowhatweoughttobe,weareonlyhalfawake.James(1890,
p.424)brokenewgroundbyaddressingthefunctionalvalueofmindfulnessthatoperatesin
thespaceofpure(preconceptual)perception:

And the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over
again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will. No one is compos sui if he
haveitnot.Aneducationwhichshouldimprovethisfacultywouldbetheeducation
parexcellence.Butitiseasiertodefinethisidealthantogivepracticaldirectionsfor
bringingitabout.

In1904hehadAnagarikaDharmapalateachduringoneofhislecturesatHarvard,onwhich
occasion he allegedly said to the man from Sri Lanka to take his chair. After the lecture
(apparentlyonthemodalities),Jamesdeclaredthatthisisthepsychologyeverybodywillbe
studying25yearsfromthenon(Sangharakshita,1964).Althoughthispredictiondidnotpay
off,thebasicelementsforaBuddhistpsychologyoncognitivebehaviorallineswerelaid
by three vanguard psychologists in the past few decades: Mikulas (1978), De Silva (1984),
andKwee(1990).
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KabatZinn(2011)emphasizedtheimportanceoftheMBIandtheirbeinggrounded
inasecularuniversaldharma,anunderstandingbasedonscienceandmeditationwhichis
congruentwiththeBuddhistDharmabutnotconstrainedbycultureorreligion.Hemadea
plea for embodying the Dharma independent from existing languaging and traditional
teachingforms,evenifitisinstructivetoknowtheseformsaspartofone'seducation.The
emphasisisonmaximizingthevalueofhis(BuddhistLite)mindfulnessbyembracingand
cultivating its commonsensical and universal ways. The current interest in mindfulness,
transformation, and liberation might be a signal giving rise to a flourishing on this planet
akintoasecond,andthistimeglobal,Renaissance,forthebenefitofallsentientbeingsand
ourworld.(p.281).WhilenotbeingunappreciativeofBuddhismKabatZinnseemstopush
anagendaforauniversalMBSR withtheseboldwords.Thisremindsusofthecriticismof
AsianpsychologistsonMBI,who(e.g.AungMyint,2010),referringtoMBSR,pointedatthe
Buddhasdiscourseonignorance,

Bhikkhus,ignoranceistheleaderintheattainmentofunskilfulqualities,followedby
lackofconscienceandlackofconcern.Inanunknowledgeableperson,immersedin
ignorance,wrongviewarises.Inoneofwrongview,wrongintentionarises.Inoneof
wrong resolve, wrong speech... In one of wrong speech, wrong action... In one of
wrongaction,wrongliving...Inoneofwrongliving,wrongeffort...Inoneofwrong
effort,wrongmindfulness...Inoneofwrongmindfulness,wrongconcentrationarises
(AvijjaSutta).

Toclose:so,mindfulnessisthekey;but,whatwhenthisisattained?Theeternal
student Chaochou asked Nanchuen, the eternal master revered in Chan: What if I have
found the key? The master answered: Nothing special! Finally, Zen master Dogen; he
emphasizedsuccinctly:tostudyBuddhismistostudytheself,tostudytheselfistoforget
theself,toforgettheselfistobeonewithothers(italicsadded).

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Chapter7
KarmicLifeHistoryQuestionnaire(KLHQ)

Introduction
This final chapter presents the Karmic Life History Questionnaire (KLHQ) which is a 300
questionclinicalinstrument,i.e.astructuredanamnesticassessmenttoolwhichcanbeused
bytherapistsofanydenomination.59 60Itisbasedonastructuredselfrecountingofones
life history to be used at the intake of a new client. The KLHQ is a timesaving and cost
efficient method which follows an orderly format debouching into a total picture of the
clientsemotionaldisorderagainstthebackdropofrelevantlifeeventsandher/hisentirelife
story.Thus,anintegralideacanbeformedincollaborativepracticeofclientandtherapist
regarding the Dependent Origination, genesis/course and function of the psychological
complaints.TheresultislikeanXrayphotoofthespecificmaladyinthecontextofthedis
easedpersonasawhole.TheuseoftheKLHQisnotrestrictedtoBuddhistpsychotherapists
asthecollecteddatacanbeinterpretedaccordingtoanytherapistsschoolofthought.After
all, Karma and karmic refer to intentional activity and reflect the result of ones own
planned goals, aims and objectives. Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation (PKT) is
particularlyinterestedinplanningintentionalfuturesoftherationalandthegoodbasedon
the corrections of irrationalities and mistakes made in the past. KLHQ is administered and
investigatedatintakeresultinginathoroughandfullpictureoftheclient.Thisprocedureis
calledNarrativeRebiographingandisanintegralpartofPKTresultinginatreatmentplan.
NarrativeRebiographingcanalsobeappliedasastandalonemethodinabriefPKTbecause
someclientsaresufficientlyservedandtakencareofbyit.
Adequatetherapyrequiresthoroughknowledgeoftheclientsbackgroundinorder
to understand and eventually explain the functionality of disordered emotions. To fathom
when, how and why one derailed, it is necessary to identify complaints/symptoms and to
learn about the clientsrelationshipswithothersandwithself.Thisis becausetheplaying
field of emotionality and emotions is in the exchange of the interpersonal and the
intrapersonal. What is behind the complex of clinical depression, the anxiety disorder and
the temper tantrums? Comprehension and insight in derailment and complexity can be
accrued in the way the client interact in the family with parents and siblings, in marriage
with spouse and kids, in school with teachers and classmates and at work with superiors,
colleaguesandsubordinates.Subsequently,questionsregardingmotivationandexpectation
of PKT areposed. Next, the BASICI (Skandhas) is questioned extensively (Kwee & Lazarus,
1986). BASICI stands for: Behaviour/conduct, Affect/emotions, Sensation/feeling,
Imagery/visualizations, Cognition/concepts and Interpersonal relationships. Habitual
patternsofsocializing,stylesofpersonalityandtheclientsselfimage/selfconceptcanthus
bedistilled.Anautobiographicalaccounttobewrittenfreelybytheclientisincludedatthe
end. All of this results in an inventory of symptoms and background of the emotional
disorder.AKarmatopographicalandfunctionalanalysisincludingtheperpetuatingfactorsof

59

ThischapterisadvisablyreadinconjunctionwithChapter4.TheKLHQisamodifiedversionofMultimodale
AnamnesePsychotherapie(Kwee,1990;publishedinDutchatSwets&Zeitlinger,Amsterdam)
60
The adjective clinical is related to the direct observation and concerned with the treatment of
patients/clients,thuswithexperienceratherthanwithlaboratorystudy,experimentortheory.

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the disorder can be thus designed in collaborative practice. These analyses include
emotionalproblemsoflivingandprecipitatingstressfactorsleadingtothedisorder.
This chapter presents the following paragraphs: stress factors, Karmic Life History
Questionnaire, narrative rebiographing, from pathography to biography, self as narrative,
finding meaning, Karma Topographical Analysis (structure) and Karma Functional Analysis
(process).

StressFactors
StressmanifestsinBody/Speech/Mind.Duetoanoverloadthebalanceoftensionbecomes
disrupted.Constancyandstabilityarelostduetoamismatchofcapacityandburden.Major
stressfactorscanbesummarized/structuredinfivemajorcategorieswhicharelikeaclinical
compass.ThetherapistresemblesaSherpahelpingmountainclimbersfindingtheirtrackto
the summit. Without a compass there is no way to reach their destiny. The compass in
Narrative Rebiographing, based on experience with more than 2000 clients, differentiates
fivedirections:

(1) Lifephaseproblems.Fromdevelopmentalpsychologyitisknownthattransitional
periods in lifespan bring about stress and might cause crises. Here are the
themes which I usually encounter. Some children were born unwantedly and
grew up in an affectively poor environment. I have met clients who spent their
early childhood (17) in an orphanage, a Nazi concentration camp or who were
victimsofabuse.Inlessextremeinstances,clientswitnessedmaritaldisharmony
and divorce, losing contact with their parent(s). In early youth (714 years), for
instance due to parental conflict, divorce or affective neglect, the kid might
becomethebearerofsymptomsasalightningrod,ascapegoatorablacksheep.
Puberty and adolescence (1421) is a period of becoming independent and
approachingtheothersexlookingforaspouse.Onemighthavebecomeabuffer
in a parental conflict and escape into a premature marriage with all its
ramificationsofhavingkids.Insomemarriageschildrenpresentedsymptomsasa
function to bridge a gap between parents. Daring not to fledge to protect
parentalintegrityduetobecomingparentified,symptomsmightbedisplayedlike
the fear of leaving home. In young adulthood (2128), most people lay the
foundation for a family of their own and start a carreer or take care for the
newbornkids.Laterinadulthood(2835/3542)somemayhaveremainedsingle
and others have a power struggle leading to divorce. a neurotic choice of a
spouse could lead to a dilemma of having to decide between the insecurity of
divorceanddangerofindependenceversusthesecurityofmatrimony.Caughtin
suchintrapersonalconflict,aphobiaordepressionmightoccur;suchsymptoms
could function asaweaponof angerandagressionina maritalconflict.Midlife
(4249/4956)couldbeconsolidatingregardingmarriageandcarreer;ifsuccessful
one might start a second youth. Biologically, menopause and penile pause
could evoke stress. One could be lonely when after divorce there is no other
spouse and an empty nest syndrome might occur when children leave home.
Awareness might dawn that life isnot endlessand furtherambitions cannot be
fulfilled. If unsuccessfull looking back and in case of a gloomy future, a midlife
crisis could be imminent. The presenium phase (5663) is characterized by a
descending lifeline. For some the focus is on grandchildren for others illness
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could take its toll. Spouses might need learning how to get along together 24
hours of the day. During the senium (6370/70..) one is aging with or without
ailments;ifthespousedies,oneisleftalone.Retirementprovidesaseaoftime.
Sometimes old conflicts revive. Usually, it is a stage of growing toward wisdom
and mental strength. Declining physical abilities might result in dependency.
Mostly, the aged find reconciliation with each other and human fate. As death
comes nearer, the interest for religion might grow. Lifes meaning might be
contemplated;deathanddyingcouldbeprepared.

(2) Personalitydisorders.Asecondsourceofkarmicstressistheclientspersonality.
Personalityisnotconceivedasastaticgivenbutasdynamichabitualproclivities
of behaviour within delimited boundaries. If personality is disordered, it
manifestsinchildhoodandcontinuesintoadulthood.Markedlymaladaptive,itis
enduringandpervasive.Personalitydisordersareoftenunrecognizedasstressful
andlikelyshowdifferentpatternsinnonWesterncultures.Thefollowingslightly
overlapping behavioural tendencies could selfsabotage proper personal
functioning(DSMIVTR;APA,2000):

(a) Obsessivecompulsive, the trend to be: perfectionistic, precise, doubtful,

overlyconscientious,controlling,absolutistic,orderly,detailedandrigid.
(b) Dependent, the trend to be: undue nonindependent, helpless, passive,
apprehensive,anxiousalone,pervasivefollowing/leaningonothers.
(c) Avoidant, the trend to be: socially inhibited and behaving inadequately,
oversensitiveforevaluation,fencedoff/backeddown,dodging/escaping.
(d) Boderline, the trend to be: impulsive/capricious, labile/explosive, extreme
black/white,selfharming,instableinrelationshipsandactinginrash.
(e) Hysterical, the trend to be: theatrical/dramatic/phony, attentionseeking,
emotionallyexaggerating,overindulging,shallowandseductive.
(f) Narcissistic, the trend to be: grandiose/ostentatious/admirable, preoccupied
withfantasiesofselfimportance,extremelyarrogantandjealous.
(g) Antisocial, the trend to be: disregarding the right of others and democratic
rules,nonempathicandirresponsible,criminalyactiveregularly.
(h) Odd and eccentric, the trend to be: paranoid (suspicious/mistrusting),
schizoid(introverted/aloof)orschizotypical(bizarselfreference/magicideas).

ItshouldbenotedthatKLHQisnotpersemeanttocategorizepeopleinpigeon
holes.Figuringoutstressfactorsismeanttofindpossibilitiestointervene.These
trendsareviewedasasampleofkarmichabitualresponding,inotherwordsitis
notaboutwhatthepersonsdispositions(whats/hehas),butratheraboutthe
personskarmicyield(whats/hedoes):theresultofoneshabitualintentional
activity.Factisthatmostpeoplearenotafflictedbyapersonalitydisordersbut
rather manifest adjusted personalities. The categorical taxonomy of personality
disorders has been challenged and the Five Factor Model of personality, which
follows a dimensional taxonomy, has been proposed as an alternative (Costa &
McCrae, 1992). These are: Openness (curious vs. cautious), Conscientiousness
(organized vs. careless), Extraversion (outgoing vs. introverted), Agreeableness
(compassionatevs.unkind)andNeuroticism(nervousvs.secure).Thesetraitsare
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robust as they are consistently found in much empirical research. Each factor
covers a cluster of traits, e.g. extraversion is correlated with positive emotions,
assertiveness, gregariousness and warmth. PKTs KLHQ differentiates between
theseadjustedandmaladjusted typologiesandconsidersallofthemeventually
tobetheresultoftheclientsstylesandwaysofselfspeechandselftalk.

(3) Interpersonalconflicts. Thisthirdstresscategorytracksinterpersonal issuesand

scrutinizes relevant relationships. We live in an ocean of relationships from the
cradle to the grave. Relational problems are usually rooted at home, in the
parental family. Fear of failure, authority conflicts and clashes between
colleaguesmayturnouttobeanovergeneralisationofunresolvedstruggleswith
parentsorofsiblingrivalry.Difficultiestofindatruelovermightbetracedback
to an inadequate daughterfather relationship. In the Sigalovada Sutta the
Buddhaofferedametaphorofsixinterpersonaltypesofrelationship.Eachtype
requiresspecificresponsibilitiesandcomplementaryconduct(kids/parentsEast,
siblings/friendsNorth,
partner/spouseWest,
teacher/studentSouth,
disciple/guruUpward, employer/employeeDownward). I discern a seventh
intrapersonaltypeofrelationship,relevantinpsychotherapy:me/myselfCentre.
This template offers a compass to understand and guide harmonious
relationships.Relationalharmonydependsnotonwhatyousaybutonhowyou
sayitandeventuallyonhowdoIrelatewithmyself?Arelativelyconflictfree
person is flexible in her/his interpersonal and intrapersonal dealings enabling
adequaterespondinginchangingenvironments.

(4) Traumaandlacuna.Thereisafourthstresscategorywhichcouldbeindicatedas
traumaandlacuna.Apsychologicaltraumaisaseriousemotionalinjuryduetoan
extremestressconditionoralifethreateningeventresultinginaPostTraumatic
StressDisorderoranAcuteStressDisorder.Theseareanxietydisordersbecause
ofexposuretoforinstanceanaturaldisaster,aggressiveassault,domesticabuse,
prison stay, rape violence, terrorism and war. Symptoms vary from reliving the
event to avoiding resurgence, being emotionally aroused, overly tensed and
nightmares.Theclientisnotabletoreprocessthetraumaticevent(s)duetohis
owndefensivereactionswardingoffpainfulmemories.Diggingintothetrauma,
the therapist is keen on the intrapersonal mechanism of repression and its
gamut: projection, displacement, undoing, sublimation, isolation, denial and
regression.CuriouslytheBuddhaalreadypointedatdefencesandcomparedthe
defenders reaction as the shaky behaviour of recalcitrant horses (Khalunka
Sutta).

Theincapabilityofresolvingtraumaexplainsitsperpetuation.Thisisduetothe
clients hiding of traumatic stories; the therapist therefore needs to be vigilant
regardingthestumblingblockofhiddennarrativesandmakesstridestoevoking
them.Traumasmightalsoperpetuatebecauseofalackofcopingskills;trainingis
indicatedtofillinthelacunaofnotknowinghowtodealwithtraumaticstress.
Suchagapcanbefilledbylearningtocopewithextremeemotions.TheBuddha
proposed a contemplative meditation on decomposing bodies which could well
beincorporatedasstressinoculationtraining.Itoffersthecognitiveskillstodeal
140

with the trauma of death, dying and the end of life. Mindfulness meditation is
another Buddhist proficient means for dealing with avoidance of revivication of
the traumatic experience. Other gap filling trainings are: relaxation training,
cognitive restructuring training, friendship training, assertiveness training,
communicationtraining,whichcouldallbepartofactivedirectivecoachingand
PKT.

(5)

Precipitatingfactors.Thisfifthstresscategoryreferstothestrawthatbroke
thecamel'sbackandcomprisesfactorstriggering,dischargingandaccelerating
the onset of emotional disorders. It is a minor or major stressful life event or a
particulartraumaticexperience,thelastofaseriesbeforethedisorderbeginsor
excacerbates.Inasurvey,HolmesandRahe(1967)list43stressfullifeeventsand
rank them according to its weight. For instance, they found that the death of a
spouseweighs100(ranks1),adivorceweighs73(ranks2),gettingfiredweighs
47 (ranks 8), while a retirement weighs 45 (ranks 10). Minor stress or hassles
include:beinglonely,overweight,risingprices,homemaintenance,toomuchto
do,losingthings,taxes,andsoon(Lazarus,1981).

The above clinical compass pointing at five directions provides a sketch regarding
clinicalknowledgeofetiologyandmaintainingfactorswhichleadstoproperministrations.
Thecompassdoesnotsuggestmechanisticcauses.Itisaguidelineofunderstandinghuman
beings as Body/Speech/Mind (i.e. BASICI) and a means of unraveling clients as actively
complexsociallyembeddeddevelopmentallydynamicselforganisingsystems. Positioning
the client using this compass is helpful in finding context, meaning and plot in the clients
personal selfnarrative of psychological problems. In collaborative practice, the data
gathered through the Karmic Life History Questionnaire are compressed in two forms: the
Karma Topographical Analysis (structure of BASICI) and the Karma Functional Analysis
(BASICIprocess).

KarmicLifeHistoryQuestionnaire
Instruction
This questionnaire aims at gathering information on psychological symptoms of emotional
disordersagainstthebackdropofyourkarmicpersonallifehistory.Thedataarehelpfulfor
assessmentenofstructureandprocessofKarmainBody/Speech/Mind.Pleasecompletethe
questionnaire as best as you can to enable a tailormade intervention plan. Designed in
collaborative practicewith the therapist, topographical and functional analyseswill ensure
maximal profit from Psychotherapy by Karma Transformation. All provided information is
strictlyconfidentialandisprotectedbyprofessionalsecrecy.

(A)FormalData
1Name:
2Gender:
3Address:
4Phone:

5Emailaddress:
6Placeanddateofbirth
141

7Length:
8Weight:
9Yourreligionandpoliticalcamp:

10Areyou(un)married,divorcedorawidow(er)?
11Howdoyoulive:alone,withspouse,with(out)kids,inparentalhome,otherwise?
12Whatisyourhighesteducation?
13Whatisyourprofessionandfunction?
14Areyouselfemployed,employee,astudentorotherwise?
15Howdoyouearnyourlivingandhowmuchisyournetincomeayear?

16Healthinsuranceco.andsubscriptionnr.:
17Whoreferredoradvicedyoutocome(name,email,phone)?
18Whoisyourgeneralpractitioner(name,email,phone)?
19Areyouintreatmentofamedicalspecialist(name,email,phone)?

(B)DependentOriginationandCourseofDisorder
20Pleasetellaboutyourmainsuffering,principalcomplaintsandprimaryproblems?
21Sincewhendoyousuffer?
22Scalefrom010(0=nonewhatsoever/10=extremelyso)towhatextentyousuffernow:
23Scalefrom010towhatextentyouwishtherapeutichelp:
24Whycannotyoucopeyourselfwiththepsychologicalproblemsathand?
25When(givedate)andhow(peopleinvolved)didyourpsychologicalproblemsbegin?
26Giveacompletedescriptionofyourpsychologicalproblemsfromthestartuntilnow?

27Listpossiblereasonsyoucanconjectureaboutexplainingtheiroriginationandgenesis?
28Whichemotionalissueswentonwhenyourpsychologicalproblemsarose?
29Whichsignificantevent(s)evertookplaceinyourentirelife?
30Howdidyourproblemsfaresinceonset:increasing/decreasing/alternating/stabilizing?
31When&whydoyouthinkyourpsychologicalproblemscouldordidincrease?
32When&whydoyouthinkyourpsychologicalproblemscouldordiddecrease?
33Tellabouttheugliestperiodsofyourlife?
34Tellaboutthenicestperiodsofyourlife?
35Determinetherecentsource(s)ofstressandtension?
36Determinetherecentsource(s)ofrelaxationandleisure?

37Inwhichareasdoyoufunctionwell?
38Whichmeasureshaveyoutakenuntilnowwhichwerehelpful?
39Listtreatment(s)forpresent/otherproblems:bywhom/where/when/whatfor,result?
40Whywereearliertreatmentsunsuccessful?
41Whatdoyouneedtomakeasuccessoutofthepresenttreatment?

(C)ParentalFamily
42Wereyouawantedorunwantedchildatbirthandclarify?
43Isyour(biological)fatheralive:ifsoageandhealthcondition,ifnohowolddidheget?
44Whatwasthecauseofhisdeath?
45Howoldwereyouwhenhedied?
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46Whatis(was)hisprofession?
47Describeyourfatherscharacter?
48Isyour(biological)motheralive:ifsoageandhealthcondition,ifnohowolddidsheget?
49Whatwasthecauseofherdeath?
50Howoldwereyouwhenshedied?
51Whatis(was)herprofession?
52Describeyourmotherscharacter?

53Howmanychildrendwelledintheparentalfamily?
54Yourrankingandplaceamongstyourbrothersandsisters?
55Howmanybrothersdoyouhave(names/ages/professions),describetheirpersonalities?
45Howmanysistersdoyouhave(names/ages/professions),describetheirpersonalities?
46Describetheatmosphereathomewithparentsandsiblings?
47Did/doyourelateintrustandwithunderstandingtoyourparents?
48Did/doyourparentstreatyouwithlove,respectandunderstanding?
49Howdidyourparentsrewardandpunishyou?
50Areyoumoreattractedtoyourfatherortoyourmother?
51Yourroleinthefamily(e.g.intermediary,outsider,parentifiedchildorblacksheep)?
52Wasthereaguidingphilosophyduringyourupbringing?
53Wasyouryouthratherhappyorratherunhappy?
54Didyousufferfromfears,nailbiting,stuttering,sleepwalking,nightmares,bedwetting?

55Incaseyouwerenotraisedbyyourbiologicalparents,whodidandduringwhichyears?
56Ifastepparentraisedyou,when&howdidyoufindit?
57Did/dothefollowingproblemsapplytoperson(s)inyourfamily:psychiatric,suicidal,
alcohol/drugs,medical,bereavement,judicial,religiousorpolitical?

(D)SexualDevelopment
58Howwasyourparentsattitudetowardsexuality?
59Couldyoutalkopenlyaboutsexathome?
60Atwhatagedidyoubecomeawareaboutsex?
61Atwhatagedidyougetsexualeducation,howandfromwhom?
62Didyoueverexperiencefearorguiltregardingsexuality,ifyespleaseexplain?
63Isyoursexuallifesatisfactory,ifnotpleaseexplain?
64Haveyouevergothomosexualexperiencesorrelationships,ifyeswereyousatisfied?
65Didsomeoneeverapproachedyousexuallyinaviolentwayorabusedyou,ifsoexplain?
66Didsomeoneofthefamilyeverbecomesexuallyintimatewithyou,ifsoexplain?
67Areyoustrugglingwiththemenopauseorpenopause?

68Forwomen:ageatthefirstmenstruation?
69Wasitashockorwereyouprepared?
70Howlonglastsyourmenstrualcycle(daysbetweentwoperiods)?
71Doyoumenstruateregularly?
72Areyouinpainwhenmenstruating?
73Doesmenstruationinfluenceyourmood?
74Whenwasyourlastmenstrualperiod?
75Doyousufferfrompremenstrualsyndrome(emotionallylabiledayspriortotheflow)?
143

76Doyouexperiencehotflushes?

(E)MarriageandFamily
77Nameofspouse:
78Dateofbirthandage:
79Professionandfunction:
80Dateofmarriage(livingtogether):
81Howlongdidyouknowyourspousebeforeyougotmarried(livetogether)?
82Howisyourspouseshealth?
83Was/isyourspouseafflictedbypsychologicalorotherproblems,ifsowhich?
84Was/iss/heintreatmentfortheaffliction?
85Wereyou/yourspousemarriedbefore,ifsohowmanytimes,whenandwhydivorced?
86Narratethestoryofeachpreviousmarriageorperiodoflivingtogether?

86Describeinfullscalethecharacterofyourspouse?
87Doesyourspousemeetyourexpectations?
88Inwhichareasoflifedoyouandyourspousecorrespond,accordandharmonize?
89Inwhichareasoflifedoyouandyourspousediffer,disagreeorcomplementeachother?
90Wheredoyouandyourspousebickerorfightabout?
91Didyouoryourspouseeverhavementionedorthoughtaboutdivorce?

92Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithtalkingwitheachother:
93Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithcommonfriends:
94Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithyoursexlifetogether:
95Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithtimespenthomevs.atwork:
96Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithmoneyspent:
97Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithparenthoodorideasaboutchildren:
98Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithloyalty:
99Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithspendingsparetimetogether:
100Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithphilosophyoflifeorreligion:
101Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithspousesinteractionwithyourfamily:
102Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithyourinteractionwithyourinlaws:
103Scalefrom010whetheryouaresatisfiedwithyourspousesreelinganddealing:

104Didyouasacoupleeverhadamiscarriageoranabortion,ifsowhenandclarify?
105Listyourchildren,alsofrompreviousrelationships:gender,name,ageandpersonality?
106Reportanyparticularproblemthatyouhavewitheachofyourchildren?
107Describethefamilyatmosphereandinterrelationshipswithinlaws/parents/kids?
108Istheredivisiveness/disunityinthefamily,ifsotellaboutitandwithwhodoyouside?

(F)Personality
109Pleasetickthekeywordswhichapplytoyou:conscientious/controlling/doubtful/precise
110Nonindependent/helpless/passive/leaning
111Impulsive/explosive/capricious/unthoughtful
112Exaggerated/oversensitive/attentionseeking/selfindulgent
113Shy/withdrawn/closedup/sensitivetocriticism
114Irresponsible/invulnerable/calculating/violating
144

115Selfcontained/emotionless/aloof/sangfroid
116Jealous/distrustful/overalert/wary

117Defineyourattributes/features/characteristicswhichyoulike?
118Defineyourattributes/features/characteristicswhichyoudislike?

(G)SchoolandWork
119Listallschoolsyouwereon,thediplomasyouhaveearnedandatwhatage?
120Ifyouarestillenrolledinaformaleducation,which?
121Howmanytimesdidyoufailatschool?
122Wherewereyouflimsyatormarkedlypoor?
123Wherewereyougoodatordistinctlyexcel?
124Didyoueverhadtroubleswithteachers/educators,ifsopleaseexplain?
125Doyouhavegoodorbadmemoriesofyourschooltimelifeandcircumscribe?
126Howdidyougetalongwithyourclassmates/roommates/friendsathome?

127Whatjobshaveyougotduringyourcareer:age,functionandreasonforchange?
128Areyounowjoblessorwereyoujoblessinthepast,ifsowhenandwhy?
129Doyouhavemedical/psychologicalrestrictionsprescribed?
130Pleasetellabouttheworkthatyounowperform?
131Doesyourpresentworksatisfyyou,ifnowhynot?
132Whatisyourgrossincomeinayear(ormonth)?
133Isyourincomesufficienttosupportyou(andyourfamily)?
134Doyouhavedebts,likeamortgage,ifsohowmuchisyourdebt?

(H)TherapyMotivationandExpectations
135Whydoyouseekhelpnow,notearlierorlater?
136Explainwhyyoudowishtogetridofyourpsychologicalproblems?
137WhatisyourideaaboutpsychotherapyandaboutKarmatransformationinparticular?

138Whatdoyouexpectwillhappenduringatreatment?
139Howlongshouldatreatmentlastinyouropinion?
140Whatistheresultwhichyouexpectfromatreatment?

141Areyoupreparedtomakesacrificesforatreatment?
142Areyoupreparedtolookintoyour(karmic)self,ifsoexplainwhy?
143Areyoupreparedtocarryouthomeworkassignmentsevenifdifficultandfearful?

144Areyouavictimofyourpsychologicalproblemsordoyouthinkyouareincontrol?
145Whatisthebestattitudeduringatreatment:tobepassiveoractive?
146Doyouthinkthatchangingselfspeechandselftalkcouldmakethedifference?

147Whichcharacteristicsshouldyourpsychotherapistdisplay:howshoulds/hebehave?
148Howshouldyourpsychotherapistrelatewithyou?
149Whatisyourideaaboutcollaborativepractice?

150Tick,problemsleadto:gainingattention/manipulatingothers/fleeresponsibilities
145

151Tick,problemsleadto:beingexcused/deflectingemotions/avoidingself
152Tick,problemsleadto:havingamainstay/reducingtensions/fillingvoidness

153Whatdidntyouyetachieveinlifeyoufeeldeeplyfrustratedabout?

(I)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Behaviour
153Tickwhatisapplicabletoyou:muchlyinginbed/beingpassivelazy/frequentcrying
154Actingaggressively/loosingcontrolpatience/cynicalsarcasticspeech
155Phobicavoidingescaping/fleeingawayfromsocialgatherings/stayingindoorstoomuch
156Compulsiveconduct/eatingtoomuchortoolittle/frequentlaughing
157Awayfromhomefrequently/toomuchworking/drinkingtoomuchalcohol
158Takingtoomuchrisk/sleepingproblems/suicideattempts
159Inhibitedaction/isolatingoneself/procrastinating

160Howdoyouusuallyavoidtrouble,difficultiesandproblems?
161Tellaboutyourspecialtalentsandskillsyouareproudof?
162Whichhabitsdoyouwishtochange?
163Whatwouldyouliketodomore?
164Whatwouldyouliketodoless?
165Whatwouldyouliketostarttodo?
166Whatwouldyouliketostopdoing?
167Areyoumuchinvolvedindoingmeaninglessthings(compulsively),ifsowhichthings?
168Doyoutaketimetorelaxandhowdoyouspendleisuretime?

(J)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Affect
169Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:depression(dysphoric,dejection,dystymic,despondent,
despair,melancholic,downhearted,lowspirits,dismal)
170Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:anxiety/fear(terror,panick,horrified,fright,anxious,anguish,
apprehension,guilt,worry)
171Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:angry(rage,fury,aggressive,hostility,enmity,hatred,
annoyed,contempt,resentment,animosity)
172Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:sad(grief,mournful,sorrow,agony,pity,brokenhearted,
downcast,blue,gloomy,forlorn)
173Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:joy(glad,amused,happy,humorous,delight,hilarious,
rapture,euphoria,pleasure,ecstatic)
174Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:love(tenderness,fondness,intimacy,compassion,kindness,
Infatuation,eroticism,affection,passion,adoration)
175Tickhowyouusuallyfeel:serenity(relaxed,restful,quiet,tranquil,contentment,calm,
safe,secure,peaceful,satisfied)

176Whatdofeeldepressedaboutmost?
177Whatdoyoufearofmost?
178Whatdoyoufeelangryaboutmost?
179Whatareyousadaboutmost?
180Whatareyougladaboutmost?
181What/whoisyourgreatestlove?
182Whatcalmsyoudownmost?
146


183Whichfeelingsdoyoulikemost?
184Whichfeelingsdoyoudislikemost?
185Whenandwherecanyouletyourfeelingsgofreely?

186Pleasecomplete:IfIwouldtellyouwhatIfeelnow,then
187Pleasecomplete:OneofthethingsIamproudofis
188Pleasecomplete:OneofthethingsIamverypleasedaboutis
189Pleasecomplete:Mygreatestenjoymentis
190Pleasecomplete:Havingtroubleenjoyingleisure,Iwould
191Pleasecomplete:Iammosthappyabout
192Pleasecomplete:ThelasttimeIhadagreatlaughwaswhenI
193Pleasecomplete:IfIaminharmonywithmyself,then

(K)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Sensation
194Whichsensoryfeelingsaremostpleasantforyou?
195Whichsensoryfeelingsaremostunpleasantforyou?

196 Tick the sensation which refers to you: Headache, tensed or strapped head; Unreal
feeling, as if absent; Muscle shivering, feeling; trepidation and shaky; Heart beating
irregularly and quickly; Tingling sensations, needles and pins in extremities/mouth; Tight
feelings in chest as if suffocating; Sensation of fainting, passing out and collapsing; Having
shortnessofbreathasifchoking;Numbfeelingsinbody;Coldhandsandfeet;Concentration
problems; Blurred sight, seeing through a haze and blots and dots; Extreme sweating;
Hyperventilation, a quickened but shallow respiratory; Pain in the chest; Muscle tensions;
Shortwindedbreathing;Sensation ofdizziness;Feelinga lossofenergy;Tinnitus;Achesin
stomach and abdomen; Bloated intestines: flatulent and windy; Belching; Feeling/sensing
angst in body; Sensing a lump in the throat; Disturbed equilibrium; Impaired hearing;
Tired/tiresome body; Sensation of neckpain; Feeling sick and nauseous; Sensation of
vomiting; Irritability leading to scratching; Averse to touching/being touched; Troubled
swallowing; Blushing; Uncontrolled movements; Throbbing arteries; Stingy and/or watery
eyes;Constipation;Facialpain;Glowingskin,itchingandrashing;Seeingthingsothersdont
see;Hearingvoicesinhead.

(L)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Imagery
197Doyouhaveastrong,weakormediocrepenchanttothinkinimagesandvisualizations?
198Howdoyouviewyourself?
199Howdoyouviewyourbody?
200Howdoesyourbestfriendseeyou?
201Howwouldsomeonewhodetestsyouviewyou?
202Istheimagewhichothershavefromyoumoreimportantthanhowyouseeyourself?

203Doyouconsideryourlooksmoreimportantthanyourviewofyourinside?
204Describetheimageswhichfrequentlyappeartoyou?
205Describeaverypleasantfantasy?
206Describeyourimageofaverysafeplace?
206Describeaveryunpleasantfantasy?
147

207Howoftendoyouhavenightmaresandwhataretheyabout(givearecentexample)?
208Howdoyouseeyourfuture?

209Tickwhichofthefollowingimagesapplytoyouandcomplementifyouplease:
aggrievedineptsuccessfuluncontrolledchasedgossipedlonelytraumaticeroticoffending
trappedabusedstupidleaderfailureridiculedlovablecleverwilduglyprettyqueerfool
loonypeculiarmaddaftnuts

(M)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Cognition
210Completethissentence:Iamsomeonewho
211Completethissentence:Allmylife
212Completethissentence:Alreadyasachild
213Completethissentence:Thenastythingofaduthoodis
214Completethissentence:OneofthewaysIcouldhelpmyselfbutdontdois
215Completethissentence:Iamimportantformyselfbecause
216Completethissentence:IfIwanttobesignificantforsomeone,Ifirstneedto
217Completethissentence:Itisquitedifficulttoadmitthat
218Completethissentence:Thebestwaytorelatewithmyselfis

Scalefrom010whetheryouagree
219IneedtobegoodineverythingIdo:
220IfIdontknowsomething,Ineedtopretend:
221Iamvictimofcircumstances:
222OtherpeoplearehappierthanIam:
223Idontdesrvetobehappy:
224Itismyresponsibilitytomakeothershappy:
225Thingscanonlybedoneeitherrightorwrong:
226MyvaluedependsonwhatIachieve:
227Imustnotmakemistakes:
228Imustnottellprivatethingstoothers:
229Itisveryimportanttopleaseothers:
230Myfeelingsarecontrolledbyexternalpowers:
231Donttakeanyrisks,playitsafe:
232Problemsdisappearifyouignorethem:
233Icannothelpitbeinggreedy:
234Hatredisafeelingwhichsatisfiesme:
235Happinessisagiven,notsomethingtokowaboutorworkat:

236Aretherethoughtspoppingupinthemindagainstyourwill,ifsospecify?
237Didyoueverstrugglewithsuicidalthoughts?

(N)BehaviourAffectSensationImageryCognitionInterrelations:Interrelations
238Howdoyoufeelamongpeople:atease,uncomfortableoranxious?
242Doyoufinditdifficulttoexpressfeelings,wishes,opinions/judgements,ifsoexplain?
243Describethesituationsandpeopleinfrontofwhomyoufinditdifficulttoassert?

239Supposeyouliveonadesertisland,whowouldyouabsolutelyinclude(mentionfive)?
148

240Supposeyouliveonadesertisland,whowouldyouabsolutelyexclude(mentionfive)?
241Who(parents,family,friends)dideverinterveneinyourpersonallife(marriage/work)?

244Whichrelationshipsbestowjoy?
245Whichrelationshipsaresaddening?
246Doyoufeellonelyorliveinsocialisolation?

247Doyoumakefriendseasilyandcanyoukeepthem?
248Doyouhavefriendsyoushareyourinnermostfeelingswith,ifsowhoandifnotwhy?
249Doyouhavefriendswhodisappointedyouseriously?

249Doyouhaverelationalproblemswithpeopleatwork,ifsowhy?
250Howdoyourelatewithsuperiors,subordinatesandpeers?
251Areyoumoreateaseinaleadersroleorinafollowersrole?

252Wereyoueverseriouslybotheredbyarejection,ifsoonceormoreandexplain?
253Wereyoueverbeingpunishedseverely,ifsobywhomandexplain?
254Wereyoueverbeingbulliedorharassed,ifsobywhomandexplain?

(O)Health,BiologyandDrug/MedicationRelatedIssues
255Howisthestateofyourhealth:good,badormoderate?
256Ifbad,whatisthematter?
257Dateoflastextensivebodycheckup?

258Doyouexercise,ifsowhichsportdoyoupractice?
259Wereyouabsentatworkinthepastfewyearsduetoillness,ifsohowlongandexplain?
260Ifyouareprohibitedtodoparticularthingsforreasonsofhealth,whichactivities?

261Ifyouhaveabodyanomaly,which?
262Ifyouweretreatedorhospitalized,listphysicaldiseases,diagnoses,whenandMDs?
263Wereyouprescribedmedication,ifsolistmedicines,forwhatandthedosage?

264Doyouhaveproblemstofallasleepand/ortosleepthrough?
265Ordoyousufferfromearlymorningawakenings?
266Doyouspendmuchtimeinbedduringdaytime?
267Doyoufeelalackofinitiativeorpitless/washedout?
268Howisyourappetite?
269Didyourecentlygainweightorloseweight,ifsohowmanykg?
270Doyouhavecryingspells?
271Doesyourmoodimprovewhenthedayprogresses?

Indicatewhichbodilyfunctionsaredisturbed:
273Urinarytract(e.g.urinaryinfection)?
274Muscleandskeleton(e.g.rheumatoidarthritis)?
275Heartandbloodvessels(e.g.hypertension)?
276Skin(e.g.eczema)
277Respiratorysystem(e.g.asthma)
149

278Perception(e.g.glaucoma)
279Nervoussystem(e.g.epilepsy)
280Hormonesecretion(e.g.hyperthyroidism)

Indicatehowmuchofthefollowingagentsyouuseeachdayorperweek(dosage):
281Caffeine(e.g.RedBull)
282Softdrugs(e.g.marijuana)
283Tranquilizersorhypnotics(e.g.oxazepam)
284Painkillers(e.g.ibuprofen)
285Hallucinogetics(e.g.LSD)
286Alcoholicdrinks(e.g.wine)
287Harddrugs(e.g.heroin)
288Stimulants(e.g.amphetamine)

(P)ShortAutobiography
Pleasenarrateyourlifestoryinsubsequentperiodsofsevenyears:
28907
290814
2911421
2922128
2932935
2943642
2954349
2965056
2975763
2986470
2997177
3007885

Thankyouverymuchforyourcooperation.Youhavecontributedtoanefficientmethodof
workinginourcollaborativepractice.

NarrativeRebiographing
Scrutinizing these 300 questions with the client in collaborative practice is an assessment
and therapeutic procedure which I have called Narrative Rebiographing. This is a
comprehensive method of assessment for PKT as well as a standalone assessment
therapy. However it is primarily meant as an extensive karmic assessment executed at
intake,theinitialphaseinaprotractedprocessofPKTwhichcouldlastmonths.Clientswith
minorsymptomsandminimaldisturbancearebeingsufficientlycateredbyprovidingthem
insightandunderstandingintheirownkarmichistorythroughdiscussingtheKLHQ.Itcould
take less than seven sessions to satisfy these clients. For them a fullfledged PKT is
superfluousandredundant.However,forclientswithseriousemotionaldisordersNarrative
RebiographingisadiagnosticprocedurewhichincludesKarmatopographicalandfunctional
analyses, and the beginning of a longwinding therapeutic enterprise. For these clients,
discussingKLHQincollaborativepracticeisaprocedureofinvestigatingandrepairingbroken
life stories. This procedure consists of intertwined but separate parts: a pathography
referringtotheemotionaldisorderandabiographyreferringtothecontextofderailment.A
150

major tenet of Narrative Rebiographing is finding meaning in the client's suffering. The
therapist is advisably on the alert for hidden stories, narratives which clients keep out of
theirawarenesstoprotectemotionalintegrityofthemoment.Defensivereactionsaretoxic
astheyresultintheclientsbeguilingandtruncatingthemselves.

Narrative thinking implies that verstehen (understanding) is as much valuable as

erklaeren (explaining). This legitimate notion takes an intersubjective stance of karmic
reality:aconstructionalmixoffactandfiction.PKTassumesthatultimaterealityisnottobe
foundouttherebutisratherasocialconstructioninheremadebyselfspeech/selftalk
throughmeaningmaking.Realityisviewedasanobjectivematteroffact,asocialperceptual
representation and subjective cognitive construction which is relative and contextual, i.e.
dependingonculture,person,spaceandtime.Ashifttounderstandingandmeaningmaking
doesnotmaketheassemblingandanalysingoffactsirrelevant.Peopleconstructrealitiesby
anticipatingactively,notonlybyprocessingpassively.Anarrativewindowopensfreshvistas
for approaching the clients reality in a wholistic way. Due to idiosyncrasies identical
solutionsforclientsevenwithsimilarsymptomsdonotexist(Mahoney,1995a;Neimeyer&
Raskin,2001).Clientsarearchitectsoftheirownrealitieswholiveinagalaxyofcyberspace,
opinions, values and meanings. Reality is incarcerated in textual representations of social
networks and individual meaning. As a semantic construction, personal meaning leaves
possibilitiesopenforcoexistinginterpretationsmouldedasstories.
New meaningful stories come about by deconstructing and reconstructing, i.e. by
reinterpreting past experiences. Absolute right interpretations do not exist. Therapists do
nothaveabetterorworseinterpretationofrealitythanclients.Notwithstanding,theyco
constructbyencouragingclientstoretellandalteraffectladenunwholesomenarrativesinto
wholesome ones. Calling upon the clients adaptive and healthy parts emotional
disturbance, hanging on to symptoms, treatment resistance and lack of motivation are
viewedaskarmic/functionalwaystosecureselfintegrity.Asareflectivecoconstructorwho
helps to alter selfdefeating stories, the therapist helps reframing painful tales by
reinterpretingabnormalreactionsasnormalindistressingcircumstances.Byunderliningthe
adaptive function of symptoms reframing becomes possible. Emotional distress is
reconsideredasachanceforreconstructivehealing.Defensivereactionsandresistanceare
meaningmakingattemptstowardtransformation.Irrationalityservesinsightfulpurpose.By
retelling clients build new assumptive worlds and attribute wholesome meaning to
symptomsthusmakingasignificantsteptowardtransformation.

Clientslivesbecomebetterunderstandablewhenconceivedasadevelopingstory.
Afterall:Weliveinandthroughstories.Theyconjureworlds.Wedonotknowtheworld
otherthanasstoryworld.Storiesinformlife.Theyholdustogetherandkeepusapart.We
inhabit greatstoriesofourculture.Welive throughstories.Wearelivedby thestories of
ourraceandplace.(Mair,1988,p.127).Wisdomaboutourselvescomesaboutwhenseeing
throughthethemesandplotsofselfnarrativesandtheprotagonistsrole.Astoryincludesa
setting, characters and their specific actions, intentions and emotions in a particular time
andplace.Organizinghumanlifeasastory,reconstructionofexperiencesbecomesfeasible.
Putting together bits and pieces, a meaningful whole is made when a narrative is formed.
Such also happens when appreciating a movie, play, soap, opera, novel or a comic book.
Meaningbecomesknowninthecontextofsignificantstoriesinalifesnarrative.Iendorse
theideathatone'skarmicselfequalstheidentifiedlifestory(McAdams,1995).
Is the story healthy or illconditioned? Narrative diagnostics is a dynamic process
whichcontinuesuntiltheend oftherapylikeaprolonged intake. Thequalityofalifestory
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depends on coherence, consistency, clarity, poignancy and emotional impact. In case of

deepseated problems a thorough repair is indicated. This applies when the story contains
constraining, blocking, delimiting, denying and other disqualifying elements harming
integrity.Reparationfocusesonthesanityofmetaphors(Meichenbaum,1993).Forinstance,
whatistheemotionalprice whentalkingabouteatingawaymyinside? Peopleconstruct
their Weltanschauung by narrative accounts as guidelines to lead their lives. From this
perspective selfhood is lifestory construction, emotional disorder lifestory gone awry and
psychotherapy lifestory reparation. The clinician's ideal is to blend the knowledgeable
scientistandthewisepractitionerinthequestofhowpeopleshouldlivetheirlives.

FromPathographytoBiography
When asked for the reason for coming, clients answer mostly by stories about symptoms
stucking their lives. An account of disordered conditions comprising symptoms is called
pathography. A pathography is not isolated from context; it is part of ones karmic life
history or biography. Pathography makes order out of psychopathological chaos. Clients
usuallypresentsymptomsasfragmentedinformation.Thetherapiststaskistoclusterthese
symptomsintosyndromesandtoprovideadiagnosticlabelaccordingtotheDiagnosticand
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2000).61 Classifying symptom patterns in
psychiatricjargonservesthepurposeofcommunicationinmultidisciplinaryteams.

Symptomsarelikesmokepointingatsomeemotionalfireduetoproblemsofliving
and noxious karmic choices. Narrative Rebiographing makes lifting of the smokescreen
possible, enabling transparency of the clientss karmic history. A cloud of unawareness
surroundsthecausesofsymptomatologywhichcanbefoundintheclientsbiography.Thus,
pathographyisnotanisolatedstory;symptomscannotbutoccurinthecontextofemotional
life eventsand at somepoint in somebodys course of life. For instance, by discerning the
problematicstoryofaparentifiedchild,apanicdisordercanbecontextualizedandframed.
Itisofutmostimportancetofindtheemotionallymeaningfulbiographicalstoriesofevents
which fit the symptoms. Fitting is often accompanied by AHA and/or HAHA which sets in
when seemingly separated experiential fragments become integrated. Luxuriating on a
metaphor, a pathography calls for reparation of the fragmented pieces. This entails
discerningbetweentheclient'ssymptoms(pathography)andtheunresolveddailyemotional
problemsofliving(biography)outofwhichsymptomsariseinDependentOrigination.
How are pathography and biography linked? Linking brings about understanding
regardingthemeaningofsymptomsinabiographicalcontext.ThecentralideaisDependent
Origination, i.e. multifunctionality which uses an SOR Karma scheme as the basic unit of
analysis. Function denotes the interrelationships between antecedent and consequent
factors. For example, in agoraphobia it could be as follows: a Stimulus configuration (the
street) and an Organismic condition (I must not faint) as the antecedent factors and a
Response pattern (fearand avoidance) as the consequent factors. On a macroscopic level,
distressingbiographicaleventsarekarmicantecedentswhilepathographicalconditionsare
karmicconsequents.Theconsequencesbecomeunderstandableasafunctionofhistorical
events. Contextualism clarifies symptoms as normal reactions to abnormal situations.
Consider a washing compulsion as a function of an incest trauma or a depression as a

61

Thismanual lists more than 300 psychopathologicalcategories; e.g. substance abuse, depressive disorders,
anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, factitious disorders, dissociative disorders, sexual disorders, eating
disorders,sleepdisorders,impulsecontroldisorders,adjustmentdisorders,personalitydisorders,andsoon.

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functionofpathologicalgrief.Dependingoncontext,thefunctionalmeaningofaparticular
symptomcanbedifferent.
Cognitive ideation is more than bits of digital information, absolutistic thoughts or
disputableirrationalsentences.PKTcouldthereforebefocusedonthemicroscopiclevelby
cognitive restructuring (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy) as well as on the macroscopic
levelbyreprocessingtheclientsentirelifehistory.Emotionaltransformationcomesabout
by giving new meanings to old stories. Meaning of emotional suffering is a changing
conctructionmadeincomplexstoriesoftheclientscontinuingrelationshiptowardselfand
significantothers.Thetherapistcoachestheclientinthecreativeprocessofbalancingand
finding a healingselfnarrative. In a journey of life the client might find new frames and
plots,andconstructsabalancedselfnarrativewhichissane,comprehensibleandcoherent.
Reframing,providingnewwholesomecontextsforoldunwholesomestories,likelyresultsin
beneficial readjustment; this includes acceptance of past negative experiences. Organised
thinkingequalsstructuredstorytelling.
Narrative Rebiographing restructures in a similar way as cognitive restructuring.
Restructuring requires guidelines. The lifehistory narrative is a major story comprising an
assemblage of short stories (White & Epston, 1990). Narratives and stories connect
experiences across time and space with a beginning and an end. Inbetween there is the
protagonistwhorelatestovariousantagonists.Thenarrativeasawholehasacontextand
developsatheme,lineandplotleadingtoananticlimax:theonsetofsymptoms.Pivotallife
eventsandintentionalactivityhighlighttheonsetorexacerbationofsymptoms.Makingup
a pathography and a biography is a reconstructing process. The client reevaluates and
reinterpretspastexperiencesandadvisablypaysattentiontothefollowingmarkersduring
theprocess:

(1)Intentionalityinsignificantemotionallifeevents
(2)Assessingandidentifyingcurrentemotionalities
(3)Findingmetaphors,keywords,images,phantasies,etc.
(4)Luxationandexacerbationofsymptoms
(5)Identifyingmissinglinksandlacunaeinstory
(6)Functionalityandadvantageousnessofsymptoms
(7)Attributingnewsense/meaningtooldstories
(8)Emphasizinguniqueemotionalexperiences
(9)Relatednessbetweeneventsinparticularspansoftime
(10)Exploringasmanypossibilitiesandperspectivesasconceivable

ProvisionalSelfasNarrative
Thus,theclientisahomofabulans:astorytellerorthestorytold.Thelatterimpliesthata
clientorselfisembodiedtextlikeanovelorapoem(Gergen&Gergen,1988).Theselfas
narrativeimpliesthatspokenorwrittentextrequireschange.InfacttheLatinverbnarrare
also means: to account for, to come round, recuperate or recover. Usually, clients tell
distressing stories which are incoherent and only few people likes to hear. They are
fragmented, disordered, incomprehensible, fatal, absurd, frustrating or just very sad.
Offeringclientstheopportunitytotellisallowingbreathingspace.Wheneveronerecounts
emotionaleventsinacoherentway,healingtakesplace.Usuallyclientshavealreadytriedto
createorderandcohesion, and makesenseoutoftheir miserybytelling andconstructing
wholesome realities. Stories are reproductions and of necessity interpretations of past
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affectladen events. Whether the client as text needs healing depends on textanalysis or
hermeneutics(fromhermeneuin=explaining)ofthetherapist.
Originally, hermeneutics is specialised in the interpretation of sacred scriptures like
the bible. In Narrative Rebiographing the purpose is to find and collect ambiguities, gaps,
paradoxes,oddities,peculiarities,tobringthemtogetherandtoformacoherent,significant
and meaningful whole. It requires active participation of the therapist, the freedom to
interpretthetextandtosuggestnewpartsinthenarrative.Heuristicreading/listening(from
heuriskein = finding) precedes the process of hermeneutics. This listening explores the
client'smentalrepresentationsofrealityandtriestofindanswerstoquestions.Forinstance:
Whatisthesymptomsstory?Whatdothesymptomsmean?Whatisthecontext?Wheredo
they refer to? Where do they stand for? What is the interpersonal implication? What do
they symbolise? And above all: Who is the self? In effect, Narrative Rebiographing is an
interactiveprocessofconstructingahealingselfnarrative.
Theselfasnarrativeisametaphorimplyingadialogicalself(Hermans&Hermans
Jansen,1995)whichpresupposesarelationshipbetweenIandmyself(meormine')
and selfspeech/selftalk. Thus, self comprises an experiencing I and an explaining me.
I is self as the subjective constructor of experience, whereas me (my own) is the
objective self. The protagonist me interacts with antagonists, such as my husband,
mother,friend,etc.,whicharepartofme.ThisrecountingbyIaboutmyexperiences
justifiesrhetoricallywhysomethingwasnecessary.Whyreferstopsychologicalreasons.I
isabletotimebindinglikepointingatthefuture.WhensomebodysaysIhadalwaysbeena
nasty kid, this summary statement is usually a script for future Karma. Internal talk, self
speech/selftalkisanalogoustoexternaltalk.Theyinvolveatellerandalistenerindynamic
and karmic interaction. Imaginal talk with imaginal others form a part of daily activity (M.
Watkins,inHermans&HermansJansen,1995,p.10):

Even when we are outwardly silent, we find ourselves communicating with our
critics, our parents, our consciences, our gods, our reflection in the mirror, the
photographofsomeonewemiss,afigurefromamovie,oradream,ourbabies,or
ourpets.Whenweplantovisitourfriendsweseeandheartheminourimagination
beforeweactuallymeetthem,andwhenwehaveleftthem,werehearsepartsofthe
conversation. Imaginal interactions certainly have a pervasive influence on real
interactions.

Theselflivesinamultiplicityofworldswithmanyimaginaryactorswhotelltheirownstory
about the same reality through the clients selftalk. Thus, particular events get different
meanings in time and depending on context. One narrator might tell the same story with
contrasting meanings in different phases of life. Indwelling the clients idiosyncrasies, the
therapistunravelsmeaningresidinginthetext.Theinteractionoftherapistandclientastext
creates a unique network of personal and social meanings. The therapist represents the
social context of the tale. Interested in what is hidden and uses nonlogical tactics
(associating, punning, quibbling, phantasising, reversing and symbolising) in search for
wholesomemeaning.Becausethisprocessdependsonserendipity,haphazarddiscoveryand
luckystrikes,narratingrequiresartistry.Theclientistheonlypersonwhocantellwhether
thenewlydiscoveredmeaningmakessense.
A lifehistory approach requires a lifespan perspective (Lyddon, 1993). While the
client emphasis is on karmic experiencing, the therapists emphasizes understanding and
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explaining.Thetherapistoffersnewpossibilitiesforreprocessingbasedonexpertise,savvy,
and knowledge. S/he respects the client's karmic unwholesome constructs and helps to
createkarmicwholesomeconstructions.Togethertheylookattheemotionalkarmicissues
from as many different angles as possible until the client feels at ease with the new
construction.Variousmetaphorsofthelifehistoryexistsuchasthefourseasonsforthelife
cycle. The latter implies definable sequences. Although every individual's lifecourse is
unique,everybodygoesthroughsimilarchronologicalanddevelopmentaltransitionsduring
a lifespan. Emphasising wholesome meaning making, the therapist is keen to identify
growingpains.Adevelopmentalviewrevealsaplethoraofhistories.Peoplehavechildhood,
family,school,residential,romantic,sexual,marital,careerandspiritualhistoriesandunique
emotional experiences. Narrative Rebiographing follows the emotional history as a red
thread. Any emotionally significant episode or theme involving depression, fear, anger,
sadness, joy, love or silence is worthwhile to scrutinise. For instance: adoption in early
childhood, incest trauma, fear of failure, being bullied, unduly parentification, latent
homosexuality, midlife crisis, the first kiss, marital disharmony, workstress, retirement,
bereavementandpathologicalgrief.

Themetaphorofajourneycomestotheforewhendealingwithselfnarratives.A
travel metaphor suggests that the client is a traveller and the therapist a fellowtraveller
withtheskillsofaguide.Theserolesimplythatthereconstructionoflifeasajourneytakes
place in another journey, that of PKT. Other metaphors consistent with the travelling
analogy can be derived, such as: map, itinerary, provision, turning point, barrier, cliff, hill,
desert, oasis, destiny, etc. (Mahoney, 1995b). Memory plays an important part when
recounting:remindingharbours animplicit processofforgetting. Informative reminiscence
of chronological data is less important than reflective reminiscence enabling reevaluation
andreintegration.Selfreflectioncreateskarmicwholesomeemotions.Whenremembering
is painful, it raises defensive reactions and thus clients miss opportunities for reflection.
Prerequisiteforselfreflectionisawareness.Thisincludesawarenessofinternaldialogue:

Because the acting and experiencing I is always one step ahead of the current
appraisalofme,eachpersonisinapositionwhereitispossibletoexperiencemuch
morethantheminimumrequiredatthatmomenttomaintainhisorherownself
image consistency in that particular situation. As a consequence, the ability to
manipulateimmediateexperiencingwhileselfreferencingandreorderingbecomes
essential.Thisabilityisnecessarytodirectconsciousattentioninwaysthatcontrast
withtheselectedappraisalofthecurrentsituation.Inthissense,onecansaythat
no selfawareness can be viable without a necessary level of selfdeception
(Guidano,1995,pp.9899).

Because much of the presented material refers to the past, the client may persist in
timeworn explanations. The therapist creates opportunities for the client by taking an
explorative,inquisitiveandelaborativestance.

Nonconscious processes have become a necessary assumption for a full
understandingofthevagariesofkarmicconduct(Shevrin&Dickman,1980).Discrepancies
betweenhistoricalandemotionaltruthareacaseinpoint.Onetendstoforgetandnottalk
about upsetting events. Narratives are memorized constructions, not necessarily historical
facts. By its historical nature, narrating combines fact and fiction. However, narrative not
factual truth is what counts: how and what the client feels while telling is important
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(Trierweiler&Donovan,1994).Forgottenmemoriescanberetrievedaccordingtonarrative
schematalikeonself,bodyoraffect.Thesearesuperordinateforms(metarepresentations)
whichstructures,storesandcomprehendshappeningsasmeaningfulwholes.Astructurally
organisedrepresentationofkarmicrelevantepisodes,aschemainheresinathemeorplot.
Seekingplots,theinterestisinthenonlogical,irrational,unconscious,symbolic,metaphoric,
emotional,negative,chaotic,poetic,dark,cyclical,processual,soft,dependent,materialand
earthenareasoflife.
Makingsenseoutofnonsensetakesplacebetweennarratingandinterpreting.The
therapist as expert in lifestories discerns dysfunctional and functional narratives. S/he is
well versed in disentangling symptoms from emotional problems of living and skilled in
detecting defensive reactions like denial or projection. Drawing lines between events and
emotions is like drawing a map to fit an ever changing territory. Maps are to be used like
hypotheses to be tested. Where did the client come from? Where is s/he now? Where to
findthedestiny?Becausethemapisnottheterritory,justhavingamapisnotequivalentto
travelling the distance. The range of misery can vary endlessly: any emotionally impacting
event is relevant to be considered. Reprocessing, by moving back and forth between
(karmic) versions of an event, client and therapist eventually find the guiding plot which
makes the (Karma) story comprehensible and wholesome. The client is encouraged to tell
different versions of the same story. From the clients perspective every story is relatively
true.Whatistrueorrealisaconstructionthatdependsonone'spointofview.Differences
emanatefromrelivedmemories,newlifeexperiencesandfreshinsights.

FindingMeaning
Actually I was not aware that I was practising Narrative Rebiographing when scrutinizing
clientslifehistories,untilIreadtheliterature.Iusedtoconceivemypracticeasaprolonged
intake,compressedinathreehourgroupsessionofinsighttraininginaninpatientsetting
forsevereanxietyanddepressivedisorders.TheelaboratedvideotapedsessionofNarrative
Rebiographing works like a catalyst for the client sitting in the hot chair in presence of
eighteen clients and six coworkers (colleagues, students and nurse therapists). The
videotape is given to the client and used as a basis for further reparation and educational
purposes. The group session is structured in two parts, each lasting sixty minutes. In
betweenthereisathirtyminutefeedbackround.InthefirstpartIinterviewtheclientabout
the pathography while using metaphors connecting the symptoms with inter and
intrapersonalemotionalproblems.InthesecondpartIdiscussher/hisbiographyandreview
allsignificantemotionalexperiences.Iconcludewithanotherthirtyminutefeedbackround.
Istartthecollaborativepracticebyinterviewingtheclientaboutsymptoms.Firstly,I
question the symptoms in order to make a clear description in DSM terms. Thus, a client
might suffer from an obsessivecompulsive disorder regarding poison. A metaphorical
outlook implies the unmasking of all possible (inter)personal meanings, like for instance
feelingpoisonous,symbolisinganger.Anagoraphobicclientwhofeelscapturedinallkinds
of situations is imprisoned in Hymen's boat, symbolising marital problems. Someone
depressedgaveupstrugglingwiththeslingsandarrowsofoutrageousfortune.Which?I
carefully offer reinterpretations to test openess and find new wholesome (karmic)
meanings.62 The therapist never knows better. The client is free to reject or accept a

62

Although the technique of insight training and Narrative Rebiographing is the same, my work in the
inpatientpsychiatricfacilitydidnotshowanyBuddhistsign.TermslikeKarmaandkarmicdidnotbelongtothe
jargonincommunicatingwithclientsorteammembers.

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meaning. Then I investigate the symptoms by looking at the progress hampering

consequences.Asymptomisafunctionofantecedentandconsequentfactors.Thelatterare
theemotionalandbehavioralresponsesinthecircularSORmodel.Secondarygainincludes
rewardingreactionsbyfamilymemberswhotrytohelp,sometimesnaievely.Forinstance,
by controlling or handwashing compulsively themselves, by accompanying an agoraphobic
wifeorbyshoppingforadepressivespouse.Primarygainentailstensionreductiondueto
escape or avoidance. These gains lead ultimately to a generalisation of the stimulus
conditions,inotherwordstoanincreaseintheantecedentsthatevokedfearanddejection
inthefirstplace.Thus,acircular(karmic)causalloopbecomesestablished.Circularcausality
harbours systemic characteristics in which cause is effect and effect is cause. Clients
recognizeandcorroboratethemetaphorofbeingcaughtinviciouscycles.
Subsequently, we take a close look at the psychologically relevant moment: the
onsetofsymptoms.Thiscouldhappensuddenlyorgradually.Inthelattercasetheclientis
mostly not aware when the disorder began. A client might tell a story of perfectionism
beforenoticingthepresentobsessivecompulsivedisorderormighthaveanxiousproclivities
beforebecomingagoraphobicormightalreadybeingriefbeforedevelopingadepression.
Rememberthatthetherapistisinterestedinemotionalsignificanceattachedtochronology
and does not look for historical facts per se. If the onset is sudden, a life event can be
appropriatedduringwhichthesymptomswereluxated.Forinstancethiswasthecaseina
nonanxious client who was raped and got panic attacks shortly thereafter. Due to
Dependent Origination and multicausality/multifunctionality clearcut instances are an
exception rather than the rule. A rape can be incestual, preceded by a difficult puberty at
home, an anti social milieu and a long episode of being bullied at school. Seemingly clear
stories might be blurring, necessitating what, where, when, who and how questions.
Searchingforantecedents,Iconvey:Symptomsdonotarisefromtheclearbluesky;they
are like weed growing on the fertile soil of emotional misery. Durable cure includes
acquiring emotional problem solving skills. Major emotional stress factors precede or
accompanydebutandexacerbationofsymptoms.Anyemotionalhasslemightbethestraw
that broke the camel's back and minor emotional problems could be the symptoms
maintainingfactors.
Clientandtherapistarriveatdangerouscrossroadshere.Symptomsusuallylockout
underlyingemotionalproblemsandkeepthemoutofawareness.Defensivereactionskeep
unresolved/unsolvable emotional problems away. In order to break through defenses, I
guidetheclientbyapplyingmetaphors.Aguidingmetaphorforthesymptomsinrelationto
stressful life events is the tower of Pisa and the saying: don't throw away old shoes
beforehaving newones.Thefirstreflectsastable butlopsidedconstructionwhichmight
collapse.Havingsymptomsisbeinginastateofimbalancebutstanding;however,forhow
long?Repairingisriskyformanyreasons.Besides,ifrepaired,itwillnotbetheknowntower
of Pisa anymore. Reparation could destroy the monument ignominiously. Clients do not
acceptnewmeaningsautomatically,especiallynotwhentheyhavefoundamodusvivendi.
Exchanging old shoes for a new pinching pair is hardly an improvement. Therefore, I
stimulate a narrative shift by figuring out better prospects and wholesome meanings. This
takesplacewhentheclientcanfitthepathographyinabiographicalcontext.Tofurtherthis
shiftafeedbackroundisincludedduringwhichgroupmemberssay,ask,shareanddiscuss
anythingtohelptheclientseethroughblindspots.
Afterthisround,Icarryonthesessionbyanchoringandframingthepathographyin
thebiography(thusunveilingDependentOrigination).Thisentailsembeddingthesymptoms
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in the context of significant emotional experiences during the lifespan by addressing the
client's inter and intrapersonal problems in chronological order. For instance, I examine
parentchild and sibling interrelationships when the symptoms developed shortly after
leaving home. When the symptoms appeared during marriage, I overhaul the spouse's
behaviour and the childrens upbringing. I leave no stone unturned when investigating
significantbonds.Aruleofthumbisthatemotionsalwaystakeplaceinarelationshipwith
others and with oneself. A client usually does not exceed for about seven persons to
socialisewithintensivelyinacertaintimespan.Formostofmyclientshavingarelationship
withthemselvesisanewinsight.Iexplainthismetaphorbytellingthatoneismarriedwith
oneselfinthefirstplace.Whotakescareformeif Idon't? Who brushesmyteeth?Who
feedsme?Wemeetourselveseveninourdreams.SelfspeechbetweenIandmegoes
onfor1440minutesaday.Selftalkincludesmemories.Sincetheclientistroubledbythem
hereandnow,thepastisdiscussedinordertoimprovefutureevents(Karma).
I conclude with a second feedback round of sharing with an emphasis on advice.
Narrative Rebiographing involves social learning by seeing or hearing somebody doing or
saying something new. Feedback is quite helpful when implementing corrections; for
instanceclientswhoareloquaxandtalklikeawaterfalldobenefitfromseeingthemselvesin
a proverbial mirror. In closing, I use wise little stories or jokes containing a therapeutic
message (Kwee, 1996). Narrative Rebiographing as above works like a pressure cooker.
ThereisalotmoretotellabouthowIconductNarrativeRebiographing,butitisimpossible
to say everything. More than two hundred videotapes are available. Inpatient Narrative
Rebiographingtakesplaceattheendofthe12thweekofanadmissionperiodof36weeks.
Formostpatientsitistheclimaxoftheirinpatientperiod(thathasameandurationofsix
months).Itformstheframeworkwhichmakesthesuccessfulapplicationofothertechniques
possible.Typically,theunsuccessfulclientissomebodywhohasfoundasatisfyingmodus
vivendiwithsymptoms(whichisakarmicchoice).

KarmaTopographicalAnalysis
Based on the data provided in the KLHQ a Topographical Analysis which reflects the
structureoftheclientsmodalities(Skandhas)canbemadeup.Aformisdesignedwhichis
calledKarmaModalityProfile.Thisformisdepictedbelowschematicallyandistobefilledin
bythetherapistincollaborativepracticewiththeclient.

KarmaModalityProfile

Name:
Gender:
Dateofbirth:
Postaladdress:
Emailaddress:
Dateofcompletion:

ListingofModalityDescriptions

Behaviour

Affect
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Sensation

Imagery

Cognition

InterpersonalRelations

Health/BiologyIssues

SummaryandConclusions

KarmaFunctionalAnalysis
BelowisablueprintforKarmaFunctionalAnalysis,tobeappliedifmicroscopicABCanalysis
and Topographical Analysis do not suffice. It comprises five cycles filled in by client and
therapist in collaborative practice. Cycle I: cognitive mediation model with interpersonal
impact;CycleII:intrinsicnegativeconsequencesorlongtermprimaryloss;CycleIII:extrinsic
negativeconsequencesorlongtermsecondaryloss;CycleIV:intrinsicpositiveconsequences
or short term primary gain; and Cycle V: extrinsic positive consequences or short term
secondarygain.

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Epilogue
SomeFinalGuidingIssues

Thisbookisforthepracticingpsychotherapistwhoconsidersher/himselfasaBodhisattva.
Those who are matured in their trade will have a better hunch what is meant throughout
thisbookthanthosewhoarebeginners.However,thisbookisdefinitelyalsomeantforthe
startingpsychotherapistaswellasforclientsandthosewhohaveaninterestinBuddhism,
psychology and psychotherapy. Much of what psychotherapists say and do differ; this is
becausetheminutiaeofasessionaredifficulttoabstract.Thebestwaytounderstandwhat
isgoingoninasessionisbyviewingvideotapesorstudyingtranscriptions,butthiswouldbe
asubjectofanotherbook.Enoughhasbeensaidintheforegoing.Therefore,Iwillclosewith
onlyafewremainingguidingissues.
A narrative approach of the human sciences (Geisteswissenschaft) is a less known
take than a mathematical/lawful approach of the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaft).
Althoughscientificanalysisisthebestwaytodeterminecauseeffectrelationships,issuesin
the meaning of life are not likely to be solved by science. Paraphrasing Howard (1991), I
submit that the stories of empirical and rocket science are not truer than any other story
uncovering reality. How can Pavlov or Skinner help in matters of divorce, abortion or
euthanasia?Sciencefallsshortwhenwisdomisrequired.Anarrativeorganisationofthought
differsfromamathematicalrepresentationofreality.Whileastorymodeofthinkingleans
on imagery and analogies, the language of exact science relies on digital and logical
conceptualizations.Thetwomodesareirreducibletoeachother.
AlthoughPKTisarationalendeavour,itteachesclientscoolreasoningandmakesuse
of empirical fact finding; however, its collaborative practice is art rather than science. PKT
follows scientific standards in arguing expertise and determining outcome, but its
implementationofpsychologicalinterventionsandtechniquesisacraft.Likeinthecraftof
wine making procedures are on the one hand highly structured; on the other hand riping,
blendingand colouringdependoninconsistentvariables: theweather andthecraftsmans
taste.InPKTtooquitealotdependsonuncontrollablefactors:timing,serendipityandlucky
strikes. As the hammer is not his only tool, the craftsman does not treat everything like a
nail.
ArtistryintheworkingrelationshipwithclientsisahallmarkforPKT;itsnittygritty
needs a shot in the arm. The creative therapist is always on the lookout to metaphorize
symptomsandproblemsinadelicateway.Forexample,forawashingcompulsion:feeling
dirty and washing hands in innocence; for hatred and hostility: being poisoned or
feeling toxic. Thereby, taking a clearcut didactic stance, the therapist is a sophisticated
teacherwhoscoreshighonsupportanddirectivenesswithoutsuccumbingtothepitfallof
being authoritarian or a guru, in PKT always spelled: geeyouareyou! Neither is the
therapistaholierthanthouorfaultless,impeccableandimmaculatebeingwhoistotallyout
of orbit. Rigorous training is called for in order to be proficient and to practice what one
preaches. In PKT psychologists and psychotherapists are decidedly the best candidates to
buildrapportwithclients.
Howdoesthetherapisasanexpertmethodicallyestablishesstructuresandhandles
a helping relationship? What does that mean? This means applying skilful means, upaya,
here conceptualized as the authentic chameleon which secures the catering of as many
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peoplepossible(Lazarus,1997).Dealingwithclients,thetherapistislikeacolourchanging
butneverlosingveritableessencechameleon. Authenticity entails Rogerian genuineness,
warmth and empathy as well as other care bestowing qualities. From a Buddhist stance
theseotheroutstandingqualitiesarelovingkindness,empathiccompassion,sympatheticjoy
and relational balance. Compassion is a dispassionate love with humankind and existence
itself which in PKT encompasses an empathic and vicarious exuding of the clients woes.
These qualities and a dose of appropriate humor likely prevent clinicians from becoming
sucked and drained into fatigue. Drawing on an arsenal of koans, jokes and wise stories
helpsestablishingtheappropriatetoneofenergeticbondingwithclients(Kwee,1996).
Professionally handling a therapeutic relationship implies that confidential material
will not be abused or exploited. Just like in psychotherapy disparagement, harassment,
sexual engagement and other predatory activities are naturally avoided. Multiple
relationships might impair the helping relationship and blur the appropriate distance
required to be effective. Instead of exhorting, one assiduously balances views, intentions,
speech, action, living, effort, awareness and attention while never promising, not
pretending,enlightenmentorNirvana.AsmeaningmakingisubiquitousinPKT,handlingthe
relationship also inheres in hard work which uncovers the clients thriving values. Because
thisimpliesdiscoveringintendedmeanings,theprocessmightbecalledhermeneutic.Likein
hermeneutics, the discipline concerned with exegetical interpretations of religious texts,
clientsstoriesfallshortonobjectivefactsbywhichonecouldverifyvalidity.Viewingclients
as texts to be interpreted through collaboratve practice in a meaning making process,
usuallyresultingintheprotagonistsidentificationtoher/hisstoriedtruthwhichisnotan
evidential,butapersuasiveandarhetoricalnewwholesome/healingselfwhichreplacesthe
old unwholesome/toxic selfnarative. Paraphrasing Maslow, the helping relationship
facilitatesgrowthsuchthatwhatamancanbe,hemustbe.
ThisendsthetextualpresentationofthecurrentPKTguidebook.ThepracticeofPKT
requiressupervisionandintervisionregardingtheestablishmentofrapportbetweenclient
and therapist, and the implementation of strategies and tactics of change. There is no
substitute for transmitting the minutiae of therapeutic artisticskills than through personal
guidanceinavisviscontact.Luctoretemergo,etdixit!

161

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