Chapter 12 Handouts

Chapter 12: Phenomena
Chapter 12:
Quantum
Mechanics and
Atomic Theory
Phenomena: Different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation were directed

onto two different metal sample (see picture). Scientist then record if any
particles were ejected and if so what type of particle as well as the speed of the
particle. What patterns do you see in the results that were collected?
K
Fe
Exp.
Wavelength of Light
Directed at Sample
Intensity
Where Particles
Ejected
Ejected
Particle
5.410-7 m
Medium
Yes
e-
Speed of
Ejected Particle
4.9104
3.310-8 m
High
Yes
e-
3.5106
2.0 m
High
No
N/A
3.310-8 m
Low
Yes
e-
2.0 m
Medium
No
N/A
6.110-12 m
High
Yes
e-
5.5104 m
High
No
N/A
N/A
Exp.
Wavelength of Light
Directed at Sample
5.410-7 m
2.7108
Where Particles
Ejected
Ejected
Particle
Speed of
Ejected Particle
No
N/A
N/A
3.410-11 m
High
Yes
e-
3.9103 m
Medium
No
N/A
2.410-8
High
Yes
e-
3.9103 m
Low
No
N/A
Radiation
Electromagnetic
Radiation
N/A
Medium
o Electromagnetic
N/A
3.5106
o Quantum
Ejected
Particle
Big Idea: The structure of atoms

must be explained
using quantum
mechanics, a theory in
which the properties of
particles and waves
merge together.
1.1108
N/A
4.1106
N/A
2.610-7 m
Low
Yes
e-
1.1105
3.410-11 m
Low
Yes
e-
1.1108
Theory
in a Box
o The Hydrogen Atom
o Quantum Numbers
o Orbitals
o Many Electron Atoms
o Periodic Trends
o Particle
Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic
Radiation: Consists of oscillating

(time-varying)electric and magnetic fields that
travel through space at 2.998 108 (c = speed
of light) or just over 660 million mph.
Wavelength
(): Is the
peak-to-peak distance.
Note: Changing the wavelength changes the
region of the spectrum (i.e. x-ray to visible).
Amplitude:
Determines
brightness of the
radiation.
Note: All forms of radiation transfer energy from one region of space into another.
Examples of Electromagnetic Radiation:

Visible light
Radio Waves
X-Rays
Frequency
(): The
number of cycles per
second (1 1 ).
Quantum Theory
If
white light is passed

through a prism, a
continuous spectrum
of light is found.
However, when the
light emitted by
excited hydrogen
atoms is passed
through a prism the
radiation is found to
consist of a number
of components or
spectra lines.
Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory
Black
Body: An object that absorbs and emits all

frequencies of radiation without favor.
Heated Black Bodies
Theory
Scientists used classical physics arguments to
derive an expression for the energy density
(Rayleigh Jens Law).

The Problem With Explaining Black Body Radiation

Using Classical Mechanics
Classical mechanics put
no limits on minimum
wavelength therefore at
very small , would be a
huge value even for low temperatures.
Note: max is the most prevalent wavelength, not the longest wavelength.
Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory
Max
Plank: Proposed that the exchange

of energy between matter and radiation
occurs in quanta, or packets of energy.
His central idea was that a charged
particle oscillating at a frequency , can
exchange energy with its surroundings by
generating or absorbing electromagnetic
radiation only in discrete packets of
energy.
Quanta: Packet of energy (implies minimum
energy that can be emitted).
Charged particles oscillating at a frequency, ,
can only exchange energy with their
surroundings in discrete packets of energy.
Photoelectric
Effect: Ejection of electrons from a

metal when its surface is exposed to ultra violet
radiation.
Quantum Theory
Findings
1)
2)
3)
11
Quantum Theory
of the Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric
No electrons are ejected unless the radiation has a

frequency above a certain threshold value
characteristic of the metal.
Electrons are ejected immediately, however low the
intensity of the radiation.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons
increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation.
Albert
10
Work
Function ( ): The minimum amount of

energy required to remove an electron from the
surface of a metal.
Einstein
Proposed that electromagnetic radiation consists

of massless particles (photons)
Photons are packets of energy
Energy of a single photon =
Effect
Electromagnetic radiation consists of streams of photons

traveling with frequency, , and energy
.
Photons collide with metal.
If the photons have enough energy, electrons will be
removed from the metal.
If
If
no electron ejected
electron will be ejected
Note: This relationship is not intensity dependent.
12
Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory
With
what speed will the fastest electrons

be emitted from a surface whose
threshold wavelength is 600. nm, when
the surface is illuminated with light of
wavelength 4.0 10 7 ?
13
H atoms only emit/absorb certain

frequencies.
What is causing these properties?
Electrons can only exist with
certain energies.
The spectral lines are transitions
from one allowed energy level to
another.
Quantum Theory
Finding

Quantum Theory
energy levels of H atom
Student Question
3.29
What is the wavelength of the radiation

emitted by a 2 atom when an electron
transitions between 4 to the 2 levels?
Helpful Hint: c = 2.998108
(Found experimentally)
10
Note: In this equation n2 is always the large number which corresponds to the
higher energy level.
3.29
10
6.626
10
3.29
10
Note: The negative sign appeared because a negative sign was taken out of
parenthesis.
a) -1.6641024 m
b) -5.39910-8 m
10
c) 1.62110-7 m
Energy level of H atom
-2.178
2.178
10
d) 4.86410-7 m
n= 1, 2, 3,
e) None of the Above
Energy level of other 1e- systems
2.178
10
n= 1, 2, 3,
15
14
16
Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory
Constructive
When light passes

though a pair of closely
spaced slits, circular
waves are generated at
each slit. These waves
interfere with each
other.
Where they interfere

constructively, a bright
line is seen on the screen
behind the slits; where
the interference is
destructive, the screen is
dark.
Interference: When the

peaks of waves
coincide, the amplitude
of the resulting wave is
increased.
Destructive
Interference:
When the peak of one
wave coincides with the
trough of another wave
the resulting wave is
decreased.
17
18
Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory
Particles have wave like properties, therefore,
classical mechanics are incorrect.
Student Question
What is the wavelength of an electron traveling
the speed of light?
at
Helpful information:
h = 6.62610-34 Js
9.109
10
Classical Mechanics:
Particles have a defined trajectory.
Location and linear momentum can be
specified at every moment.
and
a) 2.4210-9 m
Quantum Mechanics:
behave like waves.
Cannot specify the precise location of a
particle.
b) 2.4210-12 m
Particles
c) 4.121011 m
d) None of the Above
Note: For the hydrogen atom, the duality means that we are not going to be able
to know the speed of an electron orbiting the nucleus in a definite trajectory.
19
20
Quantum Theory
Particle in a Box
Particle in a 1-D Box
Boundary Conditions
Wavefunction
( ): A solution of the Schrdinger

equation; the probability amplitude.
Note: This gives you a representation of the particles trajectory.
Examples :
sin
What
sin
Probability
Density ( ): A function that, when

multiplied by volume of the region, gives the
probability that the particle will be found in that
region of space.
is the wavefunction?
sin 0
sin
Note: n is a quantum number. Quantum numbers are integers or integers

that label a wavefunction.
Note: The term
Note: This value must be between 0 and 1
21
0
0
is there for normalization in order to get
Particle in a Box
22
Particle in a Box
What are the allowed energy levels?
Plug 2nd derivative back into wavefunction
Get the allowed energy levels from Schrdingers equation
sin
sin
Cancel out
Note: V(x)=0 for the particle in a box
Take
1st
derivative of
Simplify
Take
2nd
derivative of
23
24
The Hydrogen Atom
The Hydrogen Atom

Atomic Orbitals: A region
of space in which there is
a high probability of
finding an electron in an
atom.
Wavefunction of an electron in a
1-electron atom
, ,
Note: The wavefunctions of electrons

are the atomic orbitals.
The
wavefunction of an electron is given in

spherical polar coordinates
Radial Wavefunction
Angular Wavefunction
= distance from the center of the atom

= the angle from the positive z-axis, which can be
thought of as playing the role of the geographical
latitude
= the angle about the z-axis, the geographical
longitude
25
The Hydrogen Atom

General
atom:
26
The Hydrogen Atom
wavefunction expression for a hydrogen
Schrdinger Equation for the H-atom

sin
+1
Columbic potential energy between the proton

and electron
Reduced mass (proton and electron)
-1
Scientists have solved for the energy of the H-atom
0
+2
-1
+1
-2
3.290
10
principle quantum number can be 1, 2, 3,

planks constant 6.6260810-34Js
27
The Hydrogen Atom
Quantum Numbers
Principle Quantum Number
Related To: Size and Energy
Allowed Values: 1,2,3, (shells)
Pictured:
The
permitted energy
levels of a
hydrogen atom.
The levels are
labeled with the
quantum number
which ranges
from 1 (ground
state) to .
29
28
Note: The larger the , the larger the size, the larger the orbital, and the larger the
energy.
Note: When identifying the orbital, the value comes in front of the orbital type.
Example:
3p
30
Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers
Angular Momentum Quantum Number ( )

Related To: Shape
Allowed Values: 0,1,2, ,
1 (subshells)
What are the possible values
given the following values?
1
2
3
1
2
3
What type of orbital is associated with

the following quantum numbers?
1
2
3
1 and
2 and
3 and
Value Orbital
of l
Type
What are the possible values of

following and values:
1
1 and
0
2
2 and
1
3
2 and
0
0
1
0
31
Magnetic Quantum Number ( )

Related To: Orientation in space
(specifies exactly which orbital [ex: ])
Allowed Values: ,
1, , 0, , (orbitals)
32
Quantum Numbers
given the
Quantum Numbers
summary of the arrangements of shells,

subshells, and orbitals in an atom and the
corresponding quantum numbers.
Note: The quantum number ml is an alternative label for the individual orbitals: in
chemistry, it is more common to use x, y, and z instead.
33
34
Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers
Student Question
Electron Spin Quantum Number ( )

Related To: Spin of the electron
Allowed Values: (spin up ) or - (spin
down )
The following set of quantum numbers is not

allowed: 3, 0, 2. Assuming that
the and
values are correct, change the
value to an allowable combination.
1
2
c)
3
d)
4
e) None of the Above
a)
b)
35
36
Orbitals
Orbitals
What does an s-orbital (
1 and
0

, ,
, ,
The simplest way of

drawing an atomic
orbital is as a boundary
surface, a surface within which there is a high probability
(typically 90%) of finding the electron. The darker the
shaded region within the boundary surfaces, the larger the
probability of the electron being found there.
38
Orbitals
What
Orbitals
do p-orbitals (
1) look like?
39
What
2) look like?
Many Electron Atoms
The
electrons in many-electron atoms

occupy orbitals like those of hydrogen
but the energy of the orbitals differ.
The
number of electrons in an atom affects the

properties of the atom.
Potential Energy for He atom (2 p and 2 e-)
Attraction of
electron 1 to
the nucleus
Differences
between the many-electron

orbital energies and hydrogen atom
orbital energies:
Attraction of
electron 2 to
the nucleus
nucleus of the many-electron orbitals have

more positive charge attracting the electrons,
thus lowering the energy.
The electrons repel each other raising the
energy.
Repulsion
between the
two electrons
2
4
The
do d-orbitals (
40
Many Electron Atoms
41
) of lowest energy
(angular wavefuction)
37
The three s-orbitals (
(radial wavefunction)
0) look like?
= distance between electron 1 and the nucleus
= distance between electron 2 and the nucleus
12
= distance between the two electrons
Note: H with 1 electron has no electron-electron repulsion and the electron will have
the same energy if is the 2s or 2p orbital (all orbitals within one shell degenerate).
42
Many Electron Atoms
Many Electron Atoms
Why do the energies change?

Shielding: The repulsion experienced by
an electron in an atom that arises from
the other electrons present and
opposes the attraction exerted by the
nucleus.
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff): The net
nuclear charge after taking into
account the shielding caused by other
electrons in the atom.
7p 7d 7f
6s
6p 6d 6f
5s
5p 5d 5f
4s
4p 4d 4f
3s
3p 3d
2s
2p
1s
Note: s electrons can penetrate through the nucleus while p and

d electrons cannot.
Amount of Shielding
P
D
7s
Order of Orbital Filling

1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
4s
3d
4p
5s
4d
5p
Distance from nucleus

43
44
Many Electron Atoms
Many Electron Atoms
Electron
Configuration: A list of an atoms

occupied orbitals with the number of electrons
that each contains.
Subshell l
s
p
d
f
In the ground state the electrons occupy atomic orbitals

in such a way that the total energy of the atom is a
minimum.
We might expect that atoms would have all their
electrons in the 1s orbital however this is only true for H
and He.
Writing Electron Configurations

Step 1: Determine the number of electrons the
atom has.
Step 2: Fill atomic orbitals starting with lowest
energy orbitals first and proceeding to higher
energy orbitals.
Step 3: Determine how electrons fill the orbitals.
Pauli
Exclusion Principle: No more than two

electrons may occupy any given orbital. When
two electrons occupy one orbital, the spins must
be paired.
Note: Paired spins means and electron ()
45
He
Be
46
Many Electron Atoms

Electron
0
1
2
3
Smallest
n
1
2
3
4
Many Electron Atoms
Configurations:
Electron
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Configurations:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3: __ __ __ 2p
2s
1s
__ __ __ 2p
2s
1s
__ __ __ 2p
2s
1s
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Note: Electrons that are farther apart repel each other less.
Note: Electrons with parallel spins tend to avoid each other more.
47
48
Periodic Trends
Periodic Trends
Effective
Nuclear
Charge:(Zeff) The net
nuclear charge after
taking into account
the shielding caused
by other electrons in
the atom.
Atomic
Radii:
Half the distance
between the centers
of neighboring atoms
in a solid of a
homonuclear
molecule.
Why: Going across the periodic table, the number

of core electrons stays the same but the number
of protons increases. The core electrons are
responsible for most of the shielding, therefore the
Zeff gets larger as you go across a period.
Although going down a group adds more core
electrons it also adds more protons therefore Zeff is
pretty much constant going down a group.
49
Periodic Trends
First
Ionization Energy:
The minimum energy
required to remove the
first electron from the
ground state of a
gaseous atom,
molecule, or ion.
X(g) X+(g) +e-
1st
Ionization Energies of the First 20 Elements

He
Ionization energy, kJ mol -1
Ne
2000
F
H
1500
Be
1000
Cl
Si
Mg
Al
Na
Li
500
Ar
N O
P S
Ca
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Atomic Number
Why dont B and Al fit the 1st ionization energy trend?
52
Periodic Trends
Periodic Trends
Electron
Affinity: (Eea)
The energy released
when an electron is
added to a
gas-phase atom.
X(g) + e- X-(g)
Electron Affinity of the First 20 Elements

400
Cl
350
300
EA (kJ/mole)
Ionization Energy Data
2500
Why: Going across a period the Zeff increases

therefore it is harder to remove an electron and
the first ionization energy increases. However,
going down a group the electrons are located
farther from the nucleus and they can be
removed easier.
51
50
Periodic Trends
Why: Going across a period the Zeff increases,

therefore the pull on the electrons increases and
the atomic radii decrease. Going down a group,
more atomic shells are added and the radii
increase.
Why: Going across a period the Zeff increases

therefore the atom has a larger positive charge
and releases more energy when an electron is
added to the atom. Going down a group the
electron is added farther from the nucleus and the
electron affinity decreases. This trend does not hold
true for the noble gases.
250
200
100
50
0
150
H
Li
He
Be
Si
Na
Ne
Mg
Al
K
Ar
Ca
-50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Atomic Number
Note: This trends has the most atoms that do not obey it.
53
54
Take Away From Chapter 12
Big
Idea: The structure of atoms must be explained

using quantum mechanics, a theory in which the
properties of particles and waves merge together.
Know
that electromagnetic radiation has both wave and

matter properties. (30)
Photo electric effect (particle property) (27, 28, 29)
Electromagnetic Radiation (22)

Be
Quantum Theory
Know what the work function of a material is
Diffraction (wave property)
Be
able to calculate the energy carried in an

electromagnetic wave (21, 25)
able to change between frequency and wavelength
Know
Be
able to assign what area of the electromagnetic

spectrum radiation comes from.
Be
that matter has both wave and matter properties.

able to calculate the wavelength of matter. (32, 34, 35)
Know
that the Heisenberg uncertainty principle determines

the accuracy in which we can measure momentum and
position.
Numbers correspond to end of chapter questions.
55
56
Particle in a Box
Know
that the wavefunction of different systems can be

found using boundary conditions.
Particle in a box wavefunction
Quantum
that the quantum number

energy
Know
that the square of the wavefunction tells us the

probability of the particle being in a certain location
Particle in a box
10
gives the orbital
Allowed values of
, 0,
Know that a fourth quantum number was needed to have theory
match experiment,
Allowed values of

(53, 54, 55, 57)
that when quantum mechanics is applied to 1

electron systems the observed energy and the theoretical
energies match. (38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 141)
2.178
0, 1, 2 ,
that the quantum number

orientation (ex: )
Know
Allowed values of
Know
The Hydrogen Atom
57
1, 2,
that the quantum number l gives the orbital type

(shape)
that the Schrdinger equation allows us to match

wavefunctions with allowed energy values.
Allowed values of
gives the size and
Know
Know the most likely location of a particle in a box (ex: n = 1

particle most likely in center of box, n = 2 particle most likely on
sides of box)
Know
Number (58,62,64,65,66, 74,75)
Know
sin
58

Orbitals
Know that when atomic orbitals are drawn they represent the
area in which e- have a 90% chance of being in. (67)
Know the what s, p, and d orbitals look like.
Many
Electron Atoms
Be
able to write both the full and shorthand electron

configurations of atoms.(76, 77, 80, 84, 92)
Be able to predict the number of unpaired electrons in a
system.(90, 91)
Periodic Trends
Know the trends of effective nuclear charge, atomic radii,
ionization energy, and electron affinity. (13, 14, 96, 97, 98, 100, 106,
111, 112, 133, 136)
59
10

Chapter 12 Handouts

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 12 Handouts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 12: Phenomena

Phenomena: Different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation were directed

Big Idea: The structure of atoms

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Radiation: Consists of oscillating

Examples of Electromagnetic Radiation:

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

white light is passed

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Body: An object that absorbs and emits all

The Problem With Explaining Black Body Radiation

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Plank: Proposed that the exchange

Effect: Ejection of electrons from a

of the Photoelectric Effect

No electrons are ejected unless the radiation has a

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Function ( ): The minimum amount of

Proposed that electromagnetic radiation consists

Electromagnetic radiation consists of streams of photons

Note: This relationship is not intensity dependent.

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

what speed will the fastest electrons

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

H atoms only emit/absorb certain

energy levels of H atom

What is the wavelength of the radiation

Energy level of H atom

e) None of the Above

Energy level of other 1e- systems

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

When light passes

Where they interfere

Interference: When the

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

( ): A solution of the Schrdinger

Note: This gives you a representation of the particles trajectory.

Density ( ): A function that, when

Note: n is a quantum number. Quantum numbers are integers or integers

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Note: This value must be between 0 and 1

is there for normalization in order to get

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

What are the allowed energy levels?

Plug 2nd derivative back into wavefunction

Get the allowed energy levels from Schrdingers equation

Note: V(x)=0 for the particle in a box

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

The Hydrogen Atom

The Hydrogen Atom

Note: The wavefunctions of electrons

wavefunction of an electron is given in

= distance from the center of the atom

The Hydrogen Atom

Chapter 12: Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

The Hydrogen Atom