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We cannot just list all the methods of proof, as new methods are developed from time to
time and this process is never ending. However we list here a few of these methods which are
commonly used in problems related to mathematical Olympiads irrespective of the branch of
mathematics to which the problem is related to.
Argument by Contradiction.
Mathematical induction.
No square is negative or completing squares.
Telescopic sums and products.
Arranging numbers in order.
Parity considerations.
Looking at extreme situation or solution.
Doing a problem in two different ways.
Relating two different situations
Pigeon hole principle.
Symmetric considerations.
Argument by contradiction
In this method first the statement is assumed to be false and then a sequence of
logical deductions yield a conclusion that contradicts either the hypothesis or a fact which
is known to be true.
Examples
1. Prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers
Solution:- Assume to the contrary that there are only finitely many prime
numbers. List them all as
pi
as
E1= { x 1 , x 2 , xr }
Because none of
xi Ej
for
lies in the intersection of all the Ejs ( the intersection of all sets in
F being empty), it follows that for each i there we can find some set
that
xi
. Then we have
E1 E j E j =
1
Ej
such
E1
E1
follows.
Mathematical Induction
We have following variations of the induction principle:
Given
Given
Given
(i)
If
(ii)
If for every
Then
k n0
If P(
(ii)
If for
Then
n0
n0
(i)
i k,
P (i )
and
is true implies
P ( k +1 ) is true
If P(m),P(m+1),,P(m+r)
(ii)
If
P(k+r+1)
Then P(n), is true for all integers n m.
P ( k +1 ) is true
(ii)
Examples
n
1. Prove that for any n 1, a 2 2 chess board with one 11 square removed can be tiled
by Triminos, the blocks consisting of three 11 squares put together to make L-shape, of
the type shown in fig. 1
Fig.1
Solution:-The result is obvious for n = 1 as after removing one square from the 22
square we are left with just one trinimo. Now suppose the result is true for n-1, i.e. for the
2n-12n-1 squares, consider the 2n2n square with one square removed, the following
diagram shows such square with n = 4
Fig.2
Divide this square in 4 equal parts ( here the division is shown by red lines in the
fig.2).Clearly one of the four parts will have the removed square. Place one trinimo at the
centre in such a way that it cover one square each from the remaining three of the four
parts as shown in the fig.3
Fig.3
2. For any natural number N, prove that
N1
() N
..
4
3
2
3()
() N
..
( m+2)
( m+1)
m
m+ 1
N < N+1 , which is clearly true for N > 1. Suppose the result is
N1
() N
..
( m+1)
m
(m1)
( m1 )( m+1 )
No square is negative
Here we use the fact that square of a real number is non negative.
Examples
1. Let a be a real number, prove that 4a a4 3.
Solution: - The inequality is equivalent to
(a2 1)2 +2(a -1)2 0,
Which is clearly true for real values of a.
2. Determine whether there exists a one to one function
2
f ( x )(f ( x ) )
f:
1
4 .
Solution: - We will show that such a function does not exist. The idea is simple. We look
for two numbers that are equal to their squares, namely 0 and 1.
2
For x = 0, 1 we have f ( x )=f (x ) . We first put
and obtain
f ( 0 )(f (0))2
1 2
(f ( 0 ) ) =0 , i.e.
2
1 2
(
)
(f
0
) 0 so we conclude that
, this implies
2
1
4
f ( 0 )=
x=0
1
2
f ( 1 )=
1
2
1
2
so that
the
form
are
sums
which
can
be
put
in
F(i+1)F (i)
()
n
i=0
F (k )
F (k +1)
k=1
In both the cases the in between terms cancel and we compute the value of the
sum or the product whichever the case may be.
Examples
1. Evaluate
n
( k +1 )
0
1
k + k (k +1)
( k +1 ) kk ( k +1 )
1
1
1
=
=
k (k +1)
( k +1 ) k + k ( k +1 )
k k + 1
2. Prove that
n=2
(1 n1 )= 12
2
1
1
= 1
2
n
n
n=2
1
2
as N .
1+
n =2
1
n1
=
n n=2 n
n=2
Which
n =2
Examples
1. Given 7 distinct positive integers that add upto100 Prove that some three of them add
upto at least 50.
Solution:- we assume that the seven numbers are a, b, c,.., g with a < b < c
<.< g. We will show that e + f+ g 50.
If e > 15 then we get e + f + g 16 + 17 + 18 = 51.
If e 15 , then we get a + b + c + d 14 + 13 + 12 + 11 = 50
2
and hence e +
f + g 100 (a + b + c + d) 50.
Prove that among any 50 distinct positive integers strictly less than 100 there are two that
are coprime.
Solution:- Order the numbers as
two consecutive integers then they are coprime and we are done. Otherwise we have
x 50 x 1 +2.49 99
Since
x 50<100
implies
that
x 50=99
and
Parity considerations
Some problems are solved by just looking at the parity( even and odd property) of
the numbers under consideration.
Examples
1. There are 100 soldiers in a detachment, and every evening three of them are on
duty. Can it happen that after a certain period of time each soldier has shared duty
with every other soldier exactly once.
Solution: - Suppose that what ever required in the problem can happen. Fix one of
the soldier
S1
S1
times and as no person on duty with him is repeated the number of persons with
whom he has shared his duty is 2m which is even however he need to share duty
with 99 other soldiers once and as 99 is odd, this is not possible.
2. Forty five Points are chosen along line AB, all lying outside the segment AB.
Prove that the sum of the distances from these points to the point A is not equal to
the sum of distances of these points to the point B.
Solution:- for any point X lying out side segment AB, the difference
AX BX= AB .Let the given point be
X 1 , X 2 , . X 45
, then we obtain
A X iB X i
45
()= AB0
i=1
45
45
A X i B X i =
i=1
45
i=1
i=1
(As for the last sum to be zero we must have as many AB with positive sign as are
with negative sign. But the total number of terms is 45 which is odd. )
3. The product of 22 integers is 1. Show that their sum cannot be zero.
Solution:- Each of these integer must divide the product which is 1 so that the
values taken by these integers are 1. To obtain the sum as zero we must have
equal number of +1s as are -1s. But then there are 11 -1s, which is odd and the
product of these numbers must then be -1, a contradiction and hence the proof.
4. The numbers from 1 to 10 are written along a row . Can the signs + and be
placed between them so that the value of the resulting expression is 0.
Solution:- Note that the sum of first 10 numbers is 45, which is an odd number.
Now denote by a the sum of sum of numbers with positive sign and by b the
sum of numbers with negative sign. Clearly the value of the expression is a - b If
this value happens to be zero this will imply that a = b, and hence
45 = a + b = 2a, an even number, a contradiction. This proves the result.
5. Consider the chess board with two corner squares along one of the diagonals
removed as shown in the Fig.4 Can this be covered by 21 rectangles as shown
in Fig.5? If possible to cover 31 such rectangles are required.
Fig.4
Fig.5
Solution:- Answer is No. We justify our answer by the following argument.
As shown in the Diagram, there are 32 black squares and 30 white
squares. If we pair each black square with a white square in whichever way we
get 30 pairs and two black squares are left unpaired. Also when we place any
Looking at Invariants
In some of the problem we allow certain things or numbers to change, i.e. we replace a
set of numbers by another set of numbers etc. In order to solve such a problem we look out for
something which does not undergo any change during the whole process. This helps us in
solving the problem. The something which remains same during the process is called invariant.
We list below some examples.
Examples
1. Suppose for a positive odd integer n, the numbers 1,2,3,.2n are written on a
black board.. We pick any two numbers a and b erase them and write instead , |ab| .
Prove that an odd number will remain at the end.
Solution:- Suppose S is the sum of all numbers on the board at any stage. ( Here S is a
variable quantity). Initially
of S will remain odd. Hence S will also be odd at the end. But at the end we are left with
only one number, hence that number must be odd.
2. The numbers 1, 2, 3,.., 20 are written on a blackboard. It is allowed to erase any two
numbers a and b and write the new number a+b1 . What number will be on the
blackboard after 19 such operations?
Solution: - For any collection
of
numbers
on
the
black
board,
let
numbers to a collection of
n1
denote
the
new
value
of
by
a+b1
and if
then
operations only one number will be left and the value of X will again be 190. the
number = X+1 =191.
Examples
1.
Prove that
n
2 = n
k=0 k
n
()
(1)
()
clearly
(nk )
k=0
yi
Using determinants
Area of the =
| |
x
1 1
x
2 2
x3
y1 1
y2 1
y3 1
(nr)
Now let us count the number of paths from A to C where along the following grid
horizontal left to right and vertical upwards motions are allowed.
Fig.7
To reach from A to C one need to make 6 vertical steps and 9 horizontal steps. (Total 15
steps) While constructing a path we write 1 if horizontal step is taken and we write 0 if vertical
step is taken, this way we obtain a binary sequence of length 15 with 6 zeros there is unique such
sequence associated to a given path. Also from a binary sequence of length 15 with 6 zeros we
can construct an unique path. So that
Number of such paths = Number of binary sequences of length 15 with 6 zeros =
(156 )
n+1
distribute the objects into the boxes randomly or applying some rule, the conclusion is that there
must be some box containing at least two objects
Or
More generally if we have more than
nk +1
the objects into the boxes randomly or applying some rule, the conclusion is that there must be
some box containing at least k +1 objects.
Examples
1. In any group of n persons there are two who have the same number of acquaintances.
Solution:- Each of the persons may have 0,1,2,3,., n - 1 acquaintances. If any one
of these has 0 acquaintances then none will have n1 acquaintances and if any
one of these has n - 1 acquaintances then none of them will have 0 acquaintance. So
that the number of acquaintances for all n persons are coming from the set {0,1,2,3,
., n 2} or {1,2,3,., n 1} We consider boxes numbered 0 to n -2 or 1 to n
1,
as the case may be. Now we allot box numbered i to a person having i acquaintances.
As the number of persons is n and number of boxes is n1 , there must be two
associated to the same box so the result follows.
2. Let A be a subset consisting of 101 numbers chosen from. {1,2,3,., 200} Show
that there exists a , b A such that a|b .
Solution:- We make 100 boxes indexed by first 100 odd integers i.e. 1,3,5,.,199.
k
c1
Now we pick any element say c of A and write it as c=2 c 1 , where
is odd.
c1
, this is possible as
c1
than 200. Now there are 101 elements and 100 boxes one of the boxes must contain at
k
a=2 c and
let
ri
infinite and the set of remainders consists of 2009 numbers ( 0 to 2008) there must be
a ja k
two numbers in the sequence
, with j<k such that their remainders are
same but then
ak a j=11111
...0000
'
with k j1 s j 0 ' s
is divisible by 2009.
Symmetric considerations
a jk
Examples
1. There are two piles of balls as shown in the fig.8. At each turn, a player may take
away as many balls as he chooses, but only from one of the piles. The winner is
the player who takes away last ball. Who can win the game?. Explain the strategy.
Fig.8
(i)
(ii)
in a position symmetric to the coin placed by the second player, with respect to
the centre of the table. Notice that in such a strategy the positions of the two
players are symmetric after each move of the first player. It follows that if there is
a possible turn for the second player, and then there is a possible response for the
first player, who will therefore win.
p
q
C
f
Fig.6