International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijadhadh

Characterization of acetylated eucalyptus wood bers and its effect on

the interface of eucalyptus wood/polypropylene composites
Yali Li n
College of Chemistry & Life Science, Weinan Teachers University, Weinan 714000, Shaanxi, PR China

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Accepted 30 December 2013
Available online 15 January 2014

The acetylation of eucalyptus wood bers (WFs) was conducted in 50%/50% (v/v) of acetic acid and acetic
anhydride catalyzed by sulfuric acid at 60 1C for 2 h. Twenty one percent weight percent gain (WPG) level
was achieved. Then the contact angles of three probe liquids on the surface of unacetylated and
acetylated eucalyptus WFs were tested by the capillary rise method, and the surface free energies of
unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs and their dispersion and polar components were calculated
according to the method suggested by OwensWendtKaelble. The results show that the surface free
energy of unacetylated eucalyptus WFs is 24.7 mJ/m2, and its corresponding dispersion and polar
components are 14.8 mJ/m2 and 9.9 mJ/m2, respectively. However, the surface free energy of acetylated
eucalyptus WFs is 38.3 mJ/m2 which is higher than the surface free energy of PP (29.4 mJ/m2), and its
corresponding dispersion and polar components are 35.6 mJ/m2 and 2.7 mJ/m2, respectively. So it is
possible for the spreading of PP on the surface of acetylated eucalyptus WFs and forming a good
interfacial adhesion between acetylated eucalyptus WFs and PP. The better interfacial compatibility
between acetylated eucalyptus WFs and PP was corroborated by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
micrographs.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Acetylation
Contact angle
Composites
Interface
Surface free energy

1. Introduction
In recent years wood polymer composites (WPCs) based on
polyolens (polyethylene, PE; polypropylene, PP) have gained
increasing interest because of environmental concerns and the
depletion of fossil fuels [1]. WPCs have been used in a variety of
applications, including construction, auto parts, storage, furniture,
packaging, decorating [2].
The most important drawback in WPCs, and the main obstacle
to overcome when their material properties should be improved,
is the lack of compatibility between wood bers (WFs) and
polymers [3], because WFs are hydrophilic, while thermoplastic
polymers are hydrophobic.
Numerous strategies to improve the compatibility at the interface have been developed and published [49]. The methods for
surface modication of wood bers can be physical or chemical
according to the way they modify the ber surface. The main
chemical method used in the surface modication of wood bers
is chemical coupling, where a coupling agent is used to form
chemical bonds between the cellulose chains in the WFs and the
polymer [10]. There has been a lot of research over recent decades
on different types of coupling agents for improving the adhesion

Tel./fax: 86 9132133073.
E-mail address: liiyaalii@163.com

0143-7496/$ - see front matter & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2014.01.002

between WFs and polymers. The most commonly used coupling

agents are maleic anhydride grafted polyolens [4,11,12] and
silanes [1315]. Also, some studies on other coupling agents such
as isocyanates [16,17], vinyl acetate [18], chitin and chitosan [19]
have been conducted.
Another important chemical method is the acetylation of WFs.
Acetylation as a method for solid wood modication is known
since 1946 [3]. At that time this treatment is for improving wood
durability and dimensional stability. Of course, for reasons of
increased surface/volume ratio, this modication can be applied
to wood bers or particles even more easily. Nowadays, many
researchers applied this method to improve the interfacial adhesion between WFs and polymers. Ozmen et al. [20] have investigated the effect of wood acetylation with vinyl acetate and acetic
anhydride on the properties of woodplastic composites. They
report an improvement in tensile strength and modulus, as well as
exural strength and modulus. The composites reinforced with
acetylated wood our present higher thermal stability than the
composites reinforced with untreated wood our. Bledzki et al.
[21] have prepared injection-molded PP composites with 30% ax
bers. They report tensile and exural moduli increased by 20%
and 5%, respectively, as a result of ber acetylation. The respective
strengths were found increased by 15% and 10%, while notched
Charpy IS was reduced by about 10%. Hung et al. [22] have studied
the natural weathering properties of bamboo plastic composites
reinforced with bamboo bers acetylated to different weight gains.

Y. Li / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

The results showed that the retention ratios of mechanical properties

of acetylated bamboo plastic composites, especially those containing
bers with a high weight gain, were signicantly improved as
compared to the unmodied composite during natural weathering.
Moreover, the mildew resistance of the acetylated bamboo plastic
composites was higher than that of unmodied composites. Lisperguer et al. [23] have investigated the inuence of wood acetylation
on thermal behavior of wood-polystyrene composites. The results
showed that the wood-plastic composites produced with acetylated
wood our have better thermal stability than those with nonacetylated wood our. However, these studies mainly focused on
the qualitative characterization of acetylated wood ber and its effect
on the properties of woodplastic composites. Very few studies
focused on the quantitative characterization of acetylated WFs and
the compatibility between acetylated WFs and polymers [24,25].
In this study, I try to develop a quantitative method to
characterize the acetylated and non-acetylated eucalyptus WFs
and investigate its effect on the interface of eucalyptus wood/PP
composites.

2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
Polypropylene (PP) was obtained from PetroChina Company
Ltd. under the trade name K8003 with a density of 0.91 g/cm3, and
a melt index 23 g/10 min at 190 1C. The eucalyptus WFs used in
this study were provided by a local sawmill, manually screened to
choose 6080 mesh and oven-dried at 105 1C for 24 h. Ethanol,
diiodomethane were bought from Xi0 an Sanpu Chemical Plant, and
distilled water was prepared in the laboratory by myself.
2.2. Acetylation of eucalyptus wood bers and analysis

WPG %

M 1 M 0
 100%
M0

where M 0 and M 1 are the oven-dried weights of the sample,

before and after the acetylation, respectively.

where h is the height of liquid penetration into the capillary at

time t; L is the surface free energy of liquid; is the viscosity of
liquid; is the contact angle of the liquid against a solid; R is the
average effective radius of capillary.
If make
K

L R cos
2

2K
L cos

2K
LR

and
cos

The contact angles of different liquids against a solid can be

determined by the equation of h2  t. The WFs system can be
considered as a capillary system, and the average effective radius
of capillary can be considered as a constant when the lled
conditions (the lled speed, height and weight) of WFs in the
glass tube are identical, it can be calculated as per the liquid whose
contact angle against wood bers is zero. Then the contact angles
of other liquids against WFs can be obtained according to Eq. (6).
The eucalyptus WFs were lled into the glass tube under the
same condition (the same speed, height and weight), then the
lled glass tubes were xed upon the liquid for 2 h to reach
adsorption balance of liquid molecules on the surface of eucalyptus WFs. After that, the height of glass tube was adjusted to make
sure the glass tube was in the liquid for 2 mm. When the liquid
rose to the 2 mm scale line, the stopwatch began to work, and the
height (h) of liquid in the glass tube and the time (t) of rising were
recorded at a certain interval. Six replicates were tested for a
certain liquid and the mean was used.

2.2.3. Calculation of surface free energy and its polar component

The principle of calculating the surface free energy of a solid
and its polar component through the contact angles of liquids
against the solid is the equation of Young [2830]:
7

where SV is the surface free energy of the solid against its

saturated vapor; SL is the free energy of the interface between
liquid and solid; LV is the surface free energy of the liquid against
its saturated vapor; is the contact angle of a liquid against
the solid.
According to the viewpoint of OwensWendtKaelble [31,32],
the surface free energy of a solid can be divided into dispersion
and polar components and the sum of the components is approximately equal to the surface free energy of the solid 0S dS pS .
If there exist interactions of dispersion and polar forces between a
solid and a liquid, the free energy of the interface between
the liquid and the solid can be determined by the following
equation [31]:
8

where SL is the free energy of the interface between liquid and

solid; LV is the surface free energy of the liquid; 0S is the surface
free energy of the solid; dS is the dispersion component of the
surface free energy of the solid; pS is the polar component of the
surface free energy of the solid; dLV is the dispersion component of
the surface free energy of the liquid; pLV is the polar component of
the surface free energy of the liquid.
Then combine Eq. (8) into (7), and the difference between
0S and SV was ignored, the following equation can be obtained:

LV 1 cos 2 dS  dLV 1=2 2 pS  pLV 1=2

In Eq. (9), only dS and pS are unknown, if we can nd two

liquids whose dLV and pLV are known, dS and pS can be calculated
through the contact angles of the two liquids against the solid.

The Eq. (2) will be transformed into

h Kt

SL LV 0S  2 dS  dLV 1=2  2 pS  pLV 1=2

2.2.2. Contact angle measurements

According to Washburn equation [27]:

Rt cos
2
h L
2

K can be obtained from the coefcient of the equation of h2t

based on the experiment.
Then

SV SL LV cos

2.2.1. Acetylation of eucalyptus wood bers

Five hundred grams eucalyptus WFs were transferred into a 4 L
glass reactor containing 2.5 L 50%/50% (v/v) of acetic acid and
acetic anhydride with 100 mL sulfuric acid as the catalyst [26]. The
reaction was performed at 60 1C for 2 h. After the acetylation, the
WFs were washed in ethanol to remove excess chemicals, ltered
and oven-dried at 105 1C for 2 h, and the weight percent gain
(WPG) was calculated as follows [20]:

97

98

Y. Li / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

Here ethanol was chosen as the liquid whose contact angle against
the eucalyptus WFs is zero because of its low surface free energy
(21.4 mJ/m2). Therefore, the average effective radius of capillary R can
be calculated as per the Eq. (5). Then the contact angles of water and
diiodomethane against the eucalyptus WFs can be obtained from
Eq. (6). The dS and pS of eucalyptus WFs can be calculated by Eq. (9).
The dispersion and polar components of the surface free
energies and viscosities of the liquids in the experiment were
given in Table 1 [33].

screw extruder to make composite pellets. The temperatures of the

rst to the last chambers were 150, 155, 160, 160, and 150 1C,
respectively. The rotational speed was 30 rpm. Then the composite
pellets were extruded in a Giant SJ-120 single-screw extruder with a
die. The temperatures of the rst to the last chambers were 170, 175,
and 180 1C, and the die was 170 1C. The screw rotational rate was
20 rpm.

2.3. Sample preparation

The fractured surface of composites, obtained by cryo-breakage

under liquid nitrogen, was examined using a HITACHI S-3000N SEM at
an accelerating voltage of 10 kV. The SEM micrographs were taken
after coating the fractured surfaces with a thin layer of gold. The
objective of this analysis was to study the interfacial morphology of
the composites and interaction between eucalyptus WFs and PP.

The unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs were compounded with PP at the ratio of 60:40 (wt/wt) in a high-intensity
laboratory mixer for about 3 min at room temperature, respectively.
The mixture was processed with a Giant SHJ-72B co-rotating twinTable 1
The surface free energies, corresponding components and viscosities of probe
liquids.
Probe liquids

Items
2

Water
Diiodomethane
Ethanol

LV (mJ/m )

dLV

72.8
50.8
21.4

21.8
50.8
18.8

(mJ/m )

pLV

(mN  s/m )

(mJ/m )

51.0
0
2.6

0.975
2.632
1.138

n was the viscosity of probe liquids at the ambient temperature which was
measured by Ubbelohde viscometer.

Fig. 1. Acetylation of eucalyptus WFs by reaction with acetic anhydride.

2.4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

3. Results and discussion

Eucalyptus WFs were reacted with acetic anhydride according
to the scheme presented in Fig. 1 [20]. The 21% WPG level was
achieved for 2 h of reaction with acetic anhydride catalyzed by
sulfuric acid.
3.1. The contact angles of three probe liquids against the
unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus wood bers
Figs. 2 and 3 show the curves of h2 (mm2)  t (s) of three probe
liquids against the unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs,
and the equation for each curve was also shown beside the curve.
From the values of R2, we can see that every equation t the curve
very well. The K values dened in Eq. (3) were the coefcients of
each equation and listed in Table 2. The cosine values of contact
angles of the probe liquids against the unacetylated and acetylated

900
800

y = 1.1345x - 1.2727
R = 0.9978

700
600

600

h2(mm2)

h2(mm2)

700

800

y = 2.59x - 0.7727
R = 0.9998

500
400
300

500
400
300

200

200

100

100

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600

t (s)
Ethanol against unacetylated eucalyptus WFs

t (s)
Water against unacetylated eucalyptus WFs

140

y = 0.2092x - 0.1364
R = 0.9995

120

h2(mm2)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600

t (s)
Diiodomethane against unacetylated eucalyptus WFs
Fig. 2. Curves of h2 (mm2)  t (s) of three probe liquids against unacetylated eucalyptus WFs.

Y. Li / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

700

450
400

y = 1.9597x - 1.8636
R = 0.9999

600

y = 0.6691x - 0.2727
R = 0.9998

350

h2(mm2)

500

h2(mm2)

99

400
300
200

300
250
200
150
100

100

50
0

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600

t (s)
Ethanol against acetylated eucalyptus WFs

t (s)
Water against acetylated eucalyptus WFs

900

y = 1.3558x - 2.9091
R = 0.9997

800

h2(mm2)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600

t (s)
Diiodomethane against acetylated eucalyptus WFs
Fig. 3. Curves of h2 (mm2)  t (s) of three probe liquids against acetylated eucalyptus WFs.

Table 2
The K values and cosine of contact angles of three probe liquids against the
unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs.
Probe liquids

Types

Types

Unacetylated WFs

Ethanol
Water
Diiodomethane

Table 3
The surface free energies and their components of unacetylated and acetylated
eucalyptus WFs.

Acetylated WFs

cos

cos

2.59
1.13
0.21

1.00
0.11
0.08

1.96
0.67
1.36

1.00
0.09
0.67

eucalyptus WFs were derived from plugging the K values into

Eq. (6) and also listed in Table 2.
Ethanol against acetylated eucalyptus WFs Water against
acetylated eucalyptus WFs.
3.2. The surface free energies and their components of unacetylated
and acetylated eucalyptus wood bers
The surface free energies and their components of the unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs were derived from plugging the values of cos , dLV , and pLV of water and diiodomethane
into the Eq. (9) and were listed in Table 3. According to the
standpoint of Zisman [34,35], only when the surface

tension of a
liquid is less than the critical surface tension c of a solid, the
liquid can spread on the solid surface. From Table 3, we can see
that the surface free energy of the unacetylated eucalyptus WFs is
24.7 mJ/m2, which is greater than that of ethanol. Therefore,
ethanol can spread on the unacetylated eucalyptus WFs, here it
was chosen as the probe liquid to calculate the average effective
radius R of the WFs system is available. The corresponding
dispersion and polar components of surface free energy of the

Unacetylated WFs
Acetylated WFs

Items
0S (mJ/m2)

dS (mJ/m2)

pS (mJ/m2)

24.7
38.3

14.8
35.6

9.9
2.7

unacetylated eucalyptus WFs are 14.8 mJ/m2 and 9.9 mJ/m2,

respectively. After the acetylation, the surface free energy of the
acetylated eucalyptus WFs is 38.3 mJ/m2 and its corresponding
dispersion and polar components are 35.6 mJ/m2 and 2.7 mJ/m2,
respectively. PP is in liquid form at the processing temperature and
its surface free energy is 29.4 mJ/m2 [36], which is less than the
surface free energy of the acetylated eucalyptus WFs and greater
than that of the unacetylated eucalyptus WFs. Therefore, PP can
spread on the surface of the acetylated eucalyptus WFs and it is
possible for forming better interfacial adhesion between PP and
the acetylated eucalyptus WFs than that between PP and the
unacetylated eucalyptus WFs.
3.3. Morphological analysis by SEM
The observation of the fractured surfaces of the composites can
provide us with information about the WFs/PP interface. It has been
reported that the morphology of the interface in composites determines the physico-mechanical properties of composites [37]. The
micrographs in Fig. 4 shows a general view of the fractured surfaces
of WPCs made with unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs. As
shown in Fig. 4(a), the surface of WFs is quite smooth and WFs
agglomeration can be observed, which clearly indicates the poor

100

Y. Li / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of the fractured surfaces of eucalyptus WF/PP composites (2000  ). (a) WPCs made with unacetylated WF, (b) WPCs made with acetylated WF.

interfacial compatibility between unacetylated eucalyptus WFs and PP.

From Fig. 4(b), we can see that the acetylated WFs distribute uniformly
in the composites, no obvious interface between acetylated WFs and
PP can be observed, this conrms the good interfacial adhesion
between acetylated eucalyptus WFs and PP. These results corroborate
the conclusion obtained from the surface free energies of unacetylated
and acetylated eucalyptus WFs.

4. Conclusions
The acetylation of eucalyptus WFs was conducted in 50%/50%
(v/v) of acetic acid and acetic anhydride with sulfuric acid as the
catalyst at 60 1C for 2 h. 21% WPG level was achieved. The contact
angles of three probe liquids on the surface of unacetylated and
acetylated eucalyptus WFs were tested by capillary rise method
(Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Table 2), and then the surface free energies of
unacetylated and acetylated eucalyptus WFs and their dispersion
and polar components were calculated according to the method
suggested by OwensWendtKaelble. The surface free energy of
unacetylated eucalyptus WFs is 24.7 mJ/m2, and its corresponding
dispersion and polar components are 14.8 mJ/m2 and 9.9 mJ/m2,
respectively. On the other hand, the surface free energy of
acetylated eucalyptus WFs is 38.3 mJ/m2 which is higher than
the surface free energy of PP (29.4 mJ/m2), and its corresponding
dispersion and polar components are 35.6 mJ/m2 and 2.7 mJ/m2,
respectively. So it is possible for the spreading of PP on the surface
of acetylated eucalyptus WFs and forming a good interfacial
adhesion between acetylated eucalyptus WFs and PP. The better
interfacial compatibility between acetylated eucalyptus WFs and
PP was corroborated by the SEM micrographs. These results
conrm that the method of calculating the surface free energy of
solid from the contact angles suggested by OwensWendtKaelble
is a useful and low-cost semi-quantitative measure of the surface
characteristics of WFs.

Acknowledgments
Financial support (2012 JCYJ-4) from Weinan Municipal Bureau
of Science & Technology and Weinan Teachers University is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Kumar V, Tyagi L, Sinha S. Wood our-reinforced plastic composites: a review.
Rev Chem Eng 2011;27(56):25364.

[2] Zhu LZ, Cao JZ, Wang Y. Evaluation of the interfacial compatibility in wood
our/polypropylene composites with the dielectric approach. J Appl Polym Sci
2013;129(3):15206.
[3] Sobczak L, Bruggemann O, Putz RF. Polyolen composites with natural bers and
wood-modication of the ber/ller-matrix interaction. J Appl Polym Sci 2013;127
(1):117.
[4] Poletto M, Zeni M, Zattera AJ. Effects of wood our addition and coupling
agent content on mechanical properties of recycled polystyrene/wood our
composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2012;25(7):82133.
[5] Moghadamzadeh H, Rahimi H, Asadollahzadeh M, Hemmati AR. Surface
treatment of wood polymer composites for adhesive bonding. Int J Adhes
Adhes 2011;31(8):81621.
[6] Park B, Kim DS. Effects of coupling agents and clay on the physical properties
of wood our/polyethylene composites. Polymer-Korea 2011;35(2):1249.
[7] Qiu RH, Ren XF, Li KC. Effect of ber modication with a novel compatibilizer
on the mechanical properties and water absorption of hemp-ber-reinforced
unsaturated polyester composites. Polym Eng Sci 2012;52(6):13427.
[8] Supri AG, Tan SJ, Ismail H, Teh PL. Enhancing interfacial adhesion performance
by using poly(vinyl alcohol) in (low-density polyethylene)/(natural rubber)/
(water hyacinth ber) composites. J Vinyl Addit Technol 2013;19(1):4754.
[9] Yim H, Kim DS. Physical properties of pvc/aminosilane-treated wood our/
organoclay composites. Polym Adv Technol 2012;23(11):14415.
[10] Zhang HH, Cui YH, Zhang ZD. Chemical treatment of wood ber and its reinforced
unsaturated polyester composites. J Vinyl Addit Technol 2013;19(1):1824.
[11] Ayrilmis N. Combined effects of boron and compatibilizer on dimensional
stability and mechanical properties of wood/hdpe composites. Compos Part BEng 2013;44(1):7459.
[12] Li YL. Effect of coupling agent concentration, ber content, and size on mechanical
properties of wood/hdpe composites. Int J Polymer Mater 2012;61(11):88290.
[13] Park S, Kim DS. Mechanical properties of aminosilane-treated wood our/pvc/
nanoclay composites. Polymer-Korea 2012;36(5):5738.
[14] Zhou J, Xu Q, Zhou WJ. Inuence of silane on wood our-pvdf composites
exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Rare Metal Mater Eng 2012;41:23846.
[15] Clemons CM, Sabo RC, Hirth KC. The effects of different silane crosslinking
approaches on composites of polyethylene blends and wood our. J Appl
Polym Sci 2011;120(4):2292303.
[16] Nourbakhsh A, Kokta BV, Ashori A, Jahan-Latibari A. Effect of a novel coupling
agent, polybutadiene isocyanate, on mechanical properties of wood-ber
polypropylene composites. J Reinf Plast Compos 2008;27(16-17):167987.
[17] Guo CG, Ma LC, Sun CY, Li LP. Inuence of high loaded wood our and coupling
agent (m-tmi-g-pp) content on properties of wood our/polypropylene. J
Adhes Sci Technol 2013;27(8):91223.
[18] Ozmen N, Cetin NS, Mengeloglu F, Birinci E. Vinyl acetate modied scots pine
reinforced hdpe composites: Inuence of various levels of modication on
mechanical and thermal properties. Bioresources 2013;8(1):136173.
[19] Shah HL, Matuana LM. Novel coupling agents for pvc/wood-our composites. J
Vinyl Addit Techn 2005;11(4):1605.
[20] Ozmen N, Cetin NS, Mengeloglu F, Birinci E, Karakus K. Effect of wood
acetylation with vinyl acetate and acetic anhydride on the properties of
wood-plastic composites. Bioresources 2013;8(1):75367.
[21] Bledzki AK, Faruk O. Wood bre reinforced polypropylene composites: effect
of bre geometry and coupling agent on physico-mechanical properties. Appl
Compos Mater 2003;10(6):36579.
[22] Hung KC, Chen YL, Wu JH. Natural weathering properties of acetylated
bamboo plastic composites. Polym Degradation Stab 2012;97(9):16805.
[23] Lisperguer J, Droguett C, Ruf B, Nunez M. The effect of wood acetylation on
thermal behavior of wood-polystyrene composites. J Chilean Chem Soc
2007;52(1):10735.
[24] Kocaefe D, Huang X, Kocaefe Y, Boluk Y. Quantitative characterization of
chemical degradation of heat-treated wood surfaces during articial weathering using XPS. Surf Interface Anal 2013;45(2):63949.

Y. Li / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 50 (2014) 96101

[25] Chen H, Ferrari C, Angiuli M, Yao J, Raspi C, Bramanti E. Qualitative and

quantitative analysis of wood samples by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and multivariate analysis. Carbohydr Polym 2010;82(3):7728.
[26] Nadal LMK, Cararo DC, Pinheiro LA, Prestes RA. Optimization of wood our
acetylation by factorial design and partial least squares regression. Quim Nova
2012;35(9):17636.
[27] Washburn EW. Dynamics of capillary ow. Phys Rev 1921;17:27383.
[28] Erbil HY, Meric RA. Determination of surface free-energy components of
polymers from contact-angle data using nonlinear-programming methods.
Colloids Surf 1988;33(1-2):8597.
[29] Janczuk B, Bialopiotrowicz T. Surface free-energy components of liquids and lowenergy solids and contact angles. J Colloid Interface Sci 1989;127(1):189204.
[30] Janczuk B, Bialopiotrowicz T. The total surface free-energy and the contact-angle in
the case of low energetic solids. J Colloid Interface Sci 1990;140(2):36272.

101

[31] Owens DK, Wendt RC. Estimation of surface free energy of polymers. J Appl
Polym Sci 1969;13(8):17417.
[32] Kaelble DH. Dispersion-polar surface tension properties of organic solids. J
Adhes 1970;2:6670.
[33] Oss CJV. Interfacial forces in aqueous media. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2006.
[34] Zisman WA. Solid/liquid interface an essential and active frontier of science.
Adv Chem Ser 1968;87:17.
[35] Shafrin EG, Zisman WA. Critical surface tension for spreading on a liquid
substrate. J Phys Chem 1967;71(5):130916.
[36] Roe RJ. Surface tension of polymer liquids. J Phys Chem 1968;72(6):20137.
[37] Sliwa F, El Bounia NE, Charrier F, Marin G, Malet F. Mechanical and interfacial
properties of wood and bio-based thermoplastic composite. Composites Sci
Technol 2012;72(14):173340.