EVALUATION OF CLASS 1 FIGHTER

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
DHANASEKARAN.K
ELAKKIYA.G

in partial fulfillment for the the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PARISUTHAM INSITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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NOVEMBER 2013

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report EVALUATION

CLASS 1 FIGHTER

is the bonafide work of ELAKKIYA.G who carried out

the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

DR.S.BHARATHIRAJA

MR.RAJIV

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUPERVISOR

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL

LECTURER

ENGINEERING

DEPARMENT OF AERONAUTICAL
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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PARISUTHAM INSTIUTE OF

ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

PARSUTHAM INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very much grateful to our beloved chairman , Mr. S.P.Antonisamy, for
Given us an opportunity to study in this wonderful institute and for the various excellent
facilities to learn, develop and excel ourselves in various fields.

We wish to record our deep sense of gratitude to our Dean-Academics

Mrs. J. Nirmala for her untiring work and dedication towards the growth of the students
community in all aspects.

We feel very grateful to express my thanks t sincere to our Head of the Department,
Dr. S. Bharathiraja, for his continuous encouragement, valuable guidance and support which
always motivated us to be in a groove of the learning process.

Our heartfelt no bounds to express our sincere thanks to our project guide Mr. R. Rajiv. Who
was always been with us during the entire course of our project work. Our special mention about
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his involvement in successful completion of our project.

Last but not least; we bow our heads to honor our beloved parents who are our first teachers in
this world and our supreme guide for all our activities and a source of finishing this project
successfully.

INDEX
Serial.No.

Topic

Vn DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGN

STUDY

GUST AND MANUEVERABILITY ENVELPOES

CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND

FINAL Vn GRAPH CALCULATION

STRUCTURAL DESIGN THEORY APPROACH

LOAD ESTIMATIOM OF WINGS

LOAD ESTIMATIOM OF FUSELAGE

BALANCING AND MANUEVERING LOADS

ON TAIL PLANE

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Page.no

DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

DESIGN OF SOME COMPONENTS

10

PREPARATION OF A DETAILED DESIGN

REPORT WITH CAD DRAWINGS

ABBREVIATION
A.R.

Aspect Ratio

Wing Span

Cswell

Chord of the Airfoil

Croot

Chord at Root

Ctip

Chord at Tip

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

CD

Drag Co-efficient

CD,0

Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient

Cj

Specific fuel consumption

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CL

Lift Co-efficient

Drag

Endurance

Oswald efficiency

Acceleration due to gravity

Factor due to ground effect

JA, JT

Symbols

Height from ground

hOB

Obstacle height

k1

Proportionality constant

kuc

Factor depends on flap deflection

KA , KT

Symbols

Lift

Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

L

D

L

D

loiter

cruise

Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

Mach number of aircraft
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mff

Mission segment fuel fraction

Time between initiation of rotation and actual

Range

Re

Reynolds Number

R/C

Rate of climb

Wing Area

Sa

Approach distance

Sab

Distance require to clear an obstacle after becoming

airborne
Sf

Flare distance

Sg

Ground Roll

Sref.

Reference surface area

Swet

Wetted surface area

Thrust

Power

Pcruise

Thrust at cruise

Ptake-off

Thrust at take-off

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loiter

cruise

takeoff

Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter

Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise

Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off

Vcruise

Velocity at cruise

Vstall

Velocity at stall

VLO

Lift off Speed

VTD

Touch down speed

Wcrew

Crew weight

Wempty

Empty weight of aircraft

Wfuel

Weight of fuel

Wpayload

Payload of aircraft

W0

Overall weight of aircraft

Wing loading

Density of air

W
S

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OB

R/C

Dynamic viscosity

Co-efficient of rolling friction

Tapered ratio

Angle between flight path and take-off

Turning angle

Gliding angle

Rate of climb

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AIM OF THE PROJECT

AIM OF THE PROJECT

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There 2 classes of fighter aircraft. They are class-1 and class-2 fighter aircrafts. The class one
fighter is officially an air superiority fighter. Most of it can function either as multi role fighters and
ground attack. Air superiority fighter mainly does the function to gain air space control over the enemy
territory so that the bombers can bomb their targets safely, and give support for the ground units. They
literally make the enemy air space home ground for the invaders aircrafts. Class2 fighters mainly
concentrate on electronic warfare and ground attack along with surveillance.
Today, complex sets of requirements and objectives include specification and research
studies are set for the project:

Airplane performance,
Safety,
Reliability
Maintainability,
Subsystems properties
Performance andOthers.

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ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
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The purpose of this project is to evaluate the class1 fighter of specifications such as,

Maximum range

: 2000 Kilometres

Endurance

: 10 Hours

Pay load

: 6000 Kilogram

Cruise altitude

: 14175 Meters

Maximum Mach number : 3

Number of crew

: 20

And make sure that all factors are off the required factors for the safe flight, under all conditions and
allowable datas are off of the standard of the perfect flying and give the maximum performance.

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INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Airplane design is both an art and a science.
When we look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of common
features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections, engines to propel them through the air,
and a fuselage to carry passengers or cargo. If, however, you take a more critical look beyond the gross
features, we also can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, differences. What are the reasons for
these differences? What was on the mind(S) of the designers that caused them to configure the aircraft
in this way for the perfect performance according to the standards.
The design process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather special one that is
tempered by good intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to successful airplane designs
that have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and databases
(handbooks, etc.,) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
Defining a new design
The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace engineering. As
shown in the illustration, these include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures and
control.
Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight and
performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek optimum in all these aspects, with an
aircraft, this is practically impossible to achieve. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one
characteristic degrades another basis on their performance.
In most cases, the design objectives are not as focused. More often, the nature of an aircraft
design is compromise. That is, the goal is to balance the different aspects of the total performance while
trying to optimize a few (or one) based on well-defined mission requirements.
There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission requirements.
These include:

The aircraft purpose or mission profile;

The type(s) and amount of payload;
The cruise and maximum speeds;
The normal cruise altitude;
The range or radius with normal payload;
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The endurance;
The take-off distance at the maximum weight;
The landing distance with 50 percent of the maximum fuel weight;
The purchase cost;
And other requirements considered important;
And there are many performance measuring factors which determines the mission requirements.
These include:

V n Diagram
Gust Roll Estimation
Manoeuvering load estimation
Load Estimation of Wings
Load Estimation of Fuselage
Structural Design Analysis
Shear and Bending moment analysis for Wings
Shear and Bending moment analysis for Fuselage

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With
this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include
combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be
further refined into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as range (short or
long), take-off or landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful
in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed
design.
Thus, by analysis the design aspects of the proposed deign factors the aircraft.

DESIGN PROJECT:

Internal discussions
Discussion with prospective customers
Discussion with certification Authorities
Deciding upon a BROAD OUTLINE to start the ACTUAL DESIGN, which
will consist of Construction of Mock-up
Structural and Functional testing
Final estimation and
Performance calculation

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PROPOSED DESIGN FACTORS

CLMax = 3
Landing distance, SLand = 100m
Approach velocity, Va = 40.82 m/s
Stall velocity,Vs = 31.40 m/s
(W/S)Land = 1811.70
SLand = 17.93 m
VMax = 3505.392 Km/hr
Swet = 39.506 m2
Stalling Speed, Vs = 31.40 m/s
Wing loading (W/S) based on landing distance = 1811.7 N/m2
Fuel consumption and disposed weight = 0.62
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Wtake-off = 52323.58 kg
Swet = 39.506 m2
(Swet/S)wing = 2.0
(Sstabilizers/S) = 0.5
Vmax = 1033.6 m/s
(L/D)max = 54.3016
WTake off = 52323.58 Kg
Cruise altitude = 14000 m
Absolute ceiling = 18000 m
Rate of climb, V = 720 m/s
Rate of climb angle = sin-1(Ve/V) = 14
Climb velocity = 174.18 m/s
Landing distance = 600 m
S = 171.09 m2
Span = 32.04
Sweep angle = 60
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For horizontal tail,

Aspect ratio, AR = 3
Taper ratio, TR = 0.3
For vertical tail,
Aspect ratio, AR = 1.5
Taper ratio, TR = 0.5

ENGINE SELECTION
As our aircraft is the fighter aircraft flying at a speed of Mach 3, we selected the turbo fan
engines
Two engines are located in the wing

The dry thrust is assumed to be of 76.4 KN (17,185 lbf)

The thrust with after burner is assumed to be of 109.8 KN (24,675 lbf)

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN OBJECTIVES AND CONSTRAINTS

Issue

Military
Mission accomplishment and

Dominant design criteria

survivability
Adequate range and response

Performance
Overall mission accomplishment

Short-to-moderate runways
All types of runway surfaces
Airfield environment

Often Spartan ATC, etc.

Limited space available

Low maintenance- availability

issue
System complexity and mechanical
design

Acceptable system cost

Reliability and survivability
Damage tolerance

Government regulations and community

Military standards

acceptance

Low noise desirable

--Good neighbor in peace

--Dectability in war

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V-n DIAGRAM FOR THE

DESIGN STUDY

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V-n DIAGRAM FOR THE DESIGN STUDY

V-n DIAGRAM
FACTOR OF SAFETY FLIGHT ENVELOPE
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight require
stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight and so on.
Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the economic viability
of the aircraft. The aircraft designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare is aircrafts weight to the
minimum compatible with safety. However, to ensure general minimum standards of strength and
safety, airworthiness regulations (Av.p.970 and BCAR) lay down several factors which the primary
structure of the aircraft is expected to experience in normal operation, the proof load, which is the
product of the limit load and the proof factor and the ultimate load, which is the product of the limit
load and the ultimate factor. The aircrafts structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental
distortion and should not fail until the ultimate load has been achieved.

FLIGHT ENVELOPE
The proof and ultimate factors may be regarded as factors of safety and provide for various
contingencies and uncertainties.
The basic strength and flight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected by the
airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram. The curves OA and
OF correspond to the stalled condition of the aircraft and or obtained from the well known aerodynamic
relationship
2

Lift = nW =

1( V S C Lmax)
2

Thus, for speeds below VA (positive wing incidence) and VF (negative incidence) the maximum
loads which can be applied to the aircraft are governed by CLmax, as the speed increases it is possible to
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apply the positive and negative limit loads, corresponding to n 1 and n3, without stalling the aircraft so
that AC and FE represent Vc the cut-off lines CD1 and D2E relive the design cases to be covered since it
is not expected that the limit loads will be applied at maximum speed. Values of n 1,n2 and n3 are
specified by the airworthiness authorities for particular aircraft; typical load factors laid down in BCAR
are shown.
A particular flight envelope is applicable to one altitude only since C Lmax is generally reduced
with an increase of altitude, and the speed of sound decreases with altitude thereby reducing the critical
Mach number and hence the design diving speed V D. Flight envelopes are therefore drawn for a range
of altitudes from sea level to the operational ceiling of the aircraft.

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MANEUVER

Diagram

This diagram illustrates the variation in load factor with airspeed for maneuvers. At low speeds the
maximum load factor is constrained by aircraft maximum C L. At higher speeds the maneuver load
factor
may
be
restricted
as
specified
by
FAR
Part
25.
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The load factor, n, is defined as the ratio of the lift to weight, n=L/W .In level flight, the lift produced
by the wings equals the weight, so that n=1. However, during Manoeuvres such as climb to altitude,
acceleration to high speed, or sustained or instantaneous turns associated with combat, significantly
larger load factors can occur. Since these set the limit on the internal structure, it is important that the
maximum load factor be determined.
n = ((q/(W/s))/ (CD0/K))
Where again, q is the dynamic pressure,
CD0 is the base drag coefficient for the wing.
1
And k = Ae

with e 0.8

INSTANTANEOUS TURN RATE

With Instantaneous Turn Rate, the load factor was given in below equation. This is reproduced in n =
([( instV/g)2+1]
Here the turn rate inst, is the Instantaneous Turn Rate, which has units of radians per second.
SUSTAINED TURN RATE
Recall that in a sustained turn, the speed and altitude are maintained so that the thrust equals the drag,
and the load factor is constant.
An expression for the maximum sustained load factor as a function of the wing loading, which is
needed to achieve a specified sustained turn rate, was given in equation this reproduced in
n = [qAe/(W/S)[(T/W)max qCD0(W/S)]]1/2
In terms of the maximum sustained turn rate, the load factor is
n = ([( sustV/g)2+1]
Where sust is the maximum sustained turn rate with units of radians per second.
CLIMB
In the analysis of wing loading effect on climb, it was assumed that n=1. However, an expression can
be derived, which relates the climb rate to the load factor
By definition,
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n = L/W = (CLq S) / W
The climb gradient is given as

G = sin = (T-D)/W
Substituting for D/W in the above equation and solving for n, we obtain
D/W = n(CD0/C)L + (CL/nAe)
n = [((T/W)-G)][((T/W)-G)2-(4 CD0/Ae)]0.5/[2 CD0/CL]
With the condition that
T/W G+2

C D 0/ Ae

As an Example, with CD0= 0.007,CL= 1.2,A= 2,and a climb angle of 11 degrees, the minimum
thrust-to-weight ratio that satisfies
TAKE OFF TRANSITION
The transition phase of take-off is a climb at constant radius. Analysis determined that the load factor
was constant and equal to n= 1.15. Although this is not likely to be the largest load factor, for
consistency it needs to be considered.
HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK
A high load factor can result from an instantaneous change in the angle of attack during level flight.
The load factor in terms of the dynamic pressure and lift coefficient is :
n = qCL / (W/S)
This would be applied for example, at cruise conditions, to determine the extreme load factor condition.
To illustrate this, we take the conditions at the start of cruise for the conceptual SSBJ, where q= 531
lbs/ft2 and W/S = 157 lbs/ft2. The maximum lift coefficient, without flaps, is approximately
1.0.applying this to above eqn, the load factor is 3.4
DIVE CONDITION
The maximum dynamic pressure is produced in a dive. As a standard, the dive velocity is taken as V dive
= 1.5 Vcruise. Therefore, the dynamic pressure increases by the factor of 1.52 or 2.25.
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We can again illustrate this by using the conditions of the conceptual SSBJ. With C LCruise = 0.2,
under a dive condition, the load factor would be n = 1.52.
The maximum maneuver load factor is usually +2.5 . If the airplane weighs less than 50,000 lbs.,
however, the load factor must be given by: n= 2.1 + 24,000 / (W+10,000)
n need not be greater than 3.8. This is the required maneuver load factor at all speeds up to Vc, unless
the maximum achievable load factor is limited by stall.
The negative value of n is -1.0 at speeds up to Vc decreasing linearly to 0 at VD .
Maximum elevator deflection at VA and pitch rates from VA to VD must also be considered.
V* =

(2n / C
max
L max) (W/S)

Where,
nmax =

1
2

V2 [CL Max /(W/S)]

Where,
= 2.278510-1
CL Max = 3
W/S = 3000 N/m2
If V = 1100 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (1100)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 137.84
If V = 1050 m/s

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1
3000

nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (1050)2 3)

nmax = 125.60
If V = 1000 m/s

1
3000

nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (1000)2 3)

nmax = 113.92
If V = 950 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (950)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 102.81
If V = 900 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (900)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 92.27
If V = 885.20 m/s
-1

nmax = ( 2.2785 10 (885.20) 3)

1
3000

nmax = 89.26
If V = 850 m/s

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nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (850)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 82.31
If V = 800 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (800)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 72.91
If V = 750 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (750)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 59.81
If V = 700 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (700)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 55.82
If V = 650 m/s
-1

nmax = ( 2.2785 10 (650) 3)

1
3000

nmax = 48.13
If V = 600 m/s

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nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (600)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 41.01
If V = 550 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (550)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 34.46
If V = 500 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (500)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 28.48
If V = 450 m/s
nmax = ( 2.2785 10-1 (450)2 3)

1
3000

nmax = 23.06
If V = 400 m/s
-1

nmax = ( 2.2785 10 (400) 3)

1
3000

nmax = 18.22

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24000
W +10000

nlimit +ve 2.1 +

n=

Vs =

L
W

1
2

V2 [CL Max /(W/S)]

2nwo / CnmaxS

Cn max = 1.1CL max

Vs =

(2152323.58)
(2.278510-19.811.1339.06)

Vs = 19.05 m/s
Vs positive =

2nlm +ve wo /CNS

Nlim +ve = 2.1+(24000) / (wo +10000)

Nlim +ve = 2.1+(24000)/(52323.58+10000)
Nlim +ve = 2.550
Nlim ve = 0.4 Nlim +ve
Nlim -ve = 0.42.550
Nlim -ve = 1.020
CN =1.1 CL max
CN = 1.13 = 3.3
VA = Vs positive nlim positive
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Vs +ve =

2 2.550052323.58
1.2259.813.339.506

Vs +ve = 13.05 m/s

Vs -ve =

2 1.020 052323.58
1.225 9.81 3.3 39.506

Vs -ve = 8.2541 m/s

VA = 13.05 2.550

VA = 20.839 m /s

VD= 1.25 Vc

VD = 1.25 885.20
VD =1106.5m/s

VD supersonic = 1+[40 to50%] cruising speed]

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VD supersonic = [(1+20%) cruising speed]

VD supersonic = [(1+0.2)885.20]
VD supersonic = 10.62.24 m/s
Altitude = 14000 m
Altitude = 45931.75 feet
Mean chord, c = (Root chord + tip chord)/2
Mean chord, c = (8.61+2.067)/2
Mean chord, c = 5.3385 m
nlimit = 1 [(kg VDe VCL) / (498 (w/s))]
Where,
Kg = 0.88g / (3.3+g)
Where,
g = [2 (w/s)] / igcL
g = 2 52323.58 / (39.5065.33859.813)
g = 16.86
Kg = 0.88g / (3.3+g)
Kg = (0.8816.86) / (3.3+16.86)
Kg= 0.7359
Kg=0.74
nlimit = 1 [(kgVDeVcL) / (498 (w/s))]
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For Vc (20000 ft to 50000 ft)

VDe = 66.67- (0.000833h)
VDe = 66.67-(0.000833 45931.75)
VDe = 55.008
nlimit = 1 [(0.7455.008885.203) / (49852323.58)]
nlimit = 1 4.148510-3
nlimit =

1.0041 for +ve

0.9955 for ve

nmax Vs V*
160
140
120
100

nmax

80
60
40
20
0
0

200

400

600

V*
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800

1000

1200

For guest velocity, Vb

Maximum value, Vb =10.34 m/s
Minimum value, Vb =5.30 m/s

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For Vb = 10.34 m/s

nlimit = 1 [(kg VDe VcL) / (498 (w/s))]
V=10.34 m/s
VDe =84.67 + (0.000933h)
VDe = 84.67 + (0.00093314000)
VDe = 97.732

nlimit = 1 [(0.7497.73210.343) / (49852323.58)]

nlimit = 1 8.609610-5
nlimit = 1.000086 for +ve
0.9999 for ve

For Vb = 10.34 m/s

Vde= 97.732
Vb = 5.30

nlimit = 1 [(0.7497.7325.303) / (49852323.58)]

nlimit = 1 4.413010-5

nlimit = 1.000044 for +ve

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0.9999 for ve

For Vs= 19.05

Vde= 66.67 0.000833 h = 55.008
nlimit = 1 [(0.7455.00819.053) / (49852323.58)]
nlimit = 1 8.927810-5

MANOEUVERING LOADS ESTIMATION

3a Symmetrical manoeuvers loads:
In symmetric manoeuvers we consider the motion of the aircraft initiated by movement of the
control surfaces in the plane of symmetry. Examples of such maneuvers are loops, straight pull outs
and bunts, and tail plane loads at given flight speeds and altitudes. The effects of atmospheric
turbulence and gusts are discussed.

3b Level flight:
Although steady level flight is not a maneuver in the strict sense of the world, it is a useful
condition to investigate initial since it establishes points of load application and gives some idea of the
equilibrium of an aircraft in the longitudinal plane. The loads acting on an aircraft in steady flight are
shown in figure, with the following notation.
L is the lift acting at the aerodynamic centre of the wing,
D is the aircraft drag,
M o is the aerodynamic pitching moment of the aircraft less its horizontal tail,
P is the horizontal tail load acting at the aerodynamic centre of the tail, usually taken to be at
approximately one-third of the tail plane chord,
W is the aircraft weight acting at its centre of gravity,
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T is the engine thrust, assumed here to act parallel to the direction of flight in order to simplify
calculation.

AIRCRAFT LOADS IN LEVEL FLIGHT

The loads are in static equilibrium since the aircraft is in a steady state level flight condition. Thus for
vertical equilibrium
L+PW=0
For horizontal equilibrium
TD=0
And taking moments about the aircrafts centre of gravity in the plane of symmetry
L a D b T c - Mo Pl = 0
For a given aircraft weight, speed and altitude, the above equations may be solved for the
unknown lift, drag and tail loads. However, other parameters in these equations, such as M 0 depend
upon the wing incidence which in turn is a function of the required wing lift so that, in practice, a
method successive approximation is found to be the most convenient means of solution.
As a first approximation we assume that tail load P is small compared with the wing lift L so
that, from the above equation L W. From aerodynamic theory with the usual notation
2

L=

1( V S C L)
2

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Hence
2

1( V S C L)
2

The above equation gives the approximate lift coefficient C L and thus (from CL curves
established by wind tunnel tests) the wing incidence . The drag load D follows (knowing V and ) and
hence we obtain the required engine thrust T from above equation also Mo, a, b, c & l may be calculated
(again since V and are known) and the equation can be solved for P.As a second approximation this
value of P is substituted in above equation to obtain a more accurate value for L and the procedure is
repeated. Usually three approximations are sufficient to produce reasonably accurate values.
In most cases P, D and T are small compared with the lift and aircraft weight. Therefore, from
above equation L W and substitution in the above equation gives, neglecting D and T
P W ((a/l)-Mo/l))
We see from above return equation that if a is large then P will most likely be positive. In other
words the tail load acts upwards when the centre of gravity of the aircraft is far aft. When a is small or
negative, that is, a forward centre of gravity, then P will probably be negative and act downwards.

3c Pull out manoeuvres:

In a rapid pull-out from a dive a downward load is applied to the tail plane, causing the aircraft
to pitch nose upwards. The downward load is achieved by a backward movement of the control
column, thereby applying negative incidence to the elevators, or horizontal tail if the latter is allmoving. If the manoeuvre is carried out rapidly the forward speed of the aircraft remains practically
constant so that increases in lift and drag result from the increase in wing incidence only. Since the lift
is now greater than that required to balance the aircraft weight, the aircraft experiences an upward
acceleration normal to its flight path. This normal acceleration combined with the aircrafts speed in the
dive results in the curved flight path shown in above figure. As the drag load builds up with an increase
of incidence the forward speed of the aircraft falls since the thrust is assumed to remain constant during
the manoeuvre. For steady level flight n = 1, giving 1g flight, although in fact the acceleration is zero.
What is implied in this method of description is that the inertia force on the aircraft carrying out an ng
manoeuvre is nW. We may therefore replace the dynamic conditions of the accelerated motion by an
equivalent set of static conditions in which the applied loads are in equilibrium with the inertia forces.
Thus, in above figure, n is the manoeuvre load factor while f is a similar factor giving the horizontal
inertia force. Note that the actual normal acceleration in this particular case is (n-1) g.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

For vertical equilibrium of the aircraft, we have, referring to figure where the aircraft is shown
at the lowest point of the pull-out
L + P + T sin nW = 0
For horizontal equilibrium
T cos + fW D = 0
And for pitching moment equilibrium about the aircrafts centre of gravity
L a D b T c - Mo Pl = 0
The above equation contains no terms representing the effect of pitching acceleration of the
aircraft; this is assumed to be negligible at this stage. The engine thrust T is no longer directly related to
the drag D as the latter changes during the manoeuvre. Generally the thrust is regarded as remaining
constant and equal to the appropriate to conditions before the manoeurve began.

3d Steady pull-out:
Let us suppose that the aircraft has just began its pull-out from a dive so that it is describing a
curved flight path but is not yet at its lowest point. The load acting on the aircraft at this stage of the
manoeuvre are shown in above figure. Where R is the radius of curvature of the flight path. In this case
the lift vector must equilibrate the normal (to the flight path) component of the aircraft weight and
provide the force producing the centripetal acceleration V2/R of the aircraft towards the centre of
curvature of the flight path. Thus
L = (WV2/gR) + W cos
Or, since L = nW
n = (V2/gR) + cos
At the lowest point of the pull-out, = 0, and
n = (V2/gR) + 1

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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AIRCRAFT LOADS AND ACCELERATION DURING A STEADY PULL-OUT

We see from either from the above equations the smaller the radius of the flight path, that is the
more severe the pull-out to over stress the aircraft by subjecting it to the loads which lie outside the
flight envelope and which may even exceed the proof or ultimate loads. In practice, the control surface
movement may be limited by stops incorporated in the control circuit. These stops usually operate only
above a certain speed giving the aircraft adequate manoeuvrability at lower speeds. For hydraulically
operated controls artificial feel is built into the system whereby the stick force increases progressively
as the speed increases; a necessary precaution in this type of system since the pilot is merely opening
and closing valves in the control circuit and therefore receives no direct physical indication of control
surface forces.
Alternatively, at low speeds, a severe pull-out or pull-up may stall the aircraft. Again safety
precautions are usually incorporated in the form of stall warning devices since, for modern high speed
aircraft, a stall can be disastrous, particularly at low altitude.

3e Correctly banked turn:

In this manoeuvre the aircraft flies in a horizontal turn with no side slip at constant speed. If the
radius of the turn is R and the angle of bank , then the forces acting on the aircraft are those shown in
the figure. The horizontal component of the lift vector in this case provides the force necessary to
produce the centripetal acceleration of the aircraft towards the center of the turn. Thus
Lsin = WV2/gR
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

And for vertical equilibrium

Lcos = W
Or
L = Wsec
From the above equation we see that the load factor n in the turn is given by
n = sec
Also, dividing the equations
tan = V2/gR
Examination of the above equation reveals that the tighter the turn the greater the angle of bank
required to maintain horizontal flight. Furthermore, we see from (n = sec ) Equation that an increase
in bank angle results in an increased load factor. Aerodynamic theory shows that for a limiting value of
n the minimum time taken to turn through a given angle at a given value of engine thrust occurs when
the lift coefficient CL is a maximum; that is, when the aircraft on the point of stalling.

GUST LOAD ESTIMATION

2a Gust loads:
Gust loads are unsteady aerodynamic loads that are produced by atmospheric turbulence. They
represent a load factor that is added to the aerodynamic loads, which were presented in the previous
sections. The effect of a turbulent gust is to produce short-time change in the effective angle of attack.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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This change can be either positive or negative, thereby producing an increase or decrease in the wing
lift and a change in the load factor, n= L/W.
Below figure shows a model for the effect of a gust on an aircraft in level flight. Aircraft has a
forward velocity, V. The turbulence gust produces small velocity components, v and u. At that instant,
the velocity component in the aircraft flight direction is V + v. In level flight, the mean velocity
component normal to the flight direction is U = 0. Therefore, the total normal velocity is u.

MODEL FOR GUST LOAD EFFECT ON A AIRCRAFT IN LEVEL FLIGHT

In most cases, u and v are much less than the flight speed, V.Therefore, V + v V. Based on this
assumption, the effective angle of attack is
= tan-1 (u/V)
Because u is small compared to V
tan-1 (u/V)
The incremental lift produced by the small change in the angle of attack is
L =

1( V 2 S C La )
2

Substituting the above equation gives

2

L =

1( V S C Lau)
2

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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The incremental load factor is then

n = S/2W ( uV C La
The peak load factor is then the sum of the mean load factor at cruise (n=1) and the fluctuation
load factor, namely,
npeak = n + n
The gusts that result from at atmospheric turbulence occur in a fairly large band of frequencies.
Therefore their effect on an aircraft depends on factors that affect its frequency response. In particular,
the frequency response is governed by an equivalent mass ratio,, defined as
= (2W/S) /( uV C La )
Where c is the mean chord of the mail wing and g is the gravitational constant. Note that is
dimensionless, so that in British units, gc = 32.2f (lbm / lbf) s2 is required in the numerator.
The mass ratio, is a parameter in a response coefficient, K, which is defined differently for
subsonic and supersonic aircraft, namely,
K = 0.88 / (5.33 + ) (Subsonic)
K = 1.03 / (6.95 + 1.03) (Supersonic)

STATISTICAL GUST VELOCITY VALUES

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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VARIATION OF GUST VELOCITY, , WITH ALTITUDE FOR DIFFERENT FLIGHT CONDITIONS

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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The normal component of the gust velocity, u, is the product of the statistical average of values
taken from flight data, , and the response coefficient, or
u=K
The above table gives values of . The variation with altitude is presented in the figure.
Considering equation, we observe that turbulent gusts have a greater effect on aircraft with a
lower wing loading. Therefore, a higher wing loading is better to produce a smoother flight, as well
as in lowering the incremental structural loads.

2b V-n Diagram Gust Envelope:

The effect of the additive gust loads can be seen in the V-n diagram shown in figure. This is
shown in blue to contrast it with the load factor envelope for manoeuvres alone.

V-n DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ENVELOPE OF LOAD FACTORS INCLUDING GUSTS ON

A MANOEUVERING AIRCRAFT
Point B corresponds to the maximum lift at the highest angle of attack plus the load factor for a gust
with = 66 f/s.
Point C refers to the load factor at the design cruise velocity, Vc plus that for a gust with = 50 f/s.
Point D corresponds to the load factor at the dive velocity, VD plus that for a gust with = 25 f/s.
Points E, F and G correspond to the additional of loads from negative gusts at the velocities
corresponding to dive, VD; cruise, VC; and maximum lift, V ,respectively.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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Plots like figure which superpose the manoeuvre loads with the gust loads, are important for determine
the conditions that produce the highest load factors. The largest values are the ones used in the
structural design.

2c Design Load Factor:

The limit load factor denoted in the above figures is the highest of all the manoeuvring load
factors plus the incremental load due to turbulent gusts.
nlimit = nmax + n
In order to provide a margin of safety to the structural design, the limit load factor is multiplied
by a safety factor, SF. The standard safety factor used in the aircraft industry is 1.5. This value was
originally defined in 1930 because it corresponds to the ratio of the tensile ultimate load strength to
yield strength of 24 ST aluminium alloy, a material commonly used on aircraft. Over the years since it
was first designated, this safety factor has proved to be reliable.
The Design Load Factor is then defined as the product of the limit load factor and the safety
factor.
ndesign = 1.5 nlimit
This factor represents the ultimate load that the internal structure is designed to withstand. In
the selection of materials used in the design of the structure, the material ultimate stress will be divided
by the nlimit to guarantee that the material will not fail up to the design load limit.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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GUST AND
MANEUVERABILITY
ENVELOPES
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES

GUST DIAGRAM
Gust may be:
Gust, short blast of wind
Loads associated with vertical gusts must also be evaluated over the range of speeds.
The FAR's describe the calculation of these loads in some detail. Here is a summary of the method for
constructing the V-n diagram. Because some of the speeds (e.g. VB) are determined by the gust loads,
the process may be iterative. Be careful to consider the alternative specifications for speeds such as VB.
The gust load may be computed from the expression given in FAR Part 25. This formula is the result of
considering a vertical gust of specified speed and computing the resulting change in lift. The associated
incremental load factor is then multiplied by a load alleviation factor that accounts primarily for the
aircraft dynamics in a gust.

with: a = (dCL/da)
Ue = equivalent gust velocity (in ft/sec)
Ve = equivalent airspeed (in knots)
Kg = gust alleviation factor

Note that c is the mean geometric chord here.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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The FAA specifies the magnitude of the gusts to be used as a function of altitude and speed:
Gust velocities at 20,000 ft and below:
66 ft/sec at VB
50 ft/sec at VC
25 ft/sec at VD.
Gust velocities at 50,000 ft and above:
38 ft/sec at VB
25 ft/sec at VC
12.5 ft/sec at VD.
These velocities are specified as equivalent airspeeds and are linearly interpolated between 20000 and
50000 ft.
So, to construct the V-n diagram at a particular aircraft weight and altitude, we start with the maximum
achievable load factor curve from the maneuver diagram. We then vary the airspeed and compute the
gust load factor associated with the VB gust intensity. The intersection of these two lines defines the
velocity VB. Well, almost. As noted in the section on design airspeeds, if the product of the 1-g stall
speed, Vs1 and the square root of the gust load factor at VC (ng) is less than VB as computed above, we
can set VB = Vs1 sqrt(ng) and use the maximum achievable load at this lower airspeed.
Next we compute the gust load factor at VC and VD from the FAA formula, using the appropriate gust
velocities. A straight line is then drawn from the VB point to the points at VC and VD.

L Cos = W
Where,
At ground, L = U2SCL
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

L = 1.2251033.6239.5063
L = 155104859.3
L Cos = w
155104859.3 Cos = 52323.58
= 89.98
Turn radius,
VD2 / (gn2max -1)

R=
where,

VD - Diving velocity
g - Gravity
Turn radius, R =

(1062.24)2 / (9.81n2max -1)

For fighter aircraft, nmax =9

R=

1128353.818 / (9.8192 1)

R = 12859.71 m
Turn radius,
R=

VD2 / (g n2max - 1)

nmax = V2 CL max/(w/s)
nmax = 1.225 (1033.6)2 (3/3000)
nmax = 654.35
R = (1062.24)2 / (9.81654.352 1)
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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R = 175.77 m
Turn rate, W= g n2max-1 / VD
Consider, nmax = 9
W = 9.8192 1/ 1062.24
W= 0.0826

LIFT VS SPAN
L = Vd2SCL
Where,
S span
AR = b2/s
S= b2/AR
AR =3
Span

Surface Area(S)

Lift(L)

1.33

2.75106

5.33

11.05106

12

24.88106

21.33

44.22106

10

33.33

69.10106

12

48

99.5106

14

65.33

135.45106

16

85.33

176.91106

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

18

108

223.92106

20

133.33

276.43106

22

161.33

334.49106

24

192

398.08106

26

225.33

467.182106

28

261.33

541.82106

30

300

622.00106

32

341.33

707.69106

34

385.33

798.92106

36

432

895.68106

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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Lift Vs Span
250

200

L
i
f
t

150

100

50

0
0

10

Span

hacw = Mean chord + 25% of mean chord

hacw = 5.3385 + 1.334625
hacw = 6.673125

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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12

14

16

18

20

BENDING MOMENT VS
SPAN

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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BENDING MOMENT VS SPAN

BENDING MOMENT
A bending moment exists in a structural element when a moment is applied to the element so
that the element bends. Tensile stresses and compressive stresses increase proportionally with bending
moment, but are also dependent on the second moment of area of the cross-section of the structural
element. Failure in bending will occur when the bending moment is sufficient to induce tensile stresses
greater than the yield stress of the material throughout the entire cross-section. It is possible that failure
of a structural element in shear may occur before failure in bending, however the mechanics of failure
in shear and in bending are different.
The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be defined as "the sum of
the moments about that section of all external forces acting to one side of that section". The forces and
moments on either side of the section must be equal in order to counteract each other and maintain a
state of equilibrium so the same bending moment will result from summing the moments, regardless of
which side of the section is selected.
Bending moment, BM = -LX3/6b
Where,
L Lift
b Span (One side)
X - 1,2,3, (sectional span)
L= V2SCL
S= b2/AR
b - half span = 16.02
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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S = (16.02)2/3
S = 85.54
L = 2.278510-1 (885.20)2 85.54 3
L =22.90 106
BM = (22.90 106X3)/ (616.02)
BM = 2.38 105 X3
X

Bending moment

2.38 105

19.04 105

64.26 105

152.32 105

297.5 105

514.08 105

816.34 105

1218.56 105

1735.02 105

10

2380 105

11

3167.78 105

12

4112.64 105

13

5228.86 105

14

6530.72 105

15

8032.50 105

16

9748.480 105

17

11692.94 105

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Bending Moment Vs Span

14000
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
M
o
m
e
n
t

12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0

8
Span

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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10

12

14

16

18

SHEAR FLOW VS SPAN

A shear stress, denoted (Greek: tau), is defined as the component of stress coplanar with a
material cross section. Shear stress arises from a force vector perpendicular to the surface normal
vector of the cross section. Normal stress, on the other hand, arises from a force vector parallel or
antiparallel to the surface normal of the material cross section on which it acts.
SF = LX2 / 2b
F = 22.90106X2 / ( 2 16.02)
SF = 7.14 105 X2
X

SF

7.14 105

28.56 105

64.28 105

114.24 105

178.50 105

257.04 105

349.86 105

456.96 105

578.34 105

10

714 105

11

863.94 105

12

1028.16 105

13

1206.66 105

14

1399.44 105

15

1606.5 105

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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16

1827.84 105

17

2063.46 105

Shear Force Vs Span

2500

2000

S
h
e
a
r
F
o
r
c
e

1500

1000

500

0
0

Span

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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10

12

14

16

18

CRITICAL LOADING
PERFORMANCE AND
FINAL V-n GRAPH
CALCULATION

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND

FINAL V-n GRAPH CALCULATION

LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS

Wing Load Distribution:
The loads on the wing are made up of aerodynamic lift and drag forces; as well the concentrated
or distributed weight of wing-mounted engines, stored fuel, weapons, structural elements, etc., this
section will consider these as the first step in designing the internal stricture for the wing.
Span wise lift distribution. As a result of the finite aspect ratio of the wing, the lift distribution
varies along the span, from a maximum lift at the root, to a minimum lift at the tip. The span wise lift
distribution should be proportional to the shape of the wing planform. It can readily be calculated using
a vortex panel method. However, if the wing planform is elliptic in shape, with a local chord
distribution c(y) given as

2y 2
(
1
)
c(y) = (4S/b)
b

( )

An analytic span wise lift distribution exists. This is given as

2y 2
(
1
)
L (y) = (4L/ b)
b
E

( )

Where LE is the total lift generated by the wing with an elliptic planform. In both these expressions, y is
the span wise coordinate of the wing, with y = 0 corresponding to the wing root, and y = b/2
corresponding to the wing tips. A schematic is shown in the figure.
The analysis of the elliptic planform wing shows that it results in an elliptic lift distribution in the span
wise direction. This is the basis for a semi-empirical method for estimating the span wise lift
distribution on untwisted wings with general trapezoidal planform shapes. The method is attributed to
Schrenk (1940) and assumes that the span wise lift distribution of a general untwisted wing has a shape
that is the average between the actual planform chord distribution, c(y), and that of an elliptic wing. In
this approach, the areas under the span wise lift distribution. For the elliptic or general planform, must
equal the total required lift.
For the trapezoidal wing, the local chord length, c(y), varies along the span as
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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c(y) = cr [1 - ((2y/b)(1-))]

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TWO SPANWISE LIFT DISTRIBUTIONS FOR AN

ELLIPTIC AND TRAPEZOIDAL PLANFORM SHAPE, AND THE AVERAGE OF THE TWO
LIFT DISTRIBUTIONS USING SCHRENKS (1940) APPROXIMATION
Where again, cr is the root chard length and is the taper ratio. Following the elliptic wing, we can take
the span wise lift distribution to vary like the span wise chord variation. Therefore,
LT(y) = Lr [1 - ((2y/b)(1-))]
Where Lr is the local lift value at the location of the wing root(y = 0).
Now the total lift must equal the value found by integrating the lift distribution in the span wise
direction. Therefore, evaluating the integral, we obtain
L = (Lrb (1+ ))/2
With this, we have an expression for Lr which gives the necessary total lift for the trapezoidal lift
distribution, namely,
Lr = (2L) / (b (1+ ))
And therefore,
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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LT(y) = 2L/ (b (1+ )) [1 - (2y/b) (1-)]

As a check, for a planar wing ( = 1), LT (y) = L/b, which is the correct lift per span.
To use Schrenks method, it is necessary to graph the span wise lift distribution given in the equation
for the elliptic platform and the above equation for the trapezoidal planform. In each case, L is the
required total lift. The approximated span wise lift distribution is then the local average of the two
distributions, namely,
L(y) = [LT(y) + LE(y)]
An example of this corresponds to the dotted curve in figure.
It should be pointed out that Schrenks method does not provide a suitable estimate of the span wise lift
distribution for highly swept wings. In that instance, a panel method approach or other computational
method is necessary.

Added flap Loads:

Leading-edge and trailing-edge flaps enhance the lift over the span wise extent where they are
placed. The lift force is assumed to be uniform in the region of the flaps and to add to the local span
wise lift distribution that is derived for the unflapped wing.
The determination of the added lift force produced by the flaps requires specifying a velocity. For this,
the velocity is taken to be twice the stall value, 2Vs, with flaps down.

Span wise Drag Distribution:

The drag force on the wing varies along the span, with a particular concentration occurring near
the wing tips. An approximation that is suitable for the conceptual design is to assume that
1. The drag force is constant from the wing root to 80 percent of the wing span and equal to 95
percent of the total drag on the wing;
2. The drag on the outward 20 percent of the wing is constant and equal to 120 percent of the
wing total drag.
In most cases, the wing structure is inherently strong (stiff) in the drag component direction
because the relevant length for the bending moment of inertia is the wing chord, which is large
compared to the wing thickness. Therefore, the principle bending of the wing occurs in the lift
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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component direction. The design of the internal structure of the wing is then primarily driven by the
need to counter the wing-thickness bending moments.

Concentrated and Distributed Wing Weights:

Other loads on the wing, besides the aerodynamic loads, are due to concentrated weights, such
as wing-mounted engines, weapons, fuel tanks, etc., and due to distributed loads such as the wing
structure.
Since the structure is being designed at this step, it is difficult to know precisely what the final
weight will be. Therefore, historic weight trends for aircraft are used to make estimates at this stage of
the design. A refined weight analysis will be done later as the initial step in determining the static
stability coefficients for the aircraft.
The above table gives historic weights for the major components of a range of different aircraft.
These include the main wing, horizontal and vertical tails, fuselage, installed engine and landing gear.
The weights of these components are determined from the table as
W (lbf) = Multiplier * Factor
Where the multiplier is a number that corresponds to a general type and the Factor is a
reference portion of the aircraft, such as the wing planform area, S W, or the fuselage wetted area, Sfusewetted.
Engines and landing gear mounted on the wing can be treated as concentrated loads. The wing
structure will be considered as a distributed load. It is reasonable to consider that the weight of a span
wise section of the wing would scale with the wing chord length, so that with a linear tapered wing, the
distributed weight would decrease in proportion to the local chord from the root to the tip.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT ANALYSIS FOR WINGS

The wing structure can be considered to be a cantilever beam, which is rigidly
supported at the wing root. The critical loads that need to be determined are the shear forces and
bending moments along the span of the wing. These taken into account the loads on the wing produced
by the aerodynamic forces and component weights, which were discussed in the previous section. A
generic load arrangement is listed in the table and illustrated in figure.
To determine the shear force and bending moments along the span, it is useful to
divide the wing into span wise segments of width y. A schematic of such element is shown in figure.

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SHEAR LOADS AND BENDING MOMENTS ON A

SPANWISE ELEMENT OF THE WING
As an example, the element shows a distributed load, W(y). The resultant load acting on the element is
then W(y) y. In the limit as y goes to zero, y approaches the differential length, dy, and the
resultant load is W(y) dy.
The element shear force, V, is related to the resultant load as
W = dV/dy
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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The bending moment, M, acting on the element is related to the shear force by
V = dM/dy

Integrals can be approximated by sums, namely

n

V=

Wi y
i

And
n

M=

Vi y
i

Where N is the number of elements over which the wing span is divided. Of course,
the sums approximate the integrals better as the number of elements becomes large; however, a
reasonably good estimate for the conceptual design can be obtained with approximately twenty
elements over the half-span of the wing.
In order to make these definite integrals, the integration (summation) needs to be
started where the shear and moment are known. With the wing, this location is at the wing tip(y=b/2),
where V (b/2)=M (b/2)=0. Note that in this case, the resultant load on an element is W i=W(y). y y
which is the quantity inside the sum in equation. If the index, I, in the above equation indicates the
elements along the wing span, with i=1 signifying the one at the wing tip, then
V1 =0;
V2 = W1 + W2;
V3 = W1 + W2+ W3 = V2 + W3;
V4 = V3 + V4;
VN = VN-1 + WN.

Note that the shear on element N must equal the sum of the resultant loads on the
wing. In reality, there might be a small discrepancy due to the finite number elements in which the
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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wing span is subdivided. However, with a large enough number of elements the difference should be
small.

The bending moment on the wing is given by eqn. For the moments along the wing
span, one should also start at the wing tip where the moment on the element is zero. Then the following
format in the above eqn.

M1 =0;
M2 = V1 + y V2;
M3 = = V1 + y V2 + y V3 = M2 + y V3;
M4 = M3 y V4;
MN = MN-1 + y VN.

These formulae provide a good approximation of the distribution of the shear and
moment along the span of the wing. An example of the use is given in the spreadsheet that accompanies
this chapter.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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SPANWISE DISTRIBUTIONS OF LIFT FORCE, L; WEIGHT, W; SHEAR LOADS, V AND

BENDING MOMENT, M
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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An example of the application of these equations is shown in fig. The loads

correspond to those listed in the table and illustrated in fig.
The top plot in fig. illustrates Schrenks approximation of the span wise lift
distribution for the finite span wing. The solid curve corresponds to the lift distribution for the
trapezoidal wing. This is constant along the span because the taper ratio () in this example is 1.
The total span wise load distribution, W, shown in fig. for generic wing includes all of
the weight and lift components. For this, the wing was divided into 20 span wise elements. The sharp
negative spike in the load distribution marks the location of the engine. The more gradual dip in the
loads near Y/(b/2) = 0.4 corresponds to the outboard edge of the flaps.
The span wise distribution of the shear load, V, comes from eqn. This shows that the
largest shear is at the wing root, with the second largest shear being at the location of the engine.
The moment distribution, M, in fig. is based on eqn. It reflects the wing cantilever structure, whereby
the largest moment is at the wing root. The small peak in the moment distribution near Y/(b/2) is due
to the engine.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

WING SPAN VS WING LOADING

WING SPAN
The wingspan (or just span) of an airplane or a bird, is the distance from one wingtip to the
other wingtip.
IMPLICATIONS FOR AIRCRAFT DESIGN
The lift from wings is proportional to their area, so the heavier the animal or aircraft the bigger
that area must be. The area is the product of the span times the width (mean chord) of the wing, so
either a long, narrow wing or a shorter, broader wing will support the same mass. For efficient steady
flight the ratio of span to chord, the aspect ratio, should be as high as possible (the constraints are
usually structural) because this lowers the lift-induced drag associated with the inevitable wingtip
vortices. Long-ranging birds, like albatrosses, and most commercial aircraft maximize aspect ratio.
Alternatively, animals and aircraft which depend on maneuverability (fighters, predators, the predated
and those who live amongst trees and bushes, insect catchers, etc.) need to be able to roll fast to turn,
and the high moment of inertia of long narrow wings produces lower roll rates. For them, short-span,
broad wings are preferred.
The highest aspect ratio man-made wings are aircraft propellers, in their most extreme form as
helicopter rotors.
WING LOADING
In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded weight of the aircraft divided by the area of the
wing. The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift is produced by each unit area of wing, so a smaller wing can carry
the same weight in level flight, operating at a higher wing loading. Correspondingly, the landing and take-off
speeds will be higher. The high wing loading also decreases maneuverability.

General ellipse equation is,

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

(x2 / a2) + (y2 / b2 ) = 1 ----------------------------------------(1)

But we took b in x-axis & a in y-axis
(x2 / b2) + (y2 / b2 ) = 1
ab= S/2
a = S/2b
a = 85.54 / (2 16.02)
a= 2.43
From (1)
y = a2 (1- x2/b2)
y =(a2/b2) (b2 x2)
y = (2.432/16.022) (16.022 x2)
y = 0.02 (256.64 x2)
y = 5.13-0.02 x2
x

2.26

2.24

2.22

2.19

2.15

2.10

2.03

1.96

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

1.87

10

1.76

11

1.64

12

1.5

13

1.32

14

1.1

15

0.79

16

0.1

17

0.006

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Wing Loading Vs Wing Span

2.5

W
i
n
g
L
o
a
d
i
n
g

1.5

0.5

0
0

10

Wing Span

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

12

14

16

18

STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY

THEORY APPROACH

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY THEORY APPROACH

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

6a Internal Structure Design:
The conceptual design is mainly concerned with the gross aspects of the structural
design. The complete structural design is primarily completed later in the preliminary and detailed steps
of the aircraft design. At this stage, the concern is on general structural aspects, which includes the
selection of materials to best withstand the maximum loads, while also seeking a low structure weight.
The type structure used on aircraft since the 1930s is called semi-monocoque. The
word monocoque is French for shell only. The semi-monocoque design uses a thin sheet-metal skin
(shell) to resist it tensile loading and an internal frame of light-weight stiffeners to resist compressive
loading.
In the fuselage, the frame elements that run along its length are calledlongerons.
Those elements that run around the internal perimeter of the fuselage are called bulk-heads. The
structural criterion for the cross-section size of longerons and the spacing of bulkheads is to resist
compressive buckling. An example of the internal structural components in the fuselage can be seen in
the photograph of a Boeing 767 fuselage section in the figure.
In the wing, the prevalent design consists of having a central internal beam that runs
along its span. The beam I refer to a wing spar and is designed to withstand the shear and tensile
stresses caused by the shear forces and bending moment. The beam cross-section can range from a
hollow square or rectangular (box) shape to an I-shape.
The wing profile is formed by ribs, which are cut into the shape of the airfoil crosssection and attach to the central wing spar .A thin sheet-metal skin is attached to the ribs in order to
build up the complete wing shape. As a structural element, the skin primarily adds torsional stiffness to
the wing.
The horizontal and vertical tail surfaces can be constructed in the same way as the
main wing. Alternately, because of their smaller size and because there is no use for their internal
volume, they can be fabricated of full depth stabilizing material such as foam-plastic or honeycomb
material. Honeycomb material is made by bonding very thin corrugated sheets together to form internal
hexagonal cells (similar to a bee honeycomb), which run through the material. When the honeycomb
material is sandwiched between two thin metal sheets, it forms an extremely rigid a light-weight
structural element. This form of construction is excellent for other nonstructural elements such as flaps,
fillets and landing gear doors in order to reduce weight.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

6b Tensile loading:
In the semi-monocoque design, the sheet metal covering is designed to withstand the
tensile loads. With the fuselage, supported at the centre of lift for a positive load factor, the tensile loads
are on the top surface. For a negative load factor, they would be on the bottom surface. In most cases,
the positive load factor is the larger of the two, so that it will dictate the structural design.
The tensile force acting on the fuselage skin is due to the moment at X CL. The tensile
stress is then
T = (MXCL R)/I
Where R is the half-height of the fuselage at X CL and I is the bending moment of
inertia. In the case of a circular cross-section fuselage, R is the radius of the fuselage; I is
I = /4 (R4 r4)
Where r=R-t; and t is the thickness of the sheet metal skin. Since t <<R,
I /2(R3t)
Therefore, from the above equation,
T = (MXCL)/ R3t
The stress in the skin must be less than the ultimate tensile stress for the material
divided by the design load factor, or
T Tu / ndesign
From this using above equation, the minimum skin thickness is
t min = (2 MXCL ndesign)/ TuR2
In many cases, a more desirable cross-section shape for the fuselage is elliptic in
order to give a higher ceiling height. For an elliptic cross-section fuselage, where the major axis is the
vertical height of the fuselage, the bending moment of inertia about the minor axis (due to MXCL) is
I = /4 (A3B C3D)
Where A is the major axis radius, B is the minor axis radius, and C=A-t and D=B-t, where again t is the
fuselage skin thickness.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

For t <<R,
I = /4 (A3B + A3) t
In this case, the minimum skin thickness is
tmin = (MXCL ndesign) / (Tu (A3B + A3))
In either case of a circular or elliptic cross-section fuselage, the above equations
provides values for the minimum skin thickness needed to withstand the tensile load produced by the
maximum bending moment. The required thickness depends on the material property, Tu. Values for
materials typically used are presented in the next section.

6c Compressive Loading:
In the semi-monocoque design, the longerons are designed to withstand the compressive
loads. With the fuselage, supported at the centre of lift for a positive load factor, the compressive loads are on the
lower side. For a negative load factor, they are on the upper side. Again in most cases, the positive load factor is
the larger of the two and dictates the structural design.

Structural failure under compression for the longerons usually occurs due to buckling.
Therefore, this will set the structural design limit. The criterion for buckling comes from the Euler
column formula, given as
FE = C2EI/ (L) 2
Where F is the critical column load to produce buckling, L is the unsupported length and C is
a factor that depends on how the column is fixed at its ends. For pinned ends, C=1, whereas C=4 for fixed ends.
The longerons are often supported by comparatively flexible ribs or bulkheads, which are free to twist or bend.
Thus, a value of C=1 is appropriate. If the bulkheads are rigid enough to provide restraint to the longerons, a
value of C=1.5 can be used.

Using equation the critical stress is

E = C2E/(L/ )2
Where the radius of gyration is given as
=

I
)
A

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

With I being the bending moment of inertia and A being the cross-section area of the column. In order
to prevent a structural failure in the longerons, the actual compressive stress must be less than the
buckling stress divided by the design load factor namely < E/ ndesign. The next step is then to
determine the actual compressive stress in the longerons. This requires setting the configurations of
longerons around the fuselage.

STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS
AEROFOIL
An airfoil (in American English) or aerofoil (in British English) is the shape of a wing or blade
(of a propeller, rotor or turbine) or sail as seen in cross-section.
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component of this
force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of
motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge,
followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric camber. Foils of similar function designed
with water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack and shape. When oriented at a suitable
angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to
the deflection. This force is known as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: Lift
and drag. Most foil shapes require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can
generate lift at zero angle of attack. This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved
streamlines which results in lower pressure on one side and higher pressure on the other. This pressure
difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flowfield
about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower surface. The lift
force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the
pressure by using the concept of circulation and the Kutta-Joukowski theorem
NACA 64a204
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Root Chord = 8.61 m

Aerofoil thickness at root chord = 8.61 04/100
Aerofoil thickness at root chord = 0.3444 m
Aerofoil thickness at root chord = 344.4 mm
Aerofoil thickness at tip chord = 2.0670.04
Aerofoil thickness at tip chord = 0.08268 m
Aerofoil thickness at tip chord = 82.68 mm
From the table,
b= 125.4 mm
t= 8.5 mm
A1 = 125.48 8.5 = 1065.9 mm2
A2 = 344 - (8.52) = 327.7 8.5 = 2782.9 mm2
A3 = 125.4 8.5 = 1065.9 mm2
X1 = 125.4/2 = 62.7 mm
X2 = 125.4/2 = 62.7 mm
X3 = 125.4/2 = 62.7 mm
Y1 =8.5/2 = 4.25 mm
y2 = (327.4/2)+8.5 = 172.2 mm
Y3 = 344.4 (8.5+2) = 340.15 mm
x= Ax/A = A1 x1+A2 x 2+A3 x3 ( A1 + A2 + A3)
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

x = (1065.962.7)+(2782.962.7) + (1063.9 62.7) / (1065.9 + 2782.9 + 1065.9)

x = 62.7 mm
y = Ay/A = A1 y1+A2 y 2+A3 y3 / (A1 +A2 +A3)
y = (1065.94.25)+(2782.9172.2) + (1063.9 340.15) / (1065.9 + 2782.9 + 1065.9)
y = 172.2 mm
Ixx = Ix1 +A1y12 + Ix2 +A2y22 + Ix3 +A3y32
Ixx = b1d13/12 + A1y12+ b2d23/12 + A2y22 + b3d33/12 + A3y32
Where
yi = y y
Y1 = 167.95 mm
Y2 = 0
Y3 = -167.95
Ixx = [12548.53)/12] + [1065.9 (167.95)2] + (8.5327.43)/12 + [2782.9 (0)2] + (12548.53/12) +
[1065.9 (-167.95)2]
Ixx = 6417.60 + 30066057.14 + 24858430.5 + 0 + 6417.60 + 30066057.14
Ixx = 8.50107 mm4
Iyy = Iy1 +A1x12 + Iy2 +A2x22 + Iy3 +A3x32
Iyy = d1b13/12 + A1x12+ d2b23/12 + A2x22 + d3b33/12 + A3x32
Where,
xi = x x
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

x1=0
Iyy = [d1b13/12] + [d2b23/12] + [d3b33/12]
Iyy = [8.5 (125.4)3/12] + [327.4 (8.5)3/12] + [8.5 (125.4)3/12]
Iyy = 1396787.33 + 16755.37 + 1396787.33
Iyy = 2.81 106 mm4
MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT
Wb2/6 = [(l wf) b2]/6
Wb2/6 = (22.90 106 15.11 103) (16.02)2 /6
Maximum Bending Moment = 978.86 108
My = 0
Ixy = 0
2 = (My Ixy + Mx Iyy)y /( Ixx Iyy - Ix2y)- (Mx Ixy + My Ixx)x /(Ixx Iyy - Ix2 y)
2 = (Mx Iyy)y / (Ixx Iyy)

2 = (Mx)y/Ixx
2 = (978.80106) y/85106
2 = 11.51y

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Points

B2

172.2

1982.022

1884.187
163.7

163.7

1884.187

-163.7

-1884.187

-163.7

-1884.187

-172.2

-1982.022

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Mean Chord = 5.3385

Mean Chord = 5.3385 04/100
Mean Chord = 0.21354 m
Mean Chord = 213.54 mm
From table
b = 133.8 mm
t = 9.6 mm

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

A1 = 133.89.6 = 1284.48 mm2

A2 = 194.349.6 = 1865.66
A3 = 133.89.6 = 1284.48
X1 = 133.4/2 = 66.9 mm
X2 = X3 = 125.4/2 = 66.9mm
Y1 =9.6/2 = 4.8 mm
Y2 = (9.6/2)+9.6 = 14.4 mm
Y3 = (9.6/2)+203.94 = 208.74 mm
X = (A1X1+A2X 2+A3X3) / (A1+A2+A3)
X = 66.9(A1+A2+A3) / (A1+A2+A3)
X = 66.9 mm
y = (A1Y1+A2Y2+A3Y3) / (A1+A2+A3)
y = (1284.48 4.8) + (1865.66 14.4) + (1284.48 208.74)
y = 67.90 mm
Ixx = b1d13/12 + A1y12+ b2d23/12 + A2y22 + b3d33/12 + A3y32
Where
yi = y y
Y1 = 63.1 mm
Y2 = 53.5 mm
Y3 = -140.84 mm
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Ixx = [(133.89.63) /12+ (1284.48 (63.1)2)] + [(9.6193.33)/12 + (1865.66 (53.5)2)] +

[(133.89.63)/12 + (1284.4 (-140.84)2)]
Ixx = 9864.80 + 5114298.413 + 5823060.538 + 5339985.335 + 9864.80 + 25478824.03
Ixx = 41.77106mm4
xi = x x
X1= X2 =X3 = 0
Iyy = d1b13/12 + d2b23/12 +d3b33/12
Iyy = 9.6 (133.8)3 /12+ 194.34 (9.6)3/12 +9.6 (133.8)3/12
Iyy = 22995326.13 + 171939.59 + 22995326.13
Iyy = 46.16 106 mm4
MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT
Wb2/6 = (l wf)b2/6
Wb2/6 = [(22.90 106 15.11 103) (16.02)2] /6
Maximum Bending Moment = 978.86 108 = Mx
My = 0
Ixy = 0
B2 = [(My Ixy + Mx Iyy)y]/( Ixx Iyy - Ix2y) [(Mx Ixy + My Ixx)x]/( Ixx Iyy - Ix2y)
B2 = (Mx Iyy)y/(Ixx Iyy)
B2 = (Mx)y/Ixx
B2 = (978.86 106 )y/41.77 106
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

B2 = 23.43 y

Points

106.77

2501.62

97.17

2276.69

97.17

2276.69

-97.17

-2276.69

-97.17

-2276.69

-106.77

-2501.62

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Balancing and Maneuvering loads on tail plane,

Aileron and Rudder loads
TAIL PLANE AREA
Sh = Horizontal tail area = 0.31S = 0.31 39.506 = 12.24 m2
Sv = Vertical tail area = 0.21S = 0.21 39.506 = 8.29 m2
Bh = Ah Sh = 4.68 12.24 = 7.56
Where,
Aspect ratio of vertical tail, Av = 0.26 6= 1.56
Aspect ratio of horizontal tail, Ah = 0.78 6= 4.68
Bv= Av Sv = 1.56 8.29 = 12.93
ROOT CHORD
Horizontal tail root chord,
Ch = 2Sh / Bh(1+h)
Where,
h Taper ratio
Taper ratio = 0.295
Ch = 2 12.24 / [32.04(1+0.295)]
Ch = 0.58
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Vertical tail root chord,

Cv = 2Sv/ Bv (1+v)
Ch = 28.29 / [12.93(1+0.295)]
Ch = 0.99
TIP CHORD
CTh = h + Ch
CTh = 0.295 0.58
CTh = 0.1711
CTv= v + Cv
CTv = 0.295 0.99
CTv = 0.29205
AREAS
Sflap /s = 0.17
Sflap = 0.17 39.506 = 6.71
Sslat/s = 0.1
Sslat = 0.1 39.506 = 3.9506
Saileron/s = 0.03
Saileron= 0.03 39.506 = 1.18518
LANDING GEAR
WMain Landing Gear (Wwm) = 90% of WOverall
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

WMain Landing Gear (Wwm) = 52323.58 90/100

Weight of main landing gear (Wwm) = 47091.22 Kg
Wwm = WNose Landing Gear = 10% of Woverall
Wwm = 52323.58 10/100
Weight of nose landing gear, Wwm = 5232.358 Kg
Diameter of the wheel
Nose Diameter = 1.59 (5232.358 9.81)0.302
Nose Diameter = 42.06 m = 106.83 cm =1.06 m
Diameter of rear = 1.59 (47091.22 9.81)0.302
Diameter of rear = 81.67 m = 207.46 cm = 2.07 m
Width of wheel
Nose width = AWnoseB
Nose width = 0.098 (5232.358 9.81)0.467
Nose width = 15.52 m = 39.42 cm = 0.39 m
Rear width = 0.098 (47091.22 9.81)0.467
Rear width = 43.31 m = 110.01 cm = 1.10 m
Fuselage structural analysis
L = V
= 2(-V0 + 2 V)
Resultant load = L-W
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Circulation, = 2(-1033.6 +( 2 3234.924)

= 34156.95
L = V
L = 2.2785 10-1 34156 32340934
L = 25176317.04
L = 2.51 106
Wing volume = area thickness
Volume by taking tip thickness
Volume = 39.506 0.08268
Volume = 3266.35 m3
Volume by taking root thickness
Volume = 39.506 0.3444
Volume = 13605.86 m3
Average Volume = (3.266 + 13.605)/2
Average Volume = 8.43 C
Horizontal tail volume
ttail = 0.9 0.344
ttail = 0.309
Vhorizontal tail = t A
Vhorizontal tail = 0.309 12.24
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

Vhorizontal tail = 3.78 m3

Vvertical tail = t A
Vvertical tail = 0.309 8.29
Vvertical tail = 2.5

LOAD ESTIMATION OF
FUSELAGE

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE

Fuselage load distribution:
The fuselage can be considered to be supported at the location of the center of lift of the main
wing. The loads on the fuselage structure are then due to shear force and bending moment about that
point.
The loads come from a variety of components, for example, the weights of payload, fuel, wing
structure, engines, fuselage structure, and tail control lift force. Figure illustrates a typical load
distribution. Note that the coordinate along the fuselage is denoted as x and the length of the fuselage is
L.

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF FORCES ACTING ON A GENERIC FUSELAGE

The above table gives an example of a load breakdown and the resulting moments
about the location of the wing center of lift.
For static stability in the pitching direction, the balance of the loads about the center of lift
should result in a nose-down moment that has to be offset by the horizontal stabilizer downward lift
force. (This would be upward lift in the case of a canard). This is determined by finding the moments
produced by the product of the resultants of the respective loads, and the distance from the location
where they act to the location of center of lift. For the condition in table, the net moment needed to
balance the fuselage is -50 f-lbs. This moment is produced by a downward lift force of 125 lbs at the
location of the center of lift of the horizontal tail.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

There is obviously some leeway in setting the locations of many of the items in table. Their
placement affects the static stability as well as the performance of the aircraft. Placing the center of
gravity too far forward of the center of lift can make an aircraft too stable and require too large of a
control surface from the horizontal tail to maintain level pitching altitude. For an aft tail, this situation
leads to induced drag on the horizontal tail and main wing.
The static stability analysis will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. However, a simplified
measure of the pitching stability that can be used for locating some of the heavier components on the
fuselage is called static margin(SM).
The static margin is defined as
SM = (xnp - xcg) / c
Where Xnp is the location of the neutral lift point of the main wing and c is the mean
aerodynamic chord (m.a.c).As a first approximation, we can neglect the lift-induced moment of the
main wing so that Xnp corresponds to the center of lift Xcl.
For static stability in the pitching direction the static margin is positive(SM>0). Normal values for
the static margin for a large spectrum of aircraft give a range of 3SM10.
A consideration in the placement of the fuel is how the location of the center of the mass will shift
as the fuel wait is reduced over a flight plan. In the case of a long-range aircraft, the static margin can
change significantly from the start of cruise to the end of cruise. The placement of fuel should be such
that the static margin always remains positive.

SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT ANALYSIS FOR FUSELAGE

The fuselage structure can be considered to be a beam that is simply supported and
balancing at XCL. As with the wing, we wish to determine the resulting shear forces and bending
moments along the length of the fuselage. The procedure for this is the same as for the wing, namely, to
divide the fuselage into discrete elements along its length. It is useful if one of the elements is at the Xlocation of XCL.
The elemental shear forces and bending moments follow the formulae given in
equations, with the exception that y in the case of wing is replaced by x for the fuselage. The
equations for determining shear force and bending moment for the fuselage are given in eqns.
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

V1 =W1;
V2 = W1 + W2;
V3 = W1 + W2+ W3 = V2 + W3;
V4 = V3 + V4
VN = VN-1 + WN.
And
M1 =V1;
M2 = V1 + y V2 ;
M3 = = V1 + y V2 + y V3 = M2 + y V3
M4 = M3 y V4;
MN = MN-1 + y VN.
The summation starts at one end of the fuselage (x=0 or x=1). In contrast to the wing,
the shear force in the first element is considered to be the load in that element (W 1), and the moment is
considered to be the shear on that element to the other end, as with the wing.
In this process, the shear force and the moment can be found for the summation of all
the loads, or separately for the individual loads, with the total shear and the moment being the sum of
the individual shear and moment distributions. In either approach, it is important to include the
concentrated reaction load that occurs at the point of support, x=xCL.
The inclusion of the resultant force was not necessary for the wing, because only half
of the wing span was considered and the point of support was at the one end. For the fuselage, if the
resultant load is properly included, the force on that element minus the shear at x CL, Should equal the
sum of the total load across all of the elements.
An example of the application of these equations is shown in fig. The load
corresponds to those listed in table and illustrated in fig. The shear V shows a reversal of sign at the eqn
x=xCL as a result of the resultant force that acts at the point of support at the wing lift center. As a result,
the shear is zero at the leading and trailing point of the fuselage.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

LENGTHWISE DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE WEIGHT, W; SHEAR LOADS, V AND BENDING

MOMENT, M

The moment, M, in fig. is also a maximum at the point of support of the fuselage, which corresponds to
the wing lift center. These values as set the maximum stress condition for the structural design and
dictate the internal structural layout of the fuselage.

AIRCRAFT DESIGN
PROJECT-2

TO FIND MASS OF FUSELAGE

Mfuselage = CfuselageKeKpKuc Kdoor (Mtomnultimate)
Where,
Cfuselage = 0.014
Ke =1.05
Kp =1.09
Kuc =
Kdoor = 1.1
x=0
y= 1.5

WEIGHT OF WING
Mw= Cw Ku Kse Ksp Kwe Kpe (M to m nultimate)0.48 Sw0.78 AR (1+)0.4 + (1Wfuel/T)0.4 / cos (t/c)0.4
Mfuselage= 0.0141.051.0911.11[2221.90(1062.24)0.5]1.5
Mfuselage = 2506.76 Kg
Mfuselage = 2506.769.81
Mfuselage =24591.32N
Wfuselage =24591.32N
AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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Resultant load = L W
Resultant load = 2.51106 24591.32
Resultant load = 2.48106 N
HORIZONTAL TAIL MASS
WHT = 0.0210 Kconf (M to m nultimate)0.48 Sw0.78 AR (1+)0.4/cos(t/c)0.4
Under carriage weight
MUnder Carriage = 0.04 Mtom
MUnder Carriage = 0.04 52323.58
MUnder Carriage = 2092.94 Kg
Sy = L - Wfuselage
Where,
L-Lift
V= Sy/2
q = -V/( Ay)
Ixx = Ay2
From the data for the thickness of 20 cm (ie) 7.87 inches
B= 2.125 inches
D= 0.990 inches

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A1 = 5.392.5146
A1 =13.52 cm2
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A1 =1.3510-3 m2
A2= 9.22 2.5146
A2= 2.3110-3 m2
A3=5.392.5146
A3= 1.3510-3 m2
Total area = A =A1+ A2+ A3 =0.0138 m2
X1 = 5.39/2
X1 = 2.695 cm
X1 = 0.02 m
X2 = 5.39 - 2.5146
X2 = 2.8754cm + (2.5146/2)
X2 = 4.1327 cm
X2 = 0.04 m
X3 = (5.39-2.5146) + (5.3912)
X3 = 5.5704cm
X3 = 0.0557 m
X = (A1 x1+A2 x 2+A3 x3) / (A1+A2+A3)
X = (1.3510-30.02)+(2.3110-30.04)+(1.3510-30.05) / ((1.35+2.31+1.35)10-3)
X = 0.0135 m
Ixx = Ay2
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Ixx = 2(Ar2) + 4(Ay1 2) + 4(Ay2 2) + 4(Ay3 2)

R= thickness +radius
D =0.2/2 + 2m
D=2.1m
r = (d/2)
r = 2.1/2
r=1.05m
y1 =sin 22.5 = y1/r = 0.382= y1/1.05
y1=0.40m
y2 =sin 45 = y2/r = 0.707= y2/1.05
y2=0.742m
y3=sin 67.5 = y3/r = 0.923= y3/1.05
y3=0.97m
Ixx = (0.0138/2 (1.05)2) + 4(0.0138 (0.040)2) + 4(0.0138(0.742)2) + 4(0.0138(0.97)2)
Ixx = 0.0152+ 8.83210-3+ 0.0309 + 0.0319
Ixx = 0.1068 m4
2 = (Mx)y / Ixx
Mx =We2/6
Mx = (24591.32 22)/6 = 90.16 103
2 = (90.16 103 y)/0.1068 = 8.44 103 y
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Stringer

y (m)

z (N/m2)

1.05

8.86105

-1.05

-8.86105

2.16

0.97

8.18105

3.15

0.742

6.26105

4.14

0.40

3.37105

5.13

6.12

-0.40

3.37105

7.1

-0.742

-6.26105

8.10

-0.97

-8.18105

Sy = L-Wfus
Sy = 2.51106 24591.32
Sy = 2.48 106 N
V= Sy/2
V=1.24106
q= -V(Ay)/I
q12 = -V/ Ixx[(A/2)1.05]
q12 = (-1.24106/0.1068)[(0.013812)1.05]
q12= 84.12 103N/m
q23 = q12 + -v/ Ixx [Ay3]
q23 = (84.12103 - 1.24106/0.1068)[(0.0138)0.97]
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q23 = -71.29103N/m
q34 = q23+ -v/ Ixx [Ay2]
q34 = -71.29103 [160224.71 y2]
q34 = -190.18103N/m
q45 = -190.18103 [160224.71 y1]
q45 = -254.27103N/m
q56 = -254.27103 [160224.71 -0.40]
q56 = -190.18103N/m
q67 = -190.18103 [160224.71 - y2]
q67 = -71.29 103
q78 = -71.29 103 [160224.71 - y3]
q78 = 84.13 103
q89 = 84.13 103 [160224.71 - r]
q89 = 252.36 103
Index = w2/ ( CL max ST)
T= Ti1+Ti2
Index = (52323.58)2 / (12.01351200039.506)
Index = 3.75
Two engine TOFL = 857.4 + 28.43 Index + 0.0185(Index)2
Two engine TOFL = 857.4 + (28.433.75) + [0.0185(3.75)2]
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Two engine TOFL = 964.27 m

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STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
OF WINGS AND FUSELAGE

RIBS
In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in traditional
construction.
By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs attach to the main spar, and by being
repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil
shape of the wing, and the skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.

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Wing construction is basically the same in all types of aircraft. Most modern aircraft have all metal
wings, but many older aircraft had wood and fabric wings. Ailerons and flaps will be studied later in
this chapter.

To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a wing must be designed and built to hold its shape
even under extreme stress. Basically, the wing is a framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and
(possibly) stringers (see figure 1-5). Spars are the main members of the wing. They extend lengthwise
of the wing (crosswise of the fuselage). All the load carried by the wing is ultimately taken by the
spars. In flight, the force of the air acts against the skin. From the skin, this force is transmitted to the
ribs and then to the spars.
Most wing structures have two spars, the front spar and the rear spar. The front spar is found near the
leading edge while the rear spar is about two-thirds the distance to the trailing edge. Depending on the
design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal wings have as many as five spars. In addition to the
main spars, there is a short structural member which is called an aileron spar.
The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering and provide the airfoil shape. These ribs
are called forming ribs. and their primary purpose is to provide shape. Some may have an additional
purpose of bearing flight stress, and these are called compression ribs.

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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TYPE OF RIBS
There are several types of ribs. Form-ribs, plate-type ribs, truss ribs, closed-ribs, forged ribs and milled
ribs, where form-ribs are used for light to medium loading and milled ribs are as strong as it can get.
Form-ribs are made from a sheet of metal bent into shape, such as a U-profile. This profile is placed on
the skin, just like a stringer, but then in the other direction.
Plate-type ribs consist of sheet-metal, which has upturned edges and (often has) weight-saving holes
cut into it.

Truss ribs are built up out of profiles that are joined together. These joints require great attention during
design and manufacture. The ribs may be light or heavy in design which make them suitable for a wide
range of loads.
Closed-ribs are constructed from profiles and sheet metal and are suitable for closing off sections of the
wing (e.g.: the fuel tank). Here too, particular care must be taken with the joints and this type of rib is
also suitable for application in a variety of loading conditions.
Forged ribs are manufactured using heavy press-machinery. The result is fairly rough; for more refined
parts, high-pressure presses are required, which are very expensive. Forged pieces (usually) have to
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undergo further treatment (for smoother edges and holes). Forged ribs are used for sections where very
high loads apply - near the undercarriage for example.
Milled ribs are solid structures. They are manufactured by milling away excess material from a solid
block of metal (usually using computer-controlled milling machines). The shape of these ribs is always
accurately defined. Such ribs are used under similar conditions as those for forged ribs.
Ribs are made out of wood, metal, plastic, composites, foam. The wings of kites,[1] hang gliders,
paragliders, powered kites, powered hang gliders, ultralights, windmills [5] are aircraft that have
versions that use ribs to form the wing shape.

For full size and flying model aircraft wing structures that are usually made of wood, ribs can either be
in one piece (forming the airfoil at that rib's "station" in the wing), or be in a three-piece format, with
the rib web being the part that the one-piece rib consisted of, with capstrips for the upper and lower
edging of the rib, running from the leading edge to the trailing edge, being the other two component
parts.
SPAR
In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing, running span wise at
right angles (or thereabouts depending on wing sweep) to the fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and
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the weight of the wings whilst on the ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may
be attached to the spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is used.
There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a single spar carries the
majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar.[1]
Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as the tailplane and fin and serve a similar
function, although the loads transmitted may be different to those of a wing spar.
LONGERONS
In aircraft construction, a longeron or stringer or stiffener[1] is a thin strip of wood, metal or carbon
fiber, to which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, longerons are attached to formers
(also called frames) and run the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. In the wing or horizontal
stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach to ribs.
Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer" are used interchangeably. Historically, though, there is a
subtle difference between the two terms. If the longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number
(usually 4 to 8) then they are called "longerons". The longeron system also requires that the fuselage
frames be closely spaced (about every 4 to 6 in/10 to 15 cm). If the longitudinal members are numerous
(usually 50 to 100) then they are called "stringers". In the stringer system the longitudinal members are
smaller and the frames are spaced farther apart (about 15 to 20 in/38 to 51 cm). Generally, longerons
are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers. On large modern aircraft the stringer system is
more common because it is more weight efficient despite being more complex to construct and analyze.
Some aircraft, however, use a combination of both stringers and longerons.
Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to internal
structure. As stated above longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs. But stringers often are not
attached to anything but the skin, where they carry a portion of the fuselage bending moment through
axial loading. It is not uncommon to have a mixture of longerons and stringers in the same major
structural component.

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FORMER

A former is a structural member of an aircraft fuselage, of which a typical fuselage has a series from the
nose to the empennage, typically perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The primary
purpose of formers is to establish the shape of the fuselage and reduce the column length of stringers to
prevent instability. Formers are typically attached to longerons, which support the skin of the aircraft.

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The Former-and-Longeron technique was adopted from boat construction (also called stations and
stringers), and was typical of light aircraft built until the advent of structural skins such as fiberglass
and other composite materials. Many of today's light aircraft, and homebuilt aircraft in particular, are
still designed in this way.

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BULK HEAD
A bulkhead is a wall inside a craft such as a ship, airplane, or spacecraft. Bulkheads serve a number of
structural functions, and there are a wide array of variations on the basic bulkhead design which can be
used in specific applications. The term bulkhead may also be used to describe a retaining wall in a
mine or along a seashore used for control of flood and erosion.

The Chinese appear to have been the first to use bulkheads in their ships. When mariners from other
regions encountered Chinese ships, they took note of the bulkhead design and adopted it for
themselves, causing it to spread rapidly across many shipbuilding cultures. Prior to the use of
bulkheads, the entire hull of a ship would be open, creating a cavernous space.

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One of the most obvious reasons to install bulkheads is to divide a space into usable compartments.
Using bulkheads inside a ship, for example, breaks the space up, which makes it easier to store cargo
and to establish accommodations for people on board the boat. Historically, the use of bulkheads
radically changed shipping, because it allowed companies to sequester various products and to organize
their loads without needing to worry about shifting weight, since the bulkheads held materials in place.

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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3D - VIEW
DIAGRAM

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
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Conclusion:
Thus the V-n diagram has been drawn. Gust and maneuverability envelopes, Critical loading
performance and final V-n graph calculation are done. Load estimation of wings, Load estimation of
fuselage also been finished. The structural components of the wing and the fuselage has been drawn
and verified according to the standards of the aircraft system for the further safety flight.

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BIBILIOGRAPHY:

Aircraft structures for engineering students T.M.G.MEGSON.

Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures E.Bruhn.
Aircraft design Thomas Corke.
Airplane design Daniel.P. Raymer.
Design of Aerospace Darol Stinton.

REFERENCE WEBSITES:

www.aerospaceweb.org
www.continentalaerospacetechnology.org
www.wikipedia.org
www.airliners.net
www.aiee.com
www.diamondaircraft.com
www.google.com

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