Matthew Perez

Burnett 761
05/18/15

Samson: Handel's use of Variety in Texture

Composer of both sacred and secular music, George Frideric Handel was a master of
creating dramatic and well-paced choruses which are able to keep their listeners interested
throughout. In this essay, I will be discussing his English oratorio Samson in order to
demonstrate the composer's ability to vary the textures of his choral writing through the
manipulation of rhythm, motive, harmony, and other such musical elements. Due to its length, I
will only be able to discuss certain sections of the oratorio but will be sure to examine one chorus
from each act. Before we begin our studies, I will first present a brief narrative regarding how
this under-appreciated masterpiece came into being.

I. Historical Context
Samson was conceived during a period in which Handel experienced a number of
personal and financial misfortunes. In 1737 the composer suffered from a stroke which disabled
the use of four fingers on his right hand, preventing him from performing. However, he was able
to make a miraculous recovery after spending only six weeks at a spa. By the year 1740 he
essentially dropped out of the spotlight in London, and only had a few close friends who
continued to encourage him in his composing.1 Handel completed both Imeneo and Deidamia
that year, but neither work was well received. This was due in part to the fact that he did not have
access to any strong singers at the time. Unfortunately, the financial losses from these
productions would leave him bankrupt.2 By 1741, he had withdrawn from public life completely.
1 Newman Flower, George Frideric Handel (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948), 283.
2 Flower, 284.

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However, it was during this time that Jennings approached the composer in question with
selections from his libretto for Messiah.3 Since Handel began working on Samson immediately
upon the completion of this other masterfully crafted oratorio, we are now ready to begin
discussing the circumstances surrounding its origins.
The libretto for this work was adapted from John Milton's Samson Agonistes (published
1671) which is based on the story of Samson from the sixteenth chapter of the book of Judges. 4
Milton was an active poet and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England during the mid
1600s, and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (published only four years prior to his
closet drama Samson Agonistes). Ever popular in eighteenth-century London, closet dramas (that
is, plays which are not intended to be performed on stage) were regularly read both in isolation
by solitary readers and out loud for small groups. It was during such a 1739 gathering at the Earl
of Shaftesbury's (in which Samson Agonistes was read) that Handel was probably inspired to set
the text.5 And although this particular piece of Milton's poetry was never intended for a staged
performance, it had been created in the style of a classical Greek tragedy which lent itself to the
dramatic shape of an oratorio. Newburgh Hamilton (librettist for Alexander's Feast and the
Occasional Oratorio) divided Milton's text into three acts, condensing it from 1758 lines to only
546. Although this sounds like an impressive feat, musicologist Julian Herbage claims that
Hamilton's techniques dealt death to the poet's composition. 6 In any case, the texts for the
remaining arias and choruses were adapted from Milton's psalm paraphrases and at least fifteen

3 Flower, 286.
4 Landgraf, Annette, and David Vickers, eds. The Cambridge Handel Encyclopedia (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2009), 563.
5 Landgraf and Vickers, 563.
6 Julian Herbage, The Oratorios, in Handel: A Symposium, Gerald Abraham ed. (London: Oxford University
Press, 1963), 101.

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different shorter poems.7 And so, the libretto for Samson was completed and ready for Handel to
begin setting in the year 1741.
When Handel began working on Samson, he was able to complete the first act in fifteen
days, the second in twelve days, and the third in eighteen days. Thus, the initial draft of the work
was finished on October 29th of 1741.8 After traveling to Dublin in order to produce the rather
successful premier of Messiah, he returned to London in late August of 1742 and made thorough
revisions to the score in question. 9 Upon the oratorio's completion, Handel showed it the Earl of
Shaftesbury who would later write: Mr Handel has plaid me over his Samson Agonistes. I think
I may dare venture to affirm at once hearing only, that it surpasses any of his greatest former
performances The whole is inexpressibly great and pathetic. 10 The first performance of this
masterwork took place at the Covent Garden Theater on February 18 th of 1743, and it was so
successful that it ran for eight performances in its first season alone. 11 None of Handel's other
oratorios were performed as many times in a single season during his lifetime. The composition
and production of both Messiah and Samson were a major turning point in the composer's life in
terms of both financial recovery and artistic fulfillment. 12
Regarding the text from which the libretto was adapted, Milton's Samson Agonistes
contains a lot of extra-fictional details which were added for the purpose of developing Samson
as a character and lengthening the story presented to us in the sixteenth chapter of the book of
Judges. For example, the characters of Micah (whose name was taken from a character found in
the seventeenth chapter of the book of Judges) and Harapha (an antagonistic Philistine giant)
7
8
9
10
11
12

Landgraf and Vickers, 563.

Landgraf and Vickers, 563.
Landgraf and Vickers, 563.
Landgraf and Vickers, 564.
Flower, 299.
Herbage, 104.

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were completely fabricated in order for the poet to have more flexibility in terms of storytelling.
With these considerations in mind, let us move forward to a brief summary of what happens in
this musical adaptation of Milton's closet drama.
The story begins with Samson already having been captured by the Philistines, blinded,
and in chains. The once-mighty warrior grieves his fate (particularly his loss of sight) while the
Philistines worship their god, Dagon. The chorus of Israelites and Samson's father observe the
protagonist's pitiful state and express a sense hopelessness regarding the immediate situation. At
the end of the act, the Israelites comfort Samson in saying that he will eventually triumph over
both death and time.13 The second act opens with Micah and the chorus of Israelites calling upon
Jehovah to assist Samson in his time of need. Meanwhile, Dalila (who is actually married to
Samson in Milton's drama) is unsuccessfully trying to win back Samson's love. Afterwards,
Harapha mocks Samson and challenges him to a duel but later retracts his request on the grounds
of it being beneath his dignity to fight a blind man. Micah then suggests that the people measure
the power of their gods, and the act concludes with the Philistines and Israelites singing praises
to Dagon and Jehovah, respectively.14 The final act begins with Harapha arriving to bring
Samson to the feast of the Philistines in which Dagon will be worshiped. Samson at first resists,
but then agrees to go with Harapha after devising a plan and warning the Israelites to stay away
from the festivities. Samson's father then comes up with a strategy to free Samson which never
comes to fruition because of the following events: The chorus of Israelites hear the songs of the
Philistines from a distance and then sudden crashing noises accompanied by the sound of panic.
Afterwards, an Israelite messenger arrives to tell the audience what has happened. Just as it is in

13 Winton Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), 327.
14 Dean, 327.

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the book of Judges, Samson has pulled down the building in which the feast was taking place on
both the heads of Philistines and himself. The now-redeemed hero's dead body is brought out,
and the children of Israel play and sing a funeral march. As a way of wrapping things up, the
story ends with the chorus of Israelites singing praises to their god and heavenly ruler, Jehovah. 15
Now equipped with an understanding of the drama behind the musical setting, we will dive into
the choruses of Handel's Samson.

II. An Analysis
The first chorus we hear, Awake the trumpet's lofty sound, is preceded by the work's
overture (along with a brief recitative from Samson) which utilizes horns in its orchestration.
This choice of instrumentation helps to set the scene for the following Philistine ritual since
horns are associated with paganism in Handel's works.16 And although this chorus is not
particularly chromatic or harmonically active, it does eventually reach phrases in the dominant
and subdominant key areas. Starting with a flurry of sixteenth notes in the orchestra, the chorus
features a fanfare-like arpeggiation of the tonic triad as sung by the altos and tenors in m. 3 (Ex.
1). What is particularly impressive about this musical setting is how it displays Handel's ability
to switch between staggered entrances, homophony, and unison passages as a means of creating
variety and excitement. Even musicologist Winton Dean notes that these Philistines are a little
more contrapuntal than most of Handel's pagans. 17 The first variation we see is the
fragmentation of the opening arpeggiation (in the sopranos and basses at m. 7-9) being used as a
contrapuntal extension against the phrase awake the trumpet's lofty sound (Ex. 2). What
follows is a completely homophonic statement of the second line of text in m. 10-12 which
15 Dean, 327.
16 Herbage, 102.
17 Dean, 338.

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Example 1. Awake the trumpet's lofty sound, m. 1-3

Example 2. Awake the trumpet's lofty sound, m. 7-9

utilizes a nearly identical echo of the voice leading observed in m. 9-10. Note how Handel has
transformed the opening motive in these measures by redirecting the arpeggio upwards. In this

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Example 3. Awake the trumpet's lofty sound, m. 17-19

Example 4. Awake the trumpet's lofty sound, m. 27-28

way, the highest voice contains an F sounding one octave higher than it did in the initial
statement at m. 4. We then see a unison passage (whose melodic profile is taken from the
orchestral motive heard in the first two measures) in m. 13-15 which is used to strongly

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punctuate the final line of text in the chorus. The composer then introduces a new motive in
stretto as sung by the lower three voices and doubled by the orchestra in m. 17-18. These three
voices return to homophony in m. 19 and are complimented by the sopranos' contrapuntal
statement of fragments from the opening motive (Ex. 3). Another stretto of the new musical
material is presented (though now in a new key) in which we see a similar contrapuntal
interjection from the basses in m. 22 as followed by another unison passage from m. 23-25.
Thus, Handel has switched between four completely different textures over the span of only
seven measures. After a brief homophonic passage in m. 25-26, the sopranos begin a new stretto
(using the arpeggiated motive from the opening of the chorus) which lasts from m. 27-29 (Ex. 4).
After this point, the composer recycles these homophonic passages, unison statements, and
strettos in order to redirect the harmonic structure of the chorus back to the tonic. The last thing
we should observe is the way Handel brings nearly all of the opening material back starting in m.
39. This technique gives the chorus a rounded feel, allowing for the music to end with a final
statement from the lofty trumpets and unison sixteenth note passage as played by the strings. It
is evident from this work that the composer's ability to create a variety of textures through the
use of development and transformation was above average. But before we draw any conclusions,
let us take a look at another section of Samson.
The next chorus we will be dissecting (Hear, Jacob's God) was heavily influenced by
Giacomo Carissimi's Plorate filiae Israel from his Historia di Jephte.18 In making observations
on this particular musical setting, Dean has noted that Handel's taste in Carissimi was
impeccable, and that the two choruses contain many parallels

18 Landgraf and Vickers, 124.

19 Dean, 341.

19

. A particularly important

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similarity to notice is that both Carissimi's aeolian modality and six-part scoring is retained in
Hear, Jacob's God. Handel's chorus begins with an E major sonority in the upper three voices
which makes use of the same voicing found in m. 1 of Plorate filiae Israel (Ex. 5). This crying
out to their god is echoed in the lower three voices at m. 2, and is followed by another plea from
the women while the men sing in counterpoint against them in slower note values. Note in m. 3-4
how Handel (probably for the purpose of rhythmic interest) decided to have the lower two voices
sing in homophony while the 1st tenors were assigned the very same rhythm to be sung in the
opposite order. We reach our first big cadence in E major at m. 5 which corresponds to m. 7 of
Carissimi's chorus in which the same harmonic goal is realized. What occurs next is a threemeasure homophonic passage in which we are moved from an unprepared C major sonority to G
major. This motion from V to III creates a conflict between pitch classes G and G which is
played out over the course of the chorus. Following this cadence is the presentation of a new
motive in the basses on the words Israel depends on thee alone. This moment (along with the
accompanying staggered entrances on the words save us from m. 10-13) is a reflection of m.
11-16 of Plorate filiae Israel. During this extensive passage, Handel combines the motivic
material set to the words Israel depends on thee alone, save us, and and show that thou art
near in order to create an intensely polyphonic texture which eventually drives the harmony to a
cadence in G major on the third beat of m. 20. This brings us to what I feel is the most poignant
and emotionally stirring moment of both choruses. What we see in m. 23-27 of Carissimi's work
is a heartrending call and response between the upper voices, creating a number of stunning
suspensions over the systematically ascending bass line (Ex. 6). This very same collection of
pitch classes, use of an ascending bass line, and gorgeous suspensions (albeit cut short in m. 24

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Example 5A. Hear, Jacob's God, m. 1-6

Example 5B. Plorate filiae Israel, m. 1-6

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Example 6. Plorate filiae Israel, m. 21-27

Example 7. Hear, Jacob's God, m. 20-27

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in preparation for the next cadence) is what we hear being utilized in Hear, Jacob's God at m.
20-23 (Ex. 7). Both choruses end these beautiful phrases with a cadence in G major as followed
by a motion to a new passage in E major as a means of further developing the G/G dyad
conflict. The mostly homophonic statements of the texts o Jacob's God, Jehovah, hear (in m.
25-28) and oh, save us, prostrate at thy throne (found in m. 29-31) correspond with m. 29-32
and m. 32-35 of Plorate filiae Israel, respectively. Each of these passages (in both Handel's and
Carissimi's choruses) begin and end on an E major sonority, ultimately leading to another modal
shift to C major in m. 32 in which the conflict between G and G is again highlighted. The only
thing missing from Handel's adaptation of Carissimi's six-part setting is the intervening E minor
chord which acts as a link between E major and C major. However, this trimming of notes was
probably intentional as leaving the intermediary harmony out allowed for the composer to
express a different kind of musical affect. Still in a homophonic texture, the choral writing m. 3234 reflect m. 36-39 of the Carissimi since both phrases begin in C major and end on an A major
sonority as followed by another section of staggered entrances. It is from this point on in Hear,
Jacob's God that we no longer see any comparable musical structures in relation to Plorate
filiae Israel. Just like in m. 9-20, m. 34-42 combine the three different poetic fragments save
us, and show that thou art near, and Israel depends on thee alone in a complex polyphonic
setting. These measures lead us to the last phrase of the chorus spanning from m. 43 to the
double bar in which all six voice parts unite in homophony as a means of punctuating the final
half-cadence (Ex. 8). It is this last passage that confirms G as the victor over G in the modally
motivated dyad conflict of this section in Samson. Handel's ability to adapt the structure of
Carissimi's chorus for his own purposes and masterful display of his fluency in an older style is

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Example 8. Hear, Jacob's God, m. 42-49

certainly impressive, but instead of expounding on these thoughts we will now move ahead to the
final chorus of the oratorio as a means of understanding how the composer is able to use variety
in texture and technique to end a dramatic work.
Let their celestial concerts all unite is the final musical setting of the work, and Herbage
notes that this particular chorus certainly concludes Samson in a blaze of glory, trumpets and

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timpani adding their fanfares to the broad choral themes.20 However, Dean suggests that the
preceding requiem for Samson was the original end of the oratorio, and after hearing it one is
tempted to wish it had so remained.21 Seeing that Handel's writing process was interrupted by
his trip to Dublin, and that the composer wrote both Let their celestial concerts all unite and the
preceding aria Let the bright seraphim before the oratorio's premier in London, there is little
reason to suggest that the solemn musical affect expressed by Glorious hero was intended to
conclude the work. Having that said, let us take a close look at how the true finale makes use of
variety in texture for the purposes of generating interest and complimenting the drama.
The initial two measures of Let their celestial concerts all unite feature a presentation of
the first motive (hereinafter motive a) as sung by the sopranos (Ex. 9). This phrase is
completely without orchestral accompaniment, a textural idea which will return throughout the
chorus. What follows in m. 3-4 is a homophonic restatement of the words let their celestial
concerts all unite by all four voice parts as complimented by the orchestra's first entrance. Note
that the tenors make use of motive a in inversion, a technique which will be often utilized in
the measures to follow. We next hear the basses singing the first half of the second line of text
(ever to sound his praise) as set to a new rhythmic idea (hereinafter motive b) against the
faster-moving oboe lines (Ex. 10). The altos then come in with motive b (having been
transposed up by an octave) at m. 7 in imitation of the basses who are now utilizing the same
contrapuntal idea (with an additional arpeggiated anacrusis, hereinafter motive c) as used by
the oboes in the previous measures (Ex. 11). These two voices continue in counterpoint until the
basses introduce a fourth motivic idea (hereinafter motive d) set to the words in endless blaze

20 Herbage, 104.
21 Dean, 344.

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Example 9. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 1-2
A

Example 10. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 5-6

Example 11. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 7

B

Example 12. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 9

D

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of light in m. 8-10 (Ex. 12). The next moment of interest occurs at m. 10 in which a stretto of
motive c between the tenors and sopranos begins over a sustained A in the altos and basses.
This texture continues until we hear a second four-part homophonic statement of the text let
their celestial concerts all unite in m. 13-16. The basses then help to keep the momentum of the
chorus up by reintroducing motive c at the anacrusis to m. 17 (at which point the motive has
been inverted) in which the upper three voices present another unique motivic texture. This new
idea (as sung by the sopranos, altos, and tenors, hereinafter motive e) is an outgrowth of
motive b and makes use of quarter notes and eighth notes against the basses' quickly moving
line from m. 17-18 (Ex. 13). However, it is important to note that the upper three voices are not
in complete homophony as the sopranos make use of fragments from motive c as a means of
decorating their melodic profile. It is the basses who motivate the end of this passage by using
motive d as a way to reign the voices in for a brief moment of homophony in m. 19-20 as
followed by an inversion of what we just heard. In m. 21-22 we see that the sopranos are now
utilizing an inverted motive c while the other three voices compliment it with motive e (now
in complete in homophony). What follows starting in m. 23 is a mostly homophonic cadential
passage (in which the tenors utilize an inverted fragment of motive d in m. 26) which serves as
a link to another section of the chorus. This next portion begins with yet another homophonic
statement of the opening motive as followed by a new combination of melodic material. What
happens in m. 29-34 is that the sopranos are singing motive a while the tenors are in
counterpoint against them with motive c. This is followed by the imitative entrances (utilizing
motive a at different pitch levels) of the altos and basses at m. 31 and 33, respectively. A
similarly complex and contrapuntal passage occurs from m. 35-38 in which the sopranos sing

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Example 13. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 9

motive e against imitative entrances of motive c (in both its original form and inversion)
from the altos, tenors, and basses in m. 35, 36, and 37, respectively. This is then followed up with
another homophonic statement of motive a on the words let their celestial concerts all unite.
However, this particular passage is different in that the orchestral accompaniment has completely
dropped out in preparation for its dramatic return at m. 41 (Ex. 14). This exciting entry is set to a
homophonic echo of motive a which has been shifted up to a higher pitch level. We next see
motives c (in inversion) and e being pitted against one another in a two-part texture in m. 4344 as followed by a stretto of motive c in the upper two voices from m. 45-48. A reintroduction
of the texture which features motive e as sung by the sopranos, altos, and tenors in
counterpoint with the basses' motive c takes place in m. 49-50. This is then followed by a

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Example 14. Let their celestial concerts all unite, m. 39-43

powerful homophonic statement set to the words in endless blaze of light in m. 51-54 which
features the sopranos' utilization of an inverted fragment of motive d in the cadence preceding

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the next phrase. This next moment in which the altos and tenors sing in thirds without any
orchestral accompaniment from m. 55-56 is echoed by the two trumpets in m. 57-58. The
following texture involves the upper three voices on motive b while the basses are singing
motive c as set to the words ever to sound his praise in m. 59-60. A brief homophonic
passage from m. 61-64 brings us to an exact repetition of m. 55-58. What we see in m. 69 is that
the lower three voices are utilizing motive e while the soprano switches from motive b to an
inverted fragment of motive c, ultimately joining together in homophony for the final six of
Samson's gloriously orchestrated measures.

III. Conclusions
Handel's ability as a composer of dramatic choruses is unlike that of any other, and it is
clear that his use of variety was carefully calculated in each of his works. In his oratorio Samson,
we have now see that the composer was able to use a large number of textures, an adaptation of
an older style, and multiple motives which are capable of combining in different ways as a means
of writing compelling and thoroughly interesting choruses. In light of the fact that this essay
examined only three of the composer's musical settings, it is obvious that Handel's pallet of
compositional techniques was rather extensive. Further study on the topic would yield valuable
information for musicologists, theorists, and composers who are interested in gaining an insight
into what makes for an effective use of variety in texture.

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Bibliography
Burnett, Henry, and Roy Nitzberg. Composition, Chromaticism, and the Developmental Process.
Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007.
Julian Herbage, The Oratorios, in Handel: A Symposium, Gerald Abraham ed. London: Oxford
University Press, 1963.
Landgraf, Annette, and David Vickers, eds. The Cambridge Handel Encyclopedia. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Newman Flower, George Frideric Handel. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948.
Sedley Taylor, The Indebtedness of Handel to Works by other Composers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1906.
Winton Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques. London: Oxford University Press,
1959.