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2009
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TYPICAL SURFACE
ROUGHNESS
Material
Nature of
Material
Roughness
[mm]
Steel pipe
drawn, new
0.02 - 0.1
welded, new
galvanized, new
used, cleaned
lightly corroded
severely
corroded
light scaling
heavy scaling
bitumed coated
0.05 - 0.1
0.15
0.15 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.4
0.0008 0.004
0.002 - 0.004
0.006
0.006 - 0.008
0.004 - 0.016
0.4 - 3
0.016 - 0.12
1 - 1.5
1.5 - 4
0.05
0.04 - 0.06
0.06 - 0.16
0.002
new
corroded
with scaling
0.25 - 1
1-2
1-4
0.01 - 0.04
0.04 - 0.08
0.04 - 0.16
concrete pipe
smooth finish
rough
0.3 - 1
1-3
0.012 - 0.04
0.04 - 0.12
Sheet steel
smooth
0.07
0.0028
0.0001 0.0015
410-6 - 6010-
Glass, lead,
copper, brass
Roughness
[inch]
This document will cover two topics, one a general discussion of this
subject and how the equations were developped. The other some
specific comments on how the applet functions.
General
The following is an excerpt of the afore mentioned book. This java
applet does friction head loss calculations for any Newtonian fluid for
which the viscosity is known in the turbulent flow regime only which is
most cases. The applet provides data on pipe roughness the source of
which can be obtained in a pdf file at the bottom of this page.
The Friction Head, as defined here, is made up of the friction loss due
to the fluid movement and the friction loss due to the effect of pipe
fittings (for example, 90 elbows, 45 bends, tees, etc.):
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Newtonian fluids are a large class of fluids, whose essential property
VISCOSITY, was first defined by Newton (see Appendix A for a list of
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids). Viscosity is the relationship
between the velocity of a given layer of fluid and the force required to
maintain that velocity. Newton theorized that for most pure fluids,
there is a direct relationship between force required to move a layer
and its velocity. Therefore, to move a layer at twice the velocity,
required twice the force. His hypothesis could not be tested at the
time, but later the French researcher, Poiseuille, demonstrated its
validity. This resulted in a very practical definition for viscosity.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula expresses the resistance to movement of
any fluid in a pipe:
Viscosity data of common liquids can also be found int the Goulds
pump catalogue.
Laminar flow - RE < 2000
Distinct flow regimes can be observed as the Reynolds number is
varied. In the range of 0 to 2000, the flow is uniform and is said to be
laminar. The term laminar refers to successive layers of fluid
immediately adjacent to one another, or laminated. Looking at a
longitudinal section of the pipe, the velocity of individual fluid particles
is zero close to the wall and increases to a maximum value at the
center of the pipe with every particle moving parallel to its neighbor. If
we inject dye into the stream, we would notice that the dye particles
maintain their cohesion for long distances from the injection point.
[3-19]>
where is the average height of protuberances (absolute roughness)
of the pipe wall surface (for example, 0.00015 ft for smooth steel
pipe). The term /D is called the pipe roughness parameter or the
relative roughness. Since it is not possible to derive an explicit solution
for f, L.F. Moody (see Figure 3-18) developed a graphical solution. The
diagram shows the linear relationship of the friction factor (f) with the
Reynolds number (Re) for the laminar flow regime. For Reynolds
numbers in the medium range (4,000 to 1,000,000, turbulent flow),
the friction factor is dependent on the Reynolds number and the pipe
roughness parameter, which is known as the transition zone. For high
Reynolds numbers (1,000,000 and higher, fully turbulent), the friction
factor is independent of the Reynolds number and is proportional only
to the pipe roughness parameter. This is the zone of complete
turbulence.
Some typical values for the absolute roughness
PIPE MATERIAL Absolute
roughness
Steel or wrought iron
Asphalt-dipped cast iron
Galvanized iron
0.00015 ft
0.0004 ft
0.0005 ft
[3-20]
The pressure head loss per 100 feet of pipe is obtained using equation
[3-16]. You can get the total head loss by multiplying by the length of
the pipe and dividing by 100. Then to convert to pressure loss, use
equation [3-21].
[3-21]
Specific
How to use the applet
Data for the system (see next figure) is entered in the area marked
general data. When you select the type of pipe to be used, standard
values for nom. diameter, and inside diamater are inserted into the
pipe data table in columns 1 and 2. The pipe diameter values used in
this applet are available here . Installation cost for the pipe is also
inserted into the pipe data table in column 3, these are typical values
only and you need to replace them with values applicable to your area.
The pipe data table is editable by double-clicking on any item in the
3rd column. Once this is done you can press the Calculate button and
the results will appear at the bottom. The first line of the results give
the diameter selected that is closest to a standard diameter based on
the flow rate and target velocity. The second line provides information
on what the power cost and installation cost would be if you had
selected the next biggest diameter. These costs can then be compared
to the costs for the smaller diameter providing the cost savings for one
year which in turn determines how many years are required to pay
back the pipe installation cost or the ROI period. The next largest
diameter is then selected and the same calculation is done based on
the smallest diameter.
The pipe roughness is selectable and based on the values in this table
. You can also specify any pipe roughness by clicking on the specify
text of the pipe roughness selection box. This will make another
textfield appear where the pipe roughness can be entered.
The pipe diameter used is the inside diameter. This diameter varies
depending on the construction of the pipe. Various standards such as
carbon steel schedule pipe are used and are selectable. These values
are then displayed in a grid on the applet. The values in the grid can
be changed at any time.
The annual operating cost of power is calculated based on the number
of operating hours in a year, the motor efficiency and the cost per kWh. This is done based on a pipe size that closely matches the target
velocity. These calculations are done for the next biggest pipe sizes
and are compared with the installation cost of these pipes.
The ROI (Return On Investment) period is the ratio of the pipe cost
(includes purchase and installation ) difference between the initial
selection and the next available diameter and the power cost
difference of the the initial selection and the next available diameter.
In the graphic above the ROI period
6.5 years = ($10,500 -$7500)/($1196-$1658).
A small period, for example less than 2 years means that it will take 2
years for the power savings to pay back the increased cost of the
larger pipe size. Remember that it is difficult to change pipe size after
the fact, the cost of dismantling and production time loss is usuallly
very high.
The static head of the system must be known and this is added to the
calculated friction head. If the discharge or suction end of the system
is pressurized then this should be included in the static head. If there
are any other process equipment such as control valves, heat
exchangers, etc., the sum of their total head loss can be entered in the
equipment head loss textbox.
The pipe construction types provided are carbon steel schedule pipe
and ID pipe in Imperial units. The poly ethylene, PVC-M and UPVC pipe
size original data is metric and the sizes have been converted to
Imperial units.
The applet offers you two choices of pipe sizes that are larger than the
initial selection based on a target velocity and you can decide which of
these is appropriate based on the ROI period.
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CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
SYSTEMS TIPS
This is a list of ideas or DOS AND DON'TS for pump systems. You may not of
thought of some of these and they will help you design and trouble-shoot pump
systems and select the proper pump. Also there is information here that is hard to
find elsewhere. You can think of this list as GUIDELINES for the pump system
designer.
in pdf format.
5. Suction valves
Gate valves at the pump suction and discharge should be used as
these offer no resistance to flow and can provide a tight shut-off.
Butterfly valves are often used but they do provide some resistance
and their presence in the flow stream can potentially be a source of
hang-ups which would be critical at the suction. They do close faster
than gate valves but are not as leak proof.
6. Eccentric reducer
Always use an eccentric reducer at the pump suction when a pipe size
transition is required. Put the flat on top when the fluid is coming from
below or straight (see next Figure) and the flat on the bottom when
the fluid is coming from the top. This will avoid an air pocket at the
pump suction and allow air to be evacuated.
8. Flow control
If you need to control the flow, use a valve on the discharge side of
the pump, never use a valve on the suction side for this purpose.
When the valve must be located at the outlet such as the feed to a
tank, bring the end of the pipe to the bottom of the tank and put the
valve close to that point to provide some pressure on the discharge
side of the valve making it easier to size the valve, extending it's life
and reducing the possibility of cavitation.
A small pipe will initially cost less but the friction loss will be higher
and the pump energy cost will be greater. If you know the cost of
energy and the purchase and installation cost of the pipe you can
select the pipe diameter based on a comparison of the pipe cost vs
power consumption, this applet on the economic analysis of pipe size
will help you do this, and you can view this applet's help file here.
see the pump system glossary also see this experiment on video that
shows vortex formation
Depending on the industry or plant that you work in, you will be forced
to either select a certain type of pump or manufacturer or both.
Manufacturers are normally a very good source of information for final
pump selection and you should always consult with them, do your own
selection first and confirm it with the manufacturer. They can help you
select the right type, model, and speed if you have all the operating
conditions and if not they will rarely be able to help you. This form will
help you gather all the information pertinent to operation and selection
of your pump
Aside from the normal end suction pump, vertical turbine and
submersible pumps, there is a wide variety of specialized pumps
that you should consider for your application if you have unusual
conditions.
In the selection process, you will be trying to match your flow rate with
the B.E.P. of the pump. It is not always possible to match the flow rate
with the B.E.P. (best efficiency point), if this is not possible, try to
remain in the range of 80% to 110% of the B.E.P..
B.E.P. and the second from Goulds essentially shows the same
information but in terms of vibration.
When you order your pump make sure that the motor is installed with
spacer blocks so that the next largest motor frame can be installed.
* Flow re-circulation in the pump impeller -- This can also occur below
50% of BEP causing noise, vibration, cavitation and mechanical
damage.
1. The shut-off head, this is the maximum head that the pump can
achieve and occurs at zero flow. The pump will be noisy and vibrate
excessively at this point. The pump will consume the least amount of
power at this point. See also the pump glossary.
2. The best efficiency point B.E.P. this is the point at which the pump is
the most efficient and operates with the least vibration and noise. This
is often the point for which pumps are rated and which is indicated on
the nameplate. The pump will consume the power corresponding to its
B.E.P. rating at this point.
3. The maximum flow point, the pump may not operate past this point.
The pump will be noisy and vibrate excessively at this point. The pump
will consume the maximum amount of power at this point.
If your fluid has a different viscosity than water you cannot use the
characteristic curve without correction. Any fluid with a viscosity higher
than 10 cSt will require a correction. Water at 60F has a viscosity of 1
cSt.
There are three different curve profiles shown in the next figure:
1. Normal, head decreases rapidly as flow increases
The normal curve can be more or less steep. A steep curve can be
desirable from a control point of view since a small change in flow will
result in a large pressure drop. The steepness of the curve depends on
the number of vanes and the specific speed.
I have seen a suction line 300 ft long, now that's not short.
This generally means having 5 to 10D straight pipe ahead of the pump
inlet.
Avoid the use of filters at the pump inlet if at all possible. Their
maintenance will often be neglected and the pump will suffer from
poor performance and perhaps cavitation.
Use a 90 or 45 elbow at the pumps inlet pipe end. This will allow
almost complete drainage of the tank and is especially useful in the
case of fluids that can not be readily dumped to the sewers. It also
provides additional submergence reducing the risk of vortex formation.
Also be careful of elbows that are too close to the pump suction, see
the pump glossary.
You will notice that efficiency increases with specific speed, this means
that a pump with a higher speed (rpm) that meets your requirements
will be smaller and more efficient and therefore cost less to operate,
see item 30.
Also see articles on the effect of pump speed on this web page:
pumpworld.htm
Many pumps are still driven by pulleys, and large pulleys become
flywheels. Flywheel pulleys have a limiting safe rotational speed. The
TOP
US Grit UK Grit Ra Ra
ref
Ref.
m inch
120
3
125
180
2
85
80
1.65 70
240
1.50 50
320
0.75 30
180
0.62 25
240
0.45 18
500
0.40 15
320
0.25 10
Sl No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
US Grit
UK Grit
120
180
80
240
320
180
240
500
320
Ra m
3
2
1.65
1.5
0.75
0.62
0.45
0.40
0.25
Ra inch
125
85
70
50
30
25
18
15
10