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Chapter 1
REVIEW OF FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
1.1 A Short Review of Vector Calculus
a. Field
1.1
A cos dl
A dl =
a
dl
fig. 1.1
integration is a closed curve, such as abca, Eq. 1.1 becomes a closed contour integral
Page 1 of 15
Chapter 1
1.2
A dl
1
2
1
Exercise 2
Given that F = x 2 a x xz a y y 2 a z , calculate the circulation of F around the closed path shown
below. (Answer: 16 )
z
1
3
4
1
1
x
Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, the surface
integral or flux of A through S (fig. 1.2) is defined as
= A ds
S
A a n ds =
A cos ds
1.3
where at any point on S, an is the unit normal to S. For a closed surface (defining a
volume), Eq.1.3 becomes
Page 2 of 15
Chapter 1
= A ds
1.4
which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S. Notice that a closed surface
defines an open surface while a closed surface defines a volume.
A
an
fig 1.2
The integral
V
v dv =
v dv
1.5
ax + ay + az
x
y
z
1.6
Page 3 of 15
Chapter 1
V3
V 2 = V 1 + V
V1
P1
P2
fig. 1.3
dV =
=
V
V
V
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z
V
V
V
ax +
ay +
a z dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
x
y
z
V
V
V
ax +
ay +
az ,
x
y
z
Let
G=
then
dV = G dl = G cos dl , or
dV
= G cos
dl
where dl is the differential displacement from P1 to P2 and is the angle between G and dl.
dV
is maximum when = 0, i.e., when dl is in the direction of G, hence:
dl
dV
dl
=G
max
Page 4 of 15
Chapter 1
Thus G has its magnitude and direction as that of the maximum rate of change of V. By
definition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore,
grad V V =
V
V
V
ax +
ay +
az
x
y
z
1.7
V dl )
) move in
Exercise 3
1. Prove:
i. (U + V ) = U + V
ii. (UV ) = UV + VU
iii.
U
VU UV
=
V
V2
iv. U n = nU n 1U
2. Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:
b. U = e z sin 2 x cosh y
c. V = x 2 y + xyz
3. Given W = x 2 y 2 + xyz , compute W and the directional derivative
44
13
dW
in the direction
dl
).
4. Given = xy + yz + xz , find the gradient of at point (1,2,3) and the directional derivative at
the same point in the direction toward (3,4,4). (Answer: 5a x + 4a y + 3a z ,7)
Page 5 of 15
Chapter 1
The net outflow of the flux of a vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained
from the integral = A ds (Eq. 1.4.) The divergence of A is defined as the net
S
outward flow of flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface. In other
words, the divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as
the volume shrinks about P. Hence:
div A = A = lim
V 0
A ds
1.8a
In Cartesian coordinates:
A =
Ax A y Az
+
+
x
y
z
1.8b
The divergence of a vector field can be viewed as simply the limit of the fields
source strength per unit volume (or source density). It is positive at a source point
and negative at a sink point in the field, or zero where there is neither sink nor
source.
Positive Divergence
Negative Divergence
Zero Divergence
fig 1.4
The Divergence Theorem: From Eq. 1.8, one can derive the relation
A ds =
A dv
1.9
It is called the divergence theorem. It states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and
Page 6 of 15
Chapter 1
whose direction is the normal direction of the area where the area is oriented so as to make
the circulation maximum. That is:
curl A = A =
lim
S 0
A dl
1.10
an
max
where the are S is bounded by the curve L; an is the unit vector normal to the surface S
and is determined using the right-hand rule.
In Cartesian coordinates
ax
A =
x
Ax
ay
y
Ay
az
z
Az
The physical significance of the curl of a vector field provides the maximum value of the
circulation of the field per unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the direction in
which this maximum value occurs. It can also be considered as a measure of the circulation
or how much the field curls around a point P (fig. 1.5).
fig 1.5
1.11
( A ) ds
It is called Stokess theorem. It states that the circulation of A around a closed path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L (fig 1.6)
ds
Fig 1.6
dl
Page 7 of 15
Chapter 1
2V
x
2V
y
1.12
2V
z
A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that
region, i.e.,
2V = 0
1.13
The solution for V in Eq. 1.13 is harmonic (it is of the form of sine or cosine).
The Laplacian of a vector A is defined as the gradient of the divergence of A minus the
curl of the curl of A. i.e.,
2 A = ( A ) A
1.14
In Cartesian
2 A = 2 A x a x + 2 A y a y + 2 Az a z
=
2 Ax
x 2
2 Ax
y 2
2 Ax
z 2
ax +
2 Ay
x 2
2 Ay
y 2
2 Ay
z 2
ay +
2 Az
x 2
2 Az
y 2
2 Az
z 2
1.15
A dv = 0
hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must also leave it. Examples of
solenoidal fields are incompressible fluid, magnetic fields, and conduction current density
under steady state conditions.
Since for any vector F, ( F) = 0 , a solenoidal field A can always be expressed in
terms of another vector F, i.e.,
if A = 0 , then
A = F
1.16
Page 8 of 15
az
Chapter 1
A dl =
( A ) ds = 0
A = V
(circulation density)
1.18b
any vector A satisfying Eq. 1.18 with v and s vanishing at infinity can be written as the
sum of two vectors: one irrotational and the other solenoidal. This is called Helmholtzs
theorem. Thus
A = V + B
1.19
1. ( A + B) = A + B
2. ( A + B) = A + B
3. (VA ) = V A + A V
4. ( A) = 0
5. (V ) = 0
6. (VA) = V A + V ( A )
7. ( A) = ( A) - 2 A
Page 9 of 15
Chapter 1
Symbol
SI Unit
Volt/m, Newton/Coulomb
Ampers/m
Coulomb/m2
Webers/m2
Coulomb/m3
Ampers/m2
Given any medium, its electromagnetic characteristics are specified or determines by three
parameters:
Parameters
= o = 4 x 10-7 H/m
0
2. Dielectric (e.g., paraffin)
o
>> 0
3. Conductors (e.g., copper)
Page 10 of 15
Chapter 1
>> o
D ds =
v dv = Qtotal ,
D ds = Ddv =
V
v dv
D = ( E ) = v
1.20
1.21
B = 0
=
t
t
B ds
E =
( E ) ds =
B
H
=
t
t
B ds
1.22
ds
t
Page 11 of 15
Chapter 1
H = J +
t
1.23
v. Equation of Continuity
When there is a current flow from a closed surface, then there must be a negative rate of
decrease of the charge inside the closed volume.
J ds =
v dv
By divergence theorem:
J ds =
J = J +
J dv
v
, or
t
v
=0
t
1.24
D = v
2.
B = 0
3.
E =
4.
Integral Form
S
D ds =
Remarks
v dv
Gausss law
Non-existence of isolated
magnetic charges
B ds = 0
B
t
H = J +
E dl =
t
H dl =
t
S
B ds
Faradays law
J+
t
ds
Page 12 of 15
Chapter 1
n (E1 E 2 ) = 0
1.25
n (H 1 H 2 ) = k s
1.26
b. Normal Components:
n (B1 B 2 ) = 0
1.27
n (D1 D 2 ) = s
1.28
medium 2
ks
medium 1
Fig. 1.7
Exercise 5
Prove Eqs 1.25 1.28.
Exercise 6
Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane z = 0. For z
0, r1 = 4 and for z
0. Find E2 for z
0.
(Answer: E 2 = 5a x 2a y + 4a z kV/m)
Page 13 of 15
Chapter 1
1.29
z = x+ jy
1.30
where j = 1, r = z = x 2 + y 2 , = tan 1 ( y x )
To introduce the time element, we let
= t +
1.31
where may be a function of time or space coordinates or a constant. Thus the real (Re)
and imaginary (Im) parts of z = re j = re j e jt are:
Re(re j ) = r cos(t + )
1.32
Im(re j ) = r sin(t + )
1.33
Thus a sinusoidal current i (t ) = I o cos(t + ) , for example, equals the real part of I o e j e jt .
The complex term I o e j , which results from dropping the time factor e jt in i(t), is called
the phasor current and denoted by bold-face letter I; i.e.,
I = I o e j = I o
1.34
i (t ) = Re Ie jt
A = Re Ae jt
1.35
= Re A e jt
t
t
= Re j Ae jt
A = j A
Thus showing that taking the time derivative of the instantaneous quantity is equivalent to
multiplying its phasor form by j. That is
A
j A
t
Similarly,
At
A
j
Example 2
Page 14 of 15
Chapter 1
j
20
Given that A = 10 cos(10 t 10 x + 60 )a z and B =
a x + 10e
j
2
x
3 a
y,
express A in phasor
j x 34
)a
y,
Integral Form
D ds =
1.
D = v
2.
B = 0
3.
E = j B
4.
H = J + j D
v dv
B ds = 0
E dl = j B ds
S
H dl =
(J + jD) ds
E = 20 sin 10 8 t z a y V/m
determine and H.
Exercise 9
Page 15 of 15